Joint Responsibility without Individual Control: Applying the Explanation
Hypothesis
Gunnar Björnsson
Linköping University
University of Gothenburg
Abstract:
This paper introduces a new family of cases where agents are jointly morally responsible for
outcomes over which they have no individual control, a family that resists standard ways of
understanding outcome responsibility. First, the agents in these cases do not individually
facilitate the outcomes and would not seem individually responsible for them if the other
agents were replaced by non-agential causes. This undermines attempts to understand joint
responsibility as overlapping individual responsibility; the responsibility in question is
essentially joint. Second, the agents involved in these cases are not aware of each other's
existence and do not form a social group. This undermines attempts to understand joint
responsibility in terms of actual or possible joint action or joint intentions, or in terms of other
social ties. Instead, it is argued that intuitions about joint responsibility are best understood
given the Explanation Hypothesis, according to which a group of agents are seen as jointly
responsible for outcomes that are suitably explained by their motivational structures:
something bad happened because they didn’t care enough; something good happened because
their dedication was extraordinary. One important consequence of the proposed account is
that responsibility for outcomes of collective action is a deeply normative matter.
1 Joint moral responsibility without individual control
Sometimes a number of individuals seem jointly morally responsible for events over which
they, as individuals, had no control. Consider a simplified case:
The Lake: Alice, Bill and Cecil each have a small boat in East Lake outside their
town. One day last spring, each painted the boat and, unknown to the others, poured
excess solvent into the lake. In the back of their heads, they all knew that this could
affect the wildlife, but each of them decided that it would be a hassle to dispose of the
solvent in a safe way and hoped that nothing bad would happen. However, as the
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solvent from all three diffused throughout the lake over the next few days, its
concentration became high enough everywhere to prevent micro-organisms in the
lake from reproducing during the next few weeks, thus leaving higher organisms
without food and effectively wiping out all fish in the lake. The concentration of
solvent exceeded the threshold for the microorganisms by quite some margin:
although the solvent from only one of the three would not have been enough to kill
off the fish, the solvent from two would have.
Let us assume that all three agents satisfied conditions of moral accountability. They were not
being forced or manipulated to do what they did and they had both the capacity to reason and
reflect on the values involved and the relevant sort of control over their own decisions and
actions. Then it seems that we can rightly hold them responsible for recklessly pouring
solvent into the lake. But to just about everyone that I have confronted with the case, it also
seems clear that they are morally responsible for the death of the fish, that is, for an outcome
of their actions over which they had no control as individuals. Similarly, it seems that voters
can be morally responsible for the outcome of a referendum, citizens for toppling a dictatorial
regime, consumers for good or bad practices of companies they patronize, and frequent flyers
and drivers of SUVs for climate effects, even though, as individuals, they could not have
significantly affected those outcomes, practices or effects.
The question of this paper concerns the conditions for such joint responsibility for
outcomes of collective actions. In the next section, I explain why a case like The Lake
provides difficulties for standard ways of understanding collective responsibility. In section
three, I propose a preliminary analysis of joint responsibility based on variations on The Lake.
To support this analysis, section four introduces the Explanation Hypothesis, a model of our
concept of moral responsibility that was developed to account for various aspects of
individual moral responsibility for decisions, actions and outcomes. In section five, I show
how the Explanation Hypothesis subsumes and deepens the analysis of section three. In
section six, finally, I suggest a way of turning the Explanation Hypothesis’ characterization of
our concept of moral responsibility into an account of moral responsibility as such. One of the
important consequences of the proposed account is that responsibility for outcomes of
collective action is a deeply normative matter.
Some caveats are in order. First, the concern of this paper is moral, retrospective
responsibility for events. Space prevents me from saying anything about the tight and
interesting connections between this topic and other questions discussed under the heading of
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“responsibility”—questions concerning legal liability, moral or legal obligations to ensure
outcomes or to take responsibility for outcomes by compensating those harmed, and questions
about what characterizes responsible persons, or responsible decision procedures. Second,
since the concern is with joint responsibility of individual agents, I will not say anything
about the claim that collectives can be responsible for an outcome when none of their
members are. (For recent defences of “autonomous” corporate responsibility, see Arnold
2006, Pettit 2007, Tännsjö 2007, Copp 2007; for criticism see Corlett 2001, Haji 2006,
McKenna 2006, Miller 2007.) Third, the primary concern here is with outcome responsibility
rather than responsibility for decisions. The conditions under which individuals are
responsible for their decisions are themselves highly contestable, but I will assume that all
individuals in the cases discussed are autonomous, in control of their own decisions and
actions, capable of rational deliberation, suffering from no motivational maladies, and, as a
result, responsible for their own acts or failures to act. Fourth, since our concern is with
difficulties pertaining specifically to the understanding of how individuals are jointly
responsible for outcomes, I will assume that other difficulties pertaining to outcome
responsibility can be overcome, in particular the fact that outcomes often depend on factors
outside the agent’s control. (For discussion, see Feinberg 1968: 681-82; Nagel 1976; Sverdlik
1987: 74; May 1992: 42-45; Enoch and Marmor 2007 e.g.). Finally, although it is clear that
individuals can be jointly responsible for good outcomes, I will follow most of the literature
and focus on responsibility for bad outcomes. It should be clear, however, that the discussion
generalizes to good outcomes.
2 Difficulties
As we shall see, neither the standard notion of individual responsibility for outcomes, nor
typical strategies for making sense of collective moral responsibility explain the intuition that
the agents in cases like The Lake are responsible for the outcomes in question.
On a standard conception, an individual agent is morally responsible for a harm to the
extent that some morally faulty aspect of her behaviour played a significant causal role in
producing that harm (Feinberg 1968: 674; May 1992: 15). The difficulty is to see how the
reckless acts of the agents in The Lake play a significant causal role.
We have already noted that neither agent made any difference to the survival of the fish
given the other acts, so significance cannot require such difference making. On the other hand,
the solvent contributed by each agent was causally involved in bringing about the outcome.
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But causal involvement cannot in itself be what accounts for individual responsibility for the
collective outcome. Suppose that there are two solvents. Solvent X works as before,
preventing microorganisms from reproducing, but it can do so by means of either of two
distinct but equally powerful chemical processes, X1 and X2, depending on whether solvent
Y is present. Solvent Y is itself incapable of doing any damage except in extreme
concentrations, but will favour process X2 in the presence of solvent X. Suppose further that
whereas Bill and Cecil poured solvent X into the lake, Alice contributed solvent Y, thus
slightly changing the way the solvents from Bill and Cecil prevented micro-organisms from
reproducing. Then it is not clear that she would be morally responsible for the outcome.
Intuitively, it might seem that the relevant causal involvement would have to be one of at
least facilitating the causal process, or make it more likely to produce the outcome (cf.
Petersson 2004). But while that might be true for responsibility for outcomes of individual
actions, it is not required in The Lake. Suppose that when the concentration of solvent reaches
above what would be provided by two polluters, the process by which the microorganisms are
prevented from reproducing is both slowed down and made more open to possible
disturbances, thus slightly decreasing the objective probability of the outcome. Then it is true
of each of the polluters that he or she actually (but unwittingly) lowered the probability that
the fish would die and obstructed that process to some degree, given the actual contribution
from the other two. Nevertheless, the three polluters would still seem to be jointly responsible
for the death of the fish; it still died because of their actions.
Now consider the corresponding case with only one agent involved:
Adam’s Lake: Because of rare but naturally occurring processes, a poisonous
substance is produced in the mud at the bottom of the lake. The amount would be just
enough, by itself, to prevent the microorganisms from reproducing. Over the same
period, Adam is painting his boat, recklessly pouring excess solvent into the lake that
contains the very same poisonous substance. The overall result is that the lake
contains more than enough to kill off the microorganisms. In fact, at this
concentration, the processes preventing the reproduction are a little slower than they
would have been if Adam had not disposed of his solvent this way. In the end,
though, the microorganisms are wiped out.
Though it is clear that Adam is morally responsible for recklessly pouring solvent into the
lake, most people seem reluctant to say that he is responsible for the death of the fish. At the
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very least, it was much clearer that Alice, Bill and Cecil were so responsible in The Lake.
This strongly suggests that the responsibility attributed to the three is fundamentally
collective. Taken together, the faulty behaviours of Alice, Bill and Cecil clearly played a
significant causal role in wiping out the fish; individually, they did not.
The problem posed by The Lake for standard accounts of responsibility for outcomes of
individual action is equally a problem for attempts, like that of Stephen Sverdlik (1987), to
reduce collective or shared outcome responsibility to individual outcome responsibility. But it
also poses a problem for standard attempts to understand forms of collective or shared
responsibility, whether reductive or not. Since the most obvious cases in which we hold
agents responsible for an outcome as a group are cases where they have either worked
together towards some goal or failed to do so, such attempts are often cast in terms of actual
or possible joint agency or joint intentions (Held 1970, Rescher 1998, Kutz 2000, Miller
2006, Sadler 2006, Shockley 2007, e.g.). Less obvious and more controversial are cases
where members of a community are responsible for outcomes of acts by other members
because members empower and are empowered by each other, and thus “shares in what each
member does, and … should feel responsible for what the other members do” (May 1992:
11).
The Lake fits neither of these patterns. Since Alice, Bill and Cecil performed their acts
independently and without knowledge of the others, they had no intentions to act together
with the others. Nor is it likely that our ascription of joint responsibility relies on the
assumption that they could reasonably have formed such intentions. Moreover, we have no
reason to think that they form a group the members of which empower each other. For all we
know, they might see each other as enemies. Still, they seem jointly morally responsible for
the death of the fish.
What is clear from The Lake and similar examples is that a number of individuals can be
jointly responsible for an outcome if, together, they play a significant causal role for that
outcome. Structurally, this relation between the actions of the individuals and the outcome is
similar to well-known attempts to analyse causes, not as necessary conditions or difference
makers, but as non-redundant parts of nomically sufficient conditions for effects (Mackie
1974; cf. Wright 1988). In The Lake, the actions of the three agents are pair-wise sufficient
for the outcome, each action being a non-redundant part of such a pair. It might thus be
tempting to explain the joint responsibility of the three agents in such terms (Braham and van
Hees ms). Unfortunately, any such attempt will run into deep problems with cases of what
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David Lewis (1986b) calls “causal preemption”. Suppose that instead of pouring solvent into
East Lake, Alice built a contraption that monitored the concentration of solvent in the lake
and set it to empty her bucket of solvent into the lake should the level not rise high enough to
kill the fish. Since Bill and Cecil contributed enough solvent, Alice’s contraption was never
triggered. In this case, she clearly would not be responsible for the outcome, even though her
action would be a non-redundant part of sufficient conditions for the death of the fish (a
condition that included her action and the contribution of either Bill or Cecil).1
Elsewhere I have defended a way for theories of causation dealing in sufficient conditions
to adequately account for cases of causal preemption (Björnsson 2007). But something more
would need to be said even with such an account at hand. The fact that Adam poured solvent
into the lake was a non-redundant part of a sufficient condition for the death of the fish,
together with the fact that some volume of mud at the bottom of the lake emitted the same
amount of poisonous substance; yet Adam’s responsibility for that outcome is much less
obvious than Alice’s, Bill’s and Cecil’s in The Lake. Apparently it matters whether the
actions of other agents are involved; the fundamental problem of joint responsibility is why.
This is where I hope to make progress.
3 A preliminary analysis of responsibility for outcomes of collective action
To understand joint responsibility, the first thing to be clear about is the required relation
between the collective and the outcome for which they are responsible. As a first
approximation, what is required seems to be that, together, the responsible agents play a
significant role in the explanation of the outcome: the fish died because of Alice, Bill and
Cecil. With some qualifications, this is very much in line with the idea that individual
outcome responsibility requires that the individual’s behaviour played a significant causal role
in the outcome. However, talk about causal (as opposed to explanatory) role suggests that the
responsible parties brought about or produced the outcome rather than merely letting it
happen, and we know that production is not required for outcome responsibility:
1
Other problems are provided by probabilistic case where there are no causally sufficient conditions
for outcomes, and so-called “switching” cases, where necessary parts of sufficient conditions seem to
change the way an outcome happens without being causally responsible for it (cf. the case where Alice
contributes solvent Y). These are also problems for counterfactual analyses in the tradition of David
Lewis (1973); for discussion, see e.g. (Collins et al 2004; Björnsson 2007).
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The Well: Eric, Fiona and George are spending a Sunday afternoon in the woods,
each thinking that he or she is the only person within miles. Suddenly they hear cries
for help coming from an area with especially dense vegetation. Although the cries are
disturbing and continues for a long while, each ignores them while thinking that they
could be part of a prank, or that whatever might be going on is none of their business.
Had they walked in the direction of the cries, however, they would have found a
woman, Hannah, who had accidentally fallen into a partially overgrown old well but
was hanging onto a ledge a meter or so down, screaming for help and slowly losing
her grip. Since no one came to her help, Hannah eventually fell down into the dried
up well and died as she hit the rocks at the bottom. The story could have ended
differently, however. One person would not have been able to pull her up without
help, but had any two of those who heard her cries come to her rescue, they would
have been able to save her.
It seems that if they learned the truth of what happened, Eric, Fiona and George could rightly
blame themselves for not having investigated the call closer. But it also seems that they are to
some extent morally responsible for the fatal outcome of the accident (though not, of course,
for the accident itself), and they certainly seem responsible for the fact that Hannah wasn’t
saved. They could have saved her, but they did not. As in The Lake, the responsibility
involved seems to be essentially collective. In a version of The Well—Esther’s Well—Esther
is the only person in place to hear Hannah’s cries. Like Eric, she ignores the cries for dubious
reasons; like Eric she would have been unable to save Hannah even if she had responded. But
whereas Eric, Fiona and George seemed clearly responsible for the fact that Hannah wasn’t
saved, Esther clearly is not. Esther’s Well highlights the essentially joint nature of Eric’s,
Fiona’s and George’s responsibility in The Well, just as Adam’s Lake did in relation to The
Lake.
In The Well, unlike in The Lake, there is a sense in which none of the three were involved
in the process leading to the final outcome: indeed, it seems that they could all have been
absent and nothing in that process would have been different (ignoring minute differences in
the gravitational field and the like). Nevertheless, it seems that their inaction explains why
Hannah wasn’t saved. This is the notion of “explaining why” that seems relevant for our
ordinary attribution of moral responsibility in these cases.
Thus far I have suggested that the agents should play a significant role in the explanation
of the outcome. But more needs to be said about the required sort of involvement. As we have
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already seen from The Well, the relevant involvement need not consist of any particular sort
of positive intentional action: perhaps Eric was sitting on a rock, Fiona climbing a tree, and
George running across a meadow instead of helping Hannah. Similarly, no decisions on part
of members of the group need to be involved in the explanation. Perhaps none of the three
even considered the possibility of finding out whether they could help; perhaps they just
noted, absent-mindedly, that someone seemed to be in need of help but failed to see any
reason to take action. That would not seem to remove their responsibility as long as they
could have considered the possibility to help, and would have done so if they had cared more
about the needs of others. That no decision is needed can be made even clearer with a case
involving negligent ignorance where there is no awareness of risk involved. Suppose that
Alice, Bill and Cecil poured the solvent into the lake while being unaware of its lethal
potential. They could still be responsible for the outcome if the reason they were unaware was
that they lacked concern for the environment or for taking in relevant information, and if that
explained why they failed to react to the warning signs on the cans of solvent.
In all these variations, we might say that some morally “faulty” aspect of behaviour
explains the outcome, but the behaviour seems faulty only because it is explained by the
wrong sensitivity to values, or the wrong motivational structure. If Alice, Bill and Cecil were
ignorant of the solvent’s lethal potential due to other factors than a lack of appropriate
concern, their responsibility for the death of the fish is undermined. Similarly, suppose that
George was wearing headphones and did not hear Hannah’s cries for help. Or suppose that he
heard the cries and started walking towards the well but was trapped by impenetrable
vegetation blocking his way and delaying him until it was too late. In neither case would he
seem to be responsible for the outcome. The best explanation for that, it seems, is that in these
cases, unlike in the original scenario, George’s concern or lack of concern fails to explain
why he didn’t reach the well in time.
Another thing to notice is that the outcome needs to be explained by the motivational
structure in a “normal” way. If Dave finds out that Alice, Bill and Cecil lack appropriate
concern for the environment and draconically proceeds to poison their lake to teach them a
lesson, their lack of concern might be part of the explanation of the death of the fish in the
lake, but they are not thereby morally responsible for it. Similarly, if George’s lack of concern
for others had made him ignore a discussion of feasible paths through the forest, and if as a
result he was stuck in the mud and unable to heed Hannah’s call, it is not clear that he is
thereby morally responsible for not having come to her rescue.
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Judging from the variations of The Lake and The Well, it seems that the two groups of
people are responsible for the outcomes because the outcomes are explained (in a “normal”
way) by the agents’ motivational structures. The fish died because Alice, Bill and Cecil
lacked appropriate concern for the environment; Hannah’s accident had a fatal outcome
because Eric, Fiona and George lacked appropriate concern for their fellow human beings.
The same seems to hold for cases of moral responsibility for good outcomes. Suppose that
each member of a trio discovers and mends a leaking sewer out of concern for the
environment and that the reduction of pollution secured by any two of them would have been
enough to save the fish in the nearby lake, but not the reduction secured by only one agent.
Then it would seem reasonable to say that the fish survived because these three individuals
cared about the environment, and they would seem to be correspondingly (jointly) responsible
for that outcome.
The question remains, however, whether we can expect this analysis to survive still
further variations, and whether it generalizes to other cases of collective responsibility.
Moreover, we have yet to explain why the individuals are jointly responsible for the
outcomes, given this diagnosis. It is one thing to say that the group is responsible, another to
say that the members of the group are, and it might be thought that attributions of moral
responsibility in cases like these involve some kind of mistake. Perhaps our desire to hold
someone responsible prompts us to confusedly assign joint responsibility for outcomes on the
ground that (a) each individual is responsible for wrongfully risking some bad effect—an
adverse environmental effects, say—and (b) what they risked actually took place because of
these wrongdoings, taken collectively. The suspicion that there is something amiss with our
judgments gains force from a comparison of Alice’s responsibility in The Lake and Adam’s in
Adam’s Lake. In spite of performing identical actions the upshots of which are causally
involved in bringing about the death of the fish in the same way, and in spite of the fact that
their actions result from identical motivational structures, Alice’s responsibility was much
clearer than Adam’s. And in spite of acting in the very same way as Esther for the very same
reasons and having exactly the same possibility to save Hannah—none—, only Eric seemed
responsible for the fact that Hannah wasn’t saved. This is bound to strike some readers as
arbitrary.2
2
See (Zimmerman 1985, p. 116-17) for an argument that seems to assume that differences of this sort
cannot make for different degrees of responsibility.
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I address these issues in the next three sections. Section four introduces an independently
motivated hypothesis about our concept of individual retrospective moral responsibility, the
Explanation Hypothesis. In section five, I explain how it subsumes the analysis of joint
responsibility developed in this section. This gives us reason to think that our present analysis
will generalize to further cases. Moreover, it suggests that the different attributions of
responsibility to Alice and Adam are no more arbitrary than attributions of outcome
responsibility in general. Although the Explanation Hypothesis is primarily an empirical
hypothesis about our concept of responsibility, supported by its predictive power, it strongly
suggests an account of moral responsibility. In section six, finally, I introduce that account—
Explanatory Responsibility—and discuss how it makes issues of outcome responsibility
deeply normative.
4 The Explanation Hypothesis
In two recent papers (Björnsson and Persson 2009, ms), Karl Persson and I have argued that a
wide variety of intuitions about individual responsibility for decisions, actions and outcomes
can be explained if we understand our concept of moral responsibility as shaped by our
interest in holding people responsible. What follows is a brief and simplified version of that
story.
People hold each other responsible for a variety of events in a variety of ways. We blame
or express indignation towards people who have brought about or failed to prevent something
bad for lack of proper concern, and praise or express moral admiration towards those who
have brought about or let happen something good at remarkable costs to themselves.
Sometimes our expressions of so-called “reactive” attitudes are as simple as a frown or a
smile. At other times we are more elaborate, punishing or demanding explanation or
compensation, or distributing rewards and honours. And we direct analogues of all these
reactions towards ourselves.
Our interest in holding people responsible is largely an interest in shaping motivational
structures—values, preferences, behavioural and emotional habits, etc—in order to promote
or prevent certain kinds of actions or events that we like or dislike. Consciously or
unconsciously, we often hold ourselves and each other responsible for various outcomes so
that we will behave responsibly and take into account possible outcomes of the sort that we
have been held responsible for. This is not to deny that we often hold people responsible for
reasons of desert, without an eye to deterring or encouraging agents or third parties. The claim
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is merely that general reformative interests very much drive and shape our practices of
holding people responsible. (For instance, consider the way expressions of indignation are
placated when agents express regret and real motivation to avoid repeats, and consider
plausible evolutionary rationales for our reactive attitudes.)
In order for our practices of holding people responsible to reliably affect outcomes in this
way, they need to be targeted at motivational structures of types that are a) systematically tied
to those outcomes and b) tend to be amenable to modification when targeted by these
practices, and need to be so when instances of the motivational structure type c) explain the
outcome in a salient straightforward way that supports learning.
Undoubtedly, our concept of moral responsibility plays a central role in determining
whom to hold responsible for what. In particular, expressions of indignation and requests for
explanation are withheld when we conclude that the putative target of these practices was not
responsible for the objectionable decision, action or outcome. Since our concept of moral
responsibility plays this role, it would not be surprising if it has been shaped by the need to
identify proper targets for our practices of holding people responsible, identified by
conditions a) through c) above.3
This provides motivation for what we call the “Explanation Hypothesis”, an empirical
hypothesis about the conditions under which we take people to be responsible for some event:
The Explanation Hypothesis: People take P to be morally responsible for E to the
extent that they take4 E to be an outcome of a type O and take P to have a
motivational structure S of type M such that GET, RR and ER hold:
General Explanatory Tendency (GET): Type M motivational structures are part of a
reasonably common sort of significant explanation of type O outcomes.
3
In connecting moral responsibility to reactive attitudes and practices of holding responsible, this
hypothesis is closely related to a category of accounts starting with Peter Strawson’s (1962) paper
“Freedom and Resentment”. In (Björnsson and Persson ms) we indcate how our particular way of
spelling out this connection avoids some of the standard objections raised against such accounts.
4
In saying that people “take” GET, RR and ER to hold, I do not mean that they are consciously aware
of the considerations defined by these conditions in making their judgments of responsibility under
these descriptions, only that judgments are in fact determined by such considerations.
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Reactive Response-ability (RR): Type M motivational structures tend to respond in
the right way to agents being held responsible for realizing or not preventing type O
outcomes.
Explanatory Responsibility (ER): S is part of a significant explanation of E of the sort
mentioned in GET.
My focus here will be on the two explanatory requirements, GET and, in particular, ER, but a
few words are needed to avoid misunderstanding of RR. It is meant to capture the idea that
certain types of motivational structures are impervious to blame, praise or other practices of
holding people responsible, and that this undermines moral responsibility. RR thus explains
why we typically take moral responsibility to be diminished when behaviour is driven by
compulsion, phobias, severe personality disorders and extreme stress.
Since RR concerns how motivational structures respond to blame, praise, etc., it is easy to
think that the Explanation Hypothesis understands judgments of moral responsibility as
forward-looking, concerned with whether holding someone responsible would reform her
behaviour. That would be a misunderstanding, however. The fact that someone’s motivational
structure is of a type that tends to respond in the right way does not mean that it is likely to do
so in this case. A particular instance of a type that tends to respond appropriately might be
resist reform: disdain might satisfy RR, but disdain for morality might be self-protecting.
Moreover, various extraneous factors might mask the motivational structure’s disposition to
react in the right way: perhaps the agent is disposed to react adversely to criticism, say, or
perhaps she suffered from a stroke immediately after her action and no longer has the
cognitive capacity to understand what she is held responsible for. To be directly forwardlooking, judgments of moral responsibility would have to be sensitive to such masks, but they
clearly are not; they are essentially backward-looking, concerned with what explained the
outcome in question.
Among motivational states and outcomes that satisfy RR, there are basically two kinds of
explanation that also satisfy GET: First, events are often explained by the fact that we want
them sufficiently, as our desires guide our goal-directed cognitive mechanisms (“The trial was
all due to Dr. Ortega’s relentless passion for justice”; “Her tragic death was due to Mr. Inza’s
obsession with revenge”). Second, the fact that we do not sufficiently want something not to
happen often explains why we let it happen (“The new factory was allowed to pollute the
river because the CEO didn’t care about the environment”; “He missed his daughter’s game
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because he cared more about his work than about her”).5 Consequently, we take people to be
responsible for a bad outcome when we think that it happened because they wanted them
(“Mr. Inza is to blame for her death”) or because they didn’t care enough to prevent them
(“The pollution is the CEO’s fault”), and take people to be responsible for a good outcome
when it happened because they wanted it (“Dr. Ortega deserves all credit for the trial”).6
According to the Explanation Hypothesis, our everyday concept of an explanation why
something happened is at the core of our thinking about moral responsibility. One key feature
of that concept is that it is highly selective. Suppose that a house has just burned down and
that we are asked why. In answering, we could list a number of conditions, each of which
might be a necessary part of complex sufficient condition for the outcome: there was a
thunderstorm, the house was hit by lightning an hour earlier, the house consisted largely of
combustible matter, there was oxygen in the air, etc.7 All of these conditions, and countless
more, might be part of a full causal story leading up to the fact that the house burned down,
but only a small subset will stand out when we want to give a condensed explanation of that
fact. When we do, the fact that the house was hit by lightning will likely grab our attention,
whereas the fact that the house consisted of combustible matter or that there was oxygen in
the air would be taken for granted as part of what we might call the explanatory
“background”. Typically, the explanatory background consists of conditions that are generally
to be expected whereas attention grabbers are conditions that violate such expectations.
5
It is an interesting question whether GET-satisfying explanations require awareness on part of the
agent that the sort of outcome in question might take place or whether it can be enough that the person
would have been aware and acted on the information if the person had possessed a different
motivational structure. We are currently investigating this, and preparatory studies suggest that most
people come down on the latter side. For some of the philosophical controversy, see (Zimmerman
2008, ch. 4; Sher 2009).
6
It is possible that GET should be restricted to these two broad kinds of explanation.
7
In (Björnsson 2007) I argue that our causal reasoning is primarily directed towards sufficient rather
than necessary conditions and that this is explained by the connection between causal thinking and
instrumental reasoning: instrumental reasoning is primarily directed at ensuring certain states of affairs
rather than making them possible. The priority of sufficiency over necessity explains why causation is
compatible with many varieties of overdetermination and ultimately explains why responsibility is not
a matter of difference making. (All this simplifies matters by ignoring probabilistic causation and
explanation.)
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Generally speaking, we expect houses to be built from some amount of combustible material,
and we certainly expect there to be oxygen in the air, but we do not in the same way expect
houses to be hit by lightning at some given time.
Our everyday notion of explanation is selective in another way too. The bolt of lightning
that hit the house itself had a causal genesis, and there were numerous causal intermediaries
between the fact that the house was hit by lightning and the fact that it burned to the ground.
These conditions are not likely to be seen as part of the explanans, however. When we
provide explanations of an event, we cite a condition that we take to provide a particularly
telling explanation among those leading up to that event, a condition that satisfies our
explanatory interests without immediately raising new and urgent why-questions. If we
wonder why the house burned down and are told that the attic insulation caught fire, we will
probably wonder why the insulation caught fire, and if we are told that there was a separation
of positive and negative charges in the neighbouring atmosphere, we are likely to ask how
that explained that the house burned down. By contrast, if we are told that the house was hit
by lightning, we will probably be satisfied: we take a house’s being hit by lightning to be both
the sort of thing that just happens and the sort of thing that causes houses to burn down.
When condition ER in the Explanation Hypothesis refers to a significant explanation, that
means an explanation that satisfies our explanatory interests and background assumptions or,
differently put, fits our explanatory frame. The selective nature of significant explanations
makes the Explanation Hypothesis a surprisingly powerful account of judgments of moral
responsibility. Obviously, the hypothesis can account for the fact that we take people to be
responsible for most intended outcomes of their actions: because of our powerful goaldirected mechanisms, such outcomes are straightforwardly explained with reference to what
we want to achieve, and most of our everyday preferences satisfy RR. But relying on the
selective nature of significant explanations it also provides a unifying account of how a wide
variety of otherwise disparate phenomena affect judgments of responsibility. As I have argued
elsewhere (Björnsson and Persson 2009; ms), it explains why we take it that (a) external
force, (b) threats and (c) ignorance mitigate moral responsibility to various degrees, as well as
why we take it that (d) those who actively participate in the production of an outcome have a
higher degree of responsibility for it than those who merely allow others do it, that
(e) someone who takes initiative is more responsible than someone who tags along, and that
(f) agents are more responsible for known negative than for known positive side-effects that
the agent does not care about. It also explains why judgments of responsibility tend to be
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undermined by considerations suggesting that (g) our decisions are a matter of luck, (h) our
actions are, ultimately, the upshots of events over which we have no control, or (i) our
behaviour can be given reductionistic, mechanistic explanations, as well as why (j) the felt
conflict between determinism and moral responsibility is lessened when people consider
concrete cases, and especially cases involving grave moral transgressions.
5 The Explanation Hypothesis and collective responsibility
The explanatory power of the Explanation Hypothesis, along with its etiological motivation,
gives us reason to think that the everyday concept of retrospective moral responsibility has a
structure that straightforwardly incorporates our preliminary analysis of joint responsibility in
section three: In cases of joint responsibility, the motivational structures of all participants are
seen as parts of a significant explanation of the outcome. This gives us independent reason to
expect further cases of joint responsibility to conform to the same analysis, thus providing a
first answer to the generalization worry.
More specifically, the Explanation Hypothesis explains both why we take the agents of
The Lake to be responsible for the death of the fish and why we take them to be jointly
responsible. We see them as responsible for the outcome because the three conditions GET,
RR and ER are satisfied for each of them, and we see them as are jointly responsible because
their motivational structures are part of a significant explanans only taken together with the
motivational structures of the other two.
Start with the last claim. Compare the following two answers to the question: why did the
fish in the lake die?
(1)
Alice, Bill and Cecil didn’t care about the environmental effects of their
actions.
(2)
Alice didn’t care about the environmental effects of her actions.
Whereas (1) sounds like a perfectly good explanation, (1) is clearly problematic, for two
reasons. First it brings attention to the fact that Alice’s carelessness made no difference to the
outcome because there would have been enough solvent in the lake without it, and although
difference making doesn’t always undermine explanatory claims it might do so in this case.8
8
The model of causal judgment developed in (Björnsson 2007) explains the restricted role of
difference making or counterfactual dependence in causal judgments and shows why the lack of
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But (2) is also problematic because it focuses on Alice at the exclusion of Bill and Cecil who
played exactly the same role in killing off the fish. Both these defects are absent in (1). That
the trio didn’t care about the environmental effects of their actions straightforwardly
explained why they poured solvent into the lake, and the resulting concentration of solvent
explained why the fish died. Of course, not all their actions or all the solvent was needed for
that outcome, but there is no privileged subset of these actions that would provide a better
explanans. For example, if we explained the death of the fish by mentioning the carelessness
of Alice and Bill, we would misleadingly suggest that Cecil had less to do with the outcome
than the other two. For that reason, such a restricted explanans would not provide us with an
acceptable straightforward explanation.
Now consider the claim that the motivational structure of each agent satisfies GET, RR
and ER for the outcome in question. First, it satisfies GET because the outcome is explained
by a lack of concern to avoid that sort of outcome in the normal way. The most common
explanation of this type will be one in which an individual’s lack of concern explains the
outcome, but we frequently explain outcomes in terms of attitudes of members of a group:
“The kids next door play loud music because they don’t care about the neighbours”; “Sweden
rejected the Euro because many Swedes were afraid of losing political independence”; etc.
Second, the motivational structures also satisfy RR: we have assumed that the individuals
involved satisfy conditions needed for individual responsibility for decisions and action.
Finally, we have just seen that the individual agent’s motivational structure satisfies ER, as it
is alluded to in the joint explanation given by (1).
Contrast this case with Adam’s Lake. Just like Alice’s lack of environmental concern,
taken on its own, Adam’s lack of concern does not itself strike us as straightforwardly
explaining the death of the fish. But whereas Alice’s is part of a significant explanation that
satisfies ER, expressed in (1), it is not clear that Adam’s is. For example, the following
answer to the question of why the fish died in Adam’s Lake seems strained:
(3)
Adam didn’t care about the environment and a poisonous substance was
produced at the bottom of the lake.
Although both conjuncts mention conditions that are part of a complete causal explanation of
counterfactual dependence might undermine the claim that Alice’s carelessness caused or explained
the death of the fish in the lake. This effect would be even stronger in the version of The Lake where
her contribution actually lowered the probability of the outcome.
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the death of the fish, their conjunction does not form the most salient explanation of the
outcome. It would be considerably more natural to appeal to the fact that the lake was
poisoned, as the causes of the poisoning are diverse. Moreover, among those causes, the fact
that a poisonous substance was produced at the bottom of the lake would be seen as more
significant than Adam’s contribution, since it actually made a difference to the outcome.
Intuitions about The Well are explained almost exactly as intuitions about The Lake. Eric,
Fiona and George are seen as jointly responsible for the fact that Hannah wasn’t saved
because it is naturally explained with reference to their lack of concern, but not with reference
to, say, Eric’s lack of concern in particular. The defect of an explanation singling out one
individual is more strongly marked than in The Lake. “Why wasn’t Hannah saved?” “Because
Eric didn’t care to see whether he could help!” The answer invites the reply that Eric couldn’t
have saved Hannah on his own, and does so even more strongly than (1) invited the reply that
the fish would have died without Alice’s action: at least Alice’s action was directly causally
involved in blocking the reproduction of the microorganisms whereas Eric’s inaction made no
definite difference at all.9 (This explanatory inadequacy is of course even more accentuated in
Esther’s Well, where Esther’s lack of care clearly does not explain why Hannah wasn’t
saved.)
What we have seen, then, is how the Explanation Hypothesis supports the diagnosis of
joint responsibility provided in section three. Given that so many other aspects of our thinking
about moral responsibility is well understood given this account, we should expect further
variations on the cases discussed here to conform to the same pattern.
For similar reasons, we should hesitate before saying that typical intuitions about cases
like The Lake result from confusedly attributing joint responsibility based on (i) individual
responsibility for decisions and actions and (ii) non-distributive collective responsibility for
an outcome, that is, collective responsibility that does not imply corresponding responsibility
9
The Explanation Hypothesis also implies that subtle differences in characterizations of outcomes
might yield different verdicts about moral responsibility. It is intuitively clear that Eric, Fiona and
George are responsible for the fact that Hannah wasn’t saved, but it is less clear that they are
responsible for her death. If we ask why she wasn’t saved, it is natural to cite, say, the trio’s lack of
concern, but if we ask why she died, it is considerably more natural to cite the fact that she fell into an
old well or didn’t watch where she was going than to cite our non-intervention. Different explananda
yield different explanatory frames: unlike the fact that she died, the fact that she wasn’t saved implies
that she was in danger, thus relegating her initial fall into the well into the explanatory background.
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for members of the collective. The argument given here suggests that intuitions of joint
responsibility rely on the same sort of considerations as do intuitions about individual
responsibility. From the point of view of our concept of retrospective moral outcome
responsibility, then, the attribution of joint responsibility is in no way arbitrary. Nor is it
arbitrary, from an etiological point of view, that we should have a concept that yields this
pattern of judgments; a focus on cases with a straightforward explanatory connection between
suitable motivational structures and outcomes is crucial for the sort of moral reform that much
of our everyday practice of holding people responsible is aimed at. One might worry, though,
that it is unfair that Alice should be held responsible (together with Bill and Cecil) for the
death of the fish whereas Adam is not, given that both were equally reckless and contributed
solvents that were similarly causally involved in processes leading to the death of the fish.
But this is a familiar problem for outcome responsibility in general, not specifically for joint
responsibility or for the analysis proposed here. Factors outside the control of an agent are
part of what determines the outcome of her behaviour: only one of two equally reckless
drivers is responsible for the death of a child, because only one had a child run out into the
street in front of him; only one of two equally courageous and skilled lifeguards is responsible
for having saved a life, because only one had the opportunity.
One prediction of the Explanation Hypothesis is that people might be seen as jointly
rather than individually responsible for an outcome even in cases where each individual could
have prevented the outcome. Think of a version of The Well where any one of Eric, Fiona and
George could have saved Hannah using a winch next to the well. We might still be reluctant
to say that Eric is responsible for the fact that Hannah wasn’t saved because it arbitrarily
picks out Eric at the exclusion of the other two. The significant explanans is still that none of
the three cared enough to go see whether help was needed; that corresponds to the most
natural assignment of responsibility, namely jointly, to all of them.
Another prediction, borne out by almost every discussion of distributive collective
responsibility, is that we will ascribe joint responsibility in many cases where agents act
together, with joint intentions, since these tend to be cases where agents’ motivational
structures are involved in straightforwardly explaining the intended outcome. Similarly,
intuitions about corporate responsibility bear out the prediction that we will ascribe moral
responsibility for outcomes to corporations (organizations, nations, clubs) insofar as we take
them to have structures that both straightforwardly explain their actions or omissions and
corresponding outcomes and are open to modification by practices of holding these
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corporations responsible (see e.g. French 1984; May and Stacey 1991).
For both cases of joint action and cases of corporate moral responsibility, the Explanation
Hypothesis predicts attributions of quite different degrees of responsibility to different
members of a collective that are causally involved in producing or failing to prevent some
outcome. For example, we might think that a stream has been polluted because a certain
company doesn’t care about the environment, but we do not thereby think that the janitor at
the company headquarters is responsible for the pollution. He might have somehow facilitated
the process leading to the pollution, but his motivation is not thereby part of a significant
explanation in the way that the motivational structures of the CEO or members of the board
are likely to be. And the same might be true about a member of the board who voted against
the polluting activity, or even about someone who voted for it because she thought that that
was the way to minimize the harm by allowing her to minimize the resulting pollution.
6 Explanatory Responsibility and the normativity of retrospective outcome
responsibility
As we have seen, the Explanation Hypothesis promises a unified account of our judgments of
individual and collective responsibility, an account that sees our ascription of essentially joint
responsibility in cases like The Lake or The Well as integral to our thinking about moral
responsibility in general. Moreover, although it does not say what the relation of moral
responsibility is, it strongly suggests such an account. Given the Explanation Hypothesis’
account of our concept of moral responsibility, it might seem reasonable to simply assume
that the relation of moral responsibility corresponds to what is identified when the concept is
applied without any mistakes, that is, when GET, RR and ER hold.
Things are not quite that simple, however, because the selective nature of our explanatory
judgments makes them sensitive to differences in explanatory frames. For example, it seems
that when people are encouraged to abstract away from the level of detail that we employ in
everyday explanations of actions and to focus on causal factors outside our control, they are
less inclined to find motivational structures explanatorily significant, and less inclined to
ascribe responsibility (Björnsson and Persson 2009, ms). In the same way, explanatory
judgments often depend on normative expectations or ideals. Suppose that that a child falls
and breaks an arm during some rough and tumble play. A person who thinks that mothers
ought to be strongly protective of their children is more likely to explain this fact with
reference to the mother’s lack of protective concern, and thus more likely to take the mother
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to be responsible for the accident.10
If the Explanation Hypothesis captures out concept of moral responsibility and if there is
a determinate, objective, truth of the matter as to whether people are moral responsible for
certain outcomes, the “significant explanations” referred to in GET and ER needs to be
restricted. The most obvious way to do so is to require that they are significant relative to a
correct explanatory frame: relative to correct normative ideals, correct background
assumptions, and relevant explanatory interests and explanatory perspectives. “Objectifying”
the Explanation Hypothesis, we would thus get the following characterization of moral
responsibility:
Explanatory Responsibility: P is morally responsible for E to the extent that E is an
outcome of a type O and P has a motivational structure S of type M such that GET,
RR and ER hold relative to a correct explanatory frame.
Obviously, Explanatory Responsibility only implies determinate judgments of responsibility
given substantial assumptions about what the correct explanatory frames are. This is not the
place to defend some such assumptions,11 but the fact that moral responsibility would depend
on the correctness of normative expectations is itself a highly significant consequence.12
Because of it, fundamental issues in normative ethics are directly relevant to questions of
moral responsibility.
As an example, consider how issues of joint responsibility are affected by the
disagreement about the existence of reasons to do one’s own part in a cooperative scheme
even when others are known not to, or to “keep one’s own hands clean”. Thus far, I have
discussed cases where, for all the agents knew, their acts could have made a difference
individually to the outcome for which they are responsible. Moreover, this feature might seem
essential to the cases. For example, if Alice had poured solvent into the lake knowing for sure
that it would make no significant environmental difference or even slowed down ongoing
10
For empirical data illustrating some effects of normative expectations on explanatory judgments, see
e.g. (Alicke 1992), (Knobe and Fraser 2008), (Hitchcock and Knobe ms) and (Sytsma et al ms).
11
In (Björnsson and Persson ms) we argue that explanatory frames of the sort that motivate most of
our everyday judgments of moral responsibility should be preferred to the frames that are induced by
sceptical arguments against moral responsibility.
12
For related discussions of how normative aspects affect judgments of responsibility, see (Smiley
1992).
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damage, that could clearly undermine her responsibility for the death of the fish as her
contribution would no longer be explained with reference to a lack of care. But suppose that
there are moral reasons for people to do their part in appropriate cooperative schemes that do
not depend on the possibility of actually significantly furthering the ultimate point of these
schemes. Then people might be jointly responsible for bad outcomes that they, as individuals,
knew they could not prevent: if they had all been more concerned to do their part, the outcome
would have been different.
If there are non-consequentialist reasons of this sort, their strength will also have major
impact on what we are responsible for. Given high enough normative expectations that people
should avoid working for or purchase the goods of organizations that are responsible for
certain bad outcomes, it will seem that great many people without direct causal influence on
these outcomes are nevertheless responsible for them, i. e. for such things as the effects of a
company’s environmental policy, the persecution of members of organized labour in
undemocratic countries, or the enactment of severe oppression of civilians on occupied
territories. After all, if people had cared more and been more “principled”, many such things
could have been very different. This in turn raises difficult questions about the relation
between normative expectation and psychological realism: since it seems unlikely that people
will live up to these expectations under present circumstances, are they really reasonable? If
correct, the Explanation Account makes clear just how such questions are central to issues of
collective responsibility, by being directly relevant for the identification of significant
explanations.13
13
Earlier versions of this text have been presented and received valuable input at the International
Conference on Moral Responsibility in Delft, August 2009, the Centre for Applied Ethics at Linköping
University, the Department of Political Science and the Department of Philosophy, Linguistic and
Theory of Science at University of Gothenburg, and the Department of Philosophy, Lund University. I
am also grateful to participants at the CEU 2009 summer school on moral responsibility, and to
comments from Ibo van de Poel and an anonymous reviewer for this volume.
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