This work is a self-contained elementary exposition of the theory of recursive functionals, that also includes a number of advanced results.

An introduction, from an al-Ghazâlî´s text, into a philosophic theodicy and an Arabic rationalistic theology (mu`tazili). Both of them, theology and philosophy, belive that God has created the best of possible worlds, so that, this world is optimistic and deterministic. However this optimism sense has different causes in them; for theodicy that is owing to Good wishes, while for philosophy is because of the causality and logical necessity.

Luis E. Navia provides a comprehensive examination of the ideas and contributions of a Greek philosopher who was influential in the development of classical Cynicism. Based on both primary and secondary sources as well as the findings of modern scholarship, it is a unique contribution to the study of Antisthenes. An important philosopher, only two English-language books about him have been published in the last eighty years. With his clear and accessible narrative style, Navia succeeds in reconstructing Antisthenes' biography (...) resurrecting this ancient philosopher's ideas as still relevant to this day. Navia describes an integral moment in the history of Greek philosophy--the presence of Antisthenes as a student of the Sophists, an associate of Socrates, and the originator of the Cynic movement. This detailed study of the principal sources, includes an index of relevant names, a bibliography of over two hundred and fifty titles, and an appendix consisting of an extensively annotated translation of Diogenes Laertius' biography of Antisthenes. (shrink)

For over eight hundred years, philosophers—men and women—who called themselves Cynics, literally "dogs" in their language, roamed the streets and byways of the Hellenistic world, teaching strange ideas and practicing a bizarre way of life. Among them, the most important and distinctive was Diogenes of Sinope, who became the archetype of Classical Cynicism. In this comprehensive, thoroughly researched, and engaging book, philosopher Luis E. Navia undertakes the task of reconstructing Diogenes' life and extracting from him lessons that are valuable (...) in our time. The book is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 provides a biographical sketch of Diogenes constructed on the basis of ancient testimonies. In Chapter 2, the practice of Cynicism, as exemplified by Diogenes, is elucidated. This "war against the world," as Navia describes it, especially the rhetoric of Cynicism, was the primary medium used by the Cynics to convey their message. Chapter 3 clarifies the roots and basis of the Cynic metamorphosis, that is, the process by which Diogenes transformed himself into a dog. This process involves complex psychological, sociological, and philosophical factors, chief among which was Socrates' influence on Diogenes through the agency of Antisthenes. Chapter 4 reconstructs the philosophy of Diogenes by identifying twelve principles of his thought. In Chapter 5, the influence of Diogenes is discussed. Navia emphasizes the vast difference between Diogenes' ideas and style of life on the one hand and, on the other, what is nowadays called cynicism. The book provides abundant references to ancient testimonies and modern scholarship. It includes an extensively annotated translation of Diogenes Laertius's biography of Diogenes and a comprehensive bibliography. (shrink)

An essential introduction to ethics and values, this comprehensive anthology places the perennial human search for ethical values into historical perspective. The philosophers included are: Aristotle, Marcus Aurelius, Bentham, Cicero, Dewey, Hartman, Hume, James, Kant, Kierkegaard, Mill, Moore, Nietzsche, Plato, Sartre, Scheler, Schopenhauer, Spencer, Spinoza, St. Augustine, and Stevenson.

The Socratic enigma -- Socrates on the comic stage -- Xenophon's recollections -- The creation of Plato -- Socrates in Aristotle -- The search for the soul -- The Socratic faith.

Socratic Testimonies offers a well-structured introduction to the study of Socrates by way of exploring some of the main writings about him from Aristophanes, Xenophon, and Plato. In this second edition, the translations have been revised and annotated by the author. An extensive bibliography of modern works on Socrates is included. The selections are accompanied by extensive and detailed annotations that clarify names and terms with which the reader many not be familiar. Intended as an introductory text for undergraduate students, (...) Socratic Testimonies will help students gain an appreciation of the importance of the philosophical legacy and traditions associated with Socrates. (shrink)

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The first comprehensive research book on Cynicism published in English. Provides descriptive information on over 650 books on the Greek and Roman Cynics.

Presents a composite biographical and philosophical portrait of Socrates, in which the primary sources and all the major secondary sources are examined and taken into account, with abundant quotations and references, and in which the fruits of modern Socratic scholarship are reported and assessed. Annotation copyright by Book News, Inc., Portland, OR.

La Teoría del conocimiento de Leonardo Polo ayuda a clarificar el abordaje neurocientífico al problema mente-cerebro, así como aporta interesantes hipótesis para seguir desarrollándolo. Sin embargo, la teoría de sistemas que plantea, en tanto que obertura argumentativa, supone un obstáculo para que su trabajo pueda ser bien reconocido y asimilado en las ciencias experimentales. En este artículo, en primer lugar, analizo tal dificultad identificando el principal problema: la justificación que Polo hace de la Cibernética a partir de la Termodinámica. Y, (...) en segundo lugar, replanteo el problema de la finalidad con el objetivo de lograr una mejor legitimación del salto de una a otra área. En las conclusiones defiendo que esto solo es posible de manera indirecta, a partir del estudio del caso humano porque solo allí es posible encontrar acceso privilegiado a ciertos fenómenos, lo que es crucial para entender la inteligencia, la finalidad y la vida. (shrink)

En 1588, el jesuita Luis de Molina publicaría su famosa Concordia liberi arbitrii cum gratiae donis, en la cual intenta defender –contra el fatalismo protestante- la libre determinación de la voluntad con respecto a su fin último sobrenatural. Sin embargo, las explicaciones teológicas del P. Molina suponen graves errores metafísicos, particularmente con respecto al concurso general o simultáneo de Dios sobre las causas segundas en las que Dios no obra in sino cum causa, donde la acción de la creatura (...) determina al Creador a producir conjuntamente un efecto. A partir de la Apología de los Padres Dominicos que recoge la doctrina de Santo Tomás acerca de la premoción física, procederemos en la crítica de esta tesis molinista: sólo Dios es Acto Puro y por eso es causa del movimiento actualizador tanto de las potencias naturales como espirituales, pues todo efecto –sea contingente o necesario– depende de la voluntad divina que trasciende todo orden de necesidad y contingencia: de allí que sólo Dios puede mover eficazmente nuestro intelecto y voluntad, y no por eso nuestros actos dejan de ser nuestros y personales. (shrink)

El artículo repasa el debate que enfrentó a estos grandes autores tomistas durante dos años (1934-1936). Según J. Maritain, la fi losofía moral es el tipo más perfecto de filosofía cristiana y, por esta razón, ella no puede prescindir de la Revelación. Es decir, si la filosofía moral quiere permanecer complète et adéquate en su objeto, debe considerar al hombre no según su sola naturaleza, sino también, según su estado de naturaleza caída y redimida, en relación con su verdadero fin (...) último que es sobrenatural. De allí que S. Ramírez critique, por un lado, el error epistemológico cometido por el filósofo francés al no distinguir los objetos formales de la filosofía y la teología; y, por otro, no considerar que el fin último del hombre efectivo no es el mismo que el propio. (shrink)

Una de las más célebres contiendas de la Edad Media es la que enfrentó en Sens (1140) a Pedro Abelardo y Bernardo de Claraval. El primero llegó a esa localidad como acusado; el segundo había reunido el concilio como acusador.

Bidirectional trans‐synaptic signaling is essential for the formation, maturation, and plasticity of synaptic connections. Synaptic cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) are prime drivers in shaping the identities of trans‐synaptic signaling pathways. A series of recent studies provide evidence that diverse presynaptic cell adhesion proteins dictate the regulation of specific synaptic properties in postsynaptic neurons. Focusing on mammalian synaptic CAMs, this article outlines several exemplary cases supporting this notion and highlights how these trans‐synaptic signaling pathways collectively contribute to the specificity and diversity (...) of neural circuit architecture. (shrink)

The concept of scaffolding has wide resonance in several scientific fields. Here we attempt to adopt it for the study of development. In this perspective, the embryo is conceived as an integral whole, comprised of several hierarchical modules as in a recurrent circularity of emerging patterns. Within the developmental hierarchy, each module yields an inter-level relationship that makes it possible for the scaffolding to mediate the production of selectable variations. A wide range of genetic, cellular and morphological mechanisms allows the (...) scaffolding to integrate these modular variations into a functionally coordinate unit. A genetic scaffolding accounts for the inherited invariance of pattern formation during the embryo’s growth. At higher level, cells behave as agents endowed with the capacity to interpret any scaffolding variation as signs. The full hierarchy of a multi-level scaffolding is eventually attained when the embryo acquires the capacity to impose a number of developmental constraints on its constituting parts in a top-down direction. The acquisition of this capacity allows a semiotic threshold to emerge between the living cellular world and the underlying non-living molecular world. As this boundary is gradually defined during development, cells enter into new functional relationships, while, at the same time, are relieved from their physical determinism. The resulting constraints can thus become the driving forces that upgrade embryonic scaffolding from the simple molecular signalling to the complexity of sign recognition proper of a cellular community. In this semiotic perspective, the apparent goal directness of any developmental strategy should no longer be accounted for by a predetermined genetic program, but by the gradual definition of the relationships selected amongst the ones historically explored. (shrink)