Here is an attempt to say what all and only religions share in common in virtue of which they are religions.
From (2001).
A Theory of Religion Revised. Religious Studies 37 (2):177-189. This goes against
the prevailing view that there is only a 'family resemblance' tween religions.
Comments welcome.
I take it to be intuitive that religions are
concerned with a reality that surpasses the ordinary world that
sense perception reveals. This reality consists either of (a)
sentient supernatural beings (e.g. gods) or of (b) an insentient
metaphysical principle underlying the universe (e.g. The
Unconditioned, Sunyata, or The Tao). This principle has features
that mark it as belonging to a different order of reality from
the objects that make up the mundane world: it cannot be named or
cognized, it can be described only in contradictions, it doesn't
arise or pass away, it issues in everything else, it is utterly
changeless, or...
In short, religions relate practitioners to a reality that
transcends the mundane world revealed by sense perception; we
might call it a 'supermundane reality.' ...Even supposing we occasionally see
the gods walking among us, a significant part of their existence
must be unseen. (Indeed, the beings in question might better be
described as 'supermundane' than 'supernatural,' for the
practitioners may lack our concept of 'nature.') They reside
primarily on Mount Olympus or in a celestial realm. A 'god' who
rents the apartment next to mine, gets a job driving a bus, joins
the Libertarian Party, marries a coworker, and becomes completely
immersed in the mundane realm forever, is a theological oxymoron.
Similarly the insentient metaphysical principle must at least
partly transcend nature, even if we sometimes see its operations
in nature. It comprises a level of reality deeper than what sense
perception (even assisted by scientific instruments) reveals, and
its nature is best discovered by other means, e.g. meditation.
In addition,
the elements that comprise the reality to which a religion
relates us must be sufficiently grand (taken either individually
or collectively) that they can figure centrally in satisfying the
sort of substantial human needs that people generally want
religions to meet (e.g. long life, immortality, the end of
suffering). Gremlins do not a religion make.
I said above
that religions are concerned with a supermundane reality that
consists either of sentient supernatural beings or of a
metaphysical principle that underlies the universe. This reality
must be sufficiently grand that it can figure centrally in the
satisfaction of substantial human needs. There is, of course, a
certain vagueness in the idea of 'substantial' human needs.
Consequently there may not always be a fact of the matter about
whether a possible set of practices is a religion (the User's
Manual for the new theory advises us to err on the side of
inclusion, however). But a vague idea needn't be a 'family
resemblance' concept; consider 'baldness.' Nor is vagueness
theoretically problematic so long as we know what to say in clear
cases--doubly so if borderline cases are merely possible.
Let's call a supermundane reality that has all these
features a 'SR.'
This suggests the following account:
A religion is a system of practices rationalized by beliefs
according to which the practices place the practitioner in a
relation-of-value to a SR.
Counter-examples?