Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Mental Models: An Alternative Evaluation of a Sensemaking Approach to Ethics Instruction

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Science and Engineering Ethics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In spite of the wide variety of approaches to ethics training it is still debatable which approach has the highest potential to enhance professionals’ integrity. The current effort assesses a novel curriculum that focuses on metacognitive reasoning strategies researchers use when making sense of day-to-day professional practices that have ethical implications. The evaluated trainings effectiveness was assessed by examining five key sensemaking processes, such as framing, emotion regulation, forecasting, self-reflection, and information integration that experts and novices apply in ethical decision-making. Mental models of trained and untrained graduate students, as well as faculty, working in the field of physical sciences were compared using a think-aloud protocol 6 months following the ethics training. Evaluation and comparison of the mental models of participants provided further validation evidence for sensemaking training. Specifically, it was found that trained students applied metacognitive reasoning strategies learned during training in their ethical decision-making that resulted in complex mental models focused on the objective assessment of the situation. Mental models of faculty and untrained students were externally-driven with a heavy focus on autobiographical processes. The study shows that sensemaking training has a potential to induce shifts in researchers’ mental models by making them more cognitively complex via the use of metacognitive reasoning strategies. Furthermore, field experts may benefit from sensemaking training to improve their ethical decision-making framework in highly complex, novel, and ambiguous situations.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. The scenarios are available from the authors upon the request.

  2. The results of the structured protocol are available from the authors upon the request.

References

  1. Adams, J. S., Tashchian, A., & Shore, T. (2001). Codes of ethics as signals for ethical behavior. Journal of Business Ethics, 29, 199–211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Anderson, M. S. (2007). Collective openness and other recommendations for the promotion of research integrity. Science and Engineering Ethics, 13, 387–394.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Antes, A. L., Brown, R. P., Murphy, S. T., Hill, J. H., Waples, E. P., Mumford, M. D., et al. (2007). Personality and ethical decision-making in research: The role of perceptions of self and others. Journal of Empirical Research on Human Research Ethics, 2, 15–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Austin, J., & Delaney, P. F. (1998). Protocol analysis as a tool for behavior analysis. Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 15, 42–56.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Baumeister, R. F., Vohs, K. D., DeWall, C. N., & Zhang, L. (2007). How emotion shapes behavior: Feedback, anticipation, and reflection, rather than direct causation. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 11(2), 167–203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Berardi-Coletta, B., Buyer, L. S., Dominowski, R. L., & Rellinger, E. R. (1995). Metacognition and problem solving: A process-oriented approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 21, 205–223.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Bullock, M., & Panicker, S. (2003). Ethics for all: Differences across scientific society codes. Science and Engineering Ethics, 9, 159–170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Chen, F. W. (2003). A study of the adjustment of ethical recognition and ethical decision-making of managers-to-be across the Taiwan Strait before and after receiving a business ethics education. Journal of Business Ethics, 45, 291–307.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Chermack, T. J. (2003). Mental models in decision making and implications for human resource development. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 5, 408–422.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Chi, M. T. H., Feltovich, P., & Glaser, R. (1981). Categorization and representation of physics problems by experts and novices. Cognitive Science, 5, 121–152.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Davis, M. (2003). The role of culture in research misconduct. Accountability in Research, 10, 189–201.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Davis, M. (2006). Engineering ethics, individuals, and organizations. Science and Engineering Ethics, 12, 223–231.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Day, E. A., Arthur, W., & Gettman, D. (2001). Knowledge structures and the acquisition of a complex skill. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(5), 1022–1033.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Dörner, D., & Schaub, H. (1994). Errors in planning and decision-making and the nature of human information processing. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 43, 433–453.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Drazin, R., Glynn, M. A., & Kazarjain, R. K. (1999). Multi-level theorizing about creativity in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 24, 286–329.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). Making fast strategic decision in high-velocity environments. Academy of Management, 32(3), 543–576.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Emison, G. A. (2006). The complex challenges of ethical choices by engineers in public service. Science and Engineering Ethics, 12, 233–244.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Ericsson, K. A., & Charness, N. (1994). Expert performance: Its structure and acquisition. American Psychologist, 49(8), 725–747.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1980). Verbal reports as data. Psychological Review, 87(3), 215–251.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1984). Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data. Cambridge, MA: The MIT press.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Fidler, E. J. (1983). The reliability and validity of concurrent, retrospective, and interpretative verbal reports: An experimental study. In P. H. O. Svenson & A. Vari (Eds.), Analysing and aiding decision processes (pp. 429–440). Amsterdam: North-Holland.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  22. Fisher, C. D., & Ashkanasy, N. M. (2000). The emerging role of emotions in work life: An introduction. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21, 123–129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Fonteyn, M. E., Kuipers, B., & Grobe, S. J. (1993). A description of Think Aloud method and protocol analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 3(4), 430–441.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Gary, M. S., & Wood, R. E. (2007). Mental models, decision making and performance in complex, dynamic environments. Social Science Research Network (SSRN). Working Paper Series.

  25. George, J. M. (2000). Emotions and leadership: The role of emotional intelligence. Human Relations, 53, 1027–1041.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Glaser, R., & Bassok, M. (1989). Learning theory and the study of instruction. Annual Review of Psychology, 40, 631–666.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Goldsmith, T. E., & Davenport, D. M. (1990). Assessing structural similarity of graphs. In R. W. Schvaneveldt (Ed.), Pathfinder associative networks: Studies in knowledge organization (pp. 75–87). Westport, CT: Ablex Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Goldstone, R. L., & Sakamoto, Y. (2003). The transfer of abstract principles governing complex adaptive systems. Cognitive Psychology, 46, 414–466.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Gott, S. P. (1989). Apprenticeship instruction for real-world tasks: The coordination of procedures, mental models, and strategies. Review of Research in Education, 15, 97–169.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Gross, J. J. (1998). Antecedent- and response-focused emotion regulation: Divergent consequences for experience, expression, and physiology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(1), 224–237.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Helton-Fauth, W. B., Gaddis, B., Scott, G., Mumford, M. D., Devenport, L. D., Connelly, S., et al. (2003). A new approach to assessing ethical conduct in scientific work. Accountability in Research, 10, 205–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Hmelo-Silver, C. E., & Pfeffer, M. G. (2004). Comparing expert and novice understanding of a complex system from the perspective of structures, behaviors and functions. Cognitive Science, 28, 127–138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Howard, P. J., & Howard, J. M. (2001). The owner’s manual for personality at work. Austin, TX: Bard Press.

    Google Scholar 

  34. Jacobson, M. J. (2001). Problem solving, cognition, and complex systems: Differences between experts and novices. Complexity, 6(2), 1–9.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1983). Mental models: Toward a cognitive science of language, inference, and consciousness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  36. Johnson-Laird, P. N. (2004). The history of mental models. In K. Manktelow & M. C. Chung (Eds.), Psychology of reasoning: Theoretical and historical perspectives (pp. 179–212). Hove, Sussex: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Jonassen, D. H. (1997). Instructional design model for well-structured and ill-structured problem-solving learning outcomes. Educational Technology: Research and Development, 45(1), 65–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Jones, N. L. (2007). A code of ethics for the life sciences. Science and Engineering Ethics, 13, 25–43.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Kazier, C., & Shore, B. M. (1995). Strategy flexibility in more and less competent students on mathematical work problems. Creativity Research Journal, 8, 77–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Kennedy-Moore, E., & Watson, J. C. (2001). How and when does emotional expression help? Review of General Psychology, 5(3), 187–212.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Kirkpatrick, D. L. (1976). Evaluation of training. In R. L. Craig (Ed.), Training and development handbook: A guide to human resource development (2nd ed., pp. 18–27). New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Kirkpatrick, D. L. (1996). Great ideas revisited. Training and Development Journal, 50, 54–59.

    Google Scholar 

  43. Klein, G., Moon, B., & Hoffman, R. R. (2006). Making sense of sensemaking: Alternative perspectives. Available at http://doi.ieeecomputersociety.org/10.1109/MIS.2006.75.

  44. Kligyte, V., Marcy, R. T., Sevier, S. T., Godfrey, E. S., & Mumford, M. D. (2008). A qualitative approach to Responsible Conduct of Research (RCR) training development: Identification of metacognitive strategies. Science and Engineering Ethics, 14(1), 3–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Kligyte, V., Marcy, R. T., Waples, E., Sevier, S. T., Godfrey, E. S., & Mumford, M. D. (2007). Application of a sensemaking approach to ethics training in the physical sciences and engineering. Science and Engineering Ethics. doi: 10.1007/s11948-007-9048-z.

  46. Kohlberg, L. (1984). Essays on moral development: The psychology of moral development: The nature and validity of moral stages. San Francisco: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Kraiger, K., Ford, J. K., & Salas, E. (1993). Application of cognitive, skill-based, and affective theories of learning outcomes to new methods of training evaluation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 311–328.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Larkin, J. H., McDermott, J., Simon, D. P., & Simon, H. A. (1980). Expert and novice performance in solving physics problems. Cognitive Science, 12, 101–138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Larsen, R. J. (2000). Toward a science of mood regulation. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 129–141.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Mason-Mason, S. D., & Tessmer, M. A. (2000). Expert systems as a mind tool to facilitate mental model learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 48(4), 43–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Minkes, A. L., Small, M. W., & Chatterjee, S. R. (1999). Leadership and business ethics: Does it matter? Implications for management. Journal of Business Ethics, 20(4), 327–335.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Mumford, M. D. (2006). Pathways to outstanding leadership: A comparative analysis of charismatic, ideological, and pragmatic leaders. Mahweh, New Jersey: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Mumford, M. D., Connelly, S., Brown, R. P., Murphy, S. T., Hill, J. H., Antes, A. A., Waples, E. P., & Devenport, L. D. (2008). A sensemaking approach to ethics training for scientists: Preliminary evidence of training effectiveness. Ethics and Behavior, 18(2).

  54. Mumford, M. D., Devenport, L. D., Brown, R. P., Connelly, M. S., Murphy, S. T., Hill, J. H., et al. (2006). Validation of ethical decision-making measures: Internal and external validity. Ethics and Behavior, 16(4), 319–345.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Plemmons, D. K., Brody, S. A., & Kalichman, M. W. (2006). Student perceptions of the effectiveness of education in the responsible conduct of research. Science and Engineering Ethics, 12, 571–582.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Pinkus, R. L. B., Shuman, L. J., Hummon, N. P., & Wolf, H. (1997). Engineering ethics, balancing cost, schedule and risk—lessons learned from the space shuttle. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  57. Rest, J. R. (1986). An overview of the psychology of morality. In J. R. Rest (Ed.), Moral development and behavior: Theory, research, and social issues (pp. 133–175). New York: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Rouse, W. B., & Morris, N. M. (1986). On looking into the black box: Prospects and limits in the search for mental models. Psychological Bulletin, 100(3), 349–363.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Schvaneveldt, R. W. (1990). Pathfinder associative networks: Studies in knowledge organization. Westport, CT: Ablex Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  60. Scott, G. M., Leritz, L. E., & Mumford, M. D. (2004). The effectiveness of creativity training: A meta-analysis. Creativity Research Journal, 16, 361–388.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Sims, R. R. (2000). Changing an organization’s culture under new leadership. Journal of Business Ethics, 19, 393–403.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Sims, R. L., & Keon, T. L. (1999). Determinants of ethical decision-making: The relationship of perceived organizational environment. Journal of Business Ethics, 19, 393–404.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Stout, R. J., Salas, E., & Kraiger, K. (1997). Role of trainee knowledge structures in aviation team environments. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 7(3), 235–250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Tereskerz, P. M. (2003). Research accountability and financial conflicts of interest in industry: Sponsored clinical research. Accountability in Research, 10, 137–158.

    Google Scholar 

  65. The National Academies Press. (2002). Integrity in scientific research: Creating an environment that promotes responsible conduct. Available at http://books.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=10430.

  66. Titus, S. (2004). Descriptive study: Research integrity measures used in biomedical laboratories. Paper presented at the 3rd Research on Research Integrity Conference, San Diego, CA.

  67. Walczyk, J. J., Roper, K. S., Seemann, E., & Humphrey, A. M. (2003). Cognitive mechanisms underlying lying to questions: Response time as a cue to deception. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 17, 755–774.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Weick, K. (1995). Sensemaking in organizations. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  69. Wilson, T. D., & Gilbert, D. T. (2005). Affective forecasting: Knowing what to want. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14, 131–134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank Elaine S. Godfrey and Richard T. Marcy for their assistance in developing theoretical framework and data collection materials for the project. We also thank Dr. Dean F. Hougen for sharing his expertise in physical sciences which was beneficial in contextualizing the obtained information. We would also like to acknowledge the National Science Foundation (NSF), contract No. SES 0529910. The resarch was funded by the Council of Graduate Students Grant, contract No. LTR 090506.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Oklahoma, 455 W. Lindsey Street, Dale Hall Tower, Room 705, Norman, OK, 73019-2007, USA

    Meagan E. Brock, Andrew Vert, Vykinta Kligyte & Michael D. Mumford

  2. Department of Management and Marketing, Louisiana State University in Shreveport, One University Place, Shreveport, LA, 71115, USA

    Ethan P. Waples

  3. Department of Anthropology, University of Oklahoma, 455 West Lindsey, Dale Hall Tower, Room 521, Norman, OK, 73019-2007, USA

    Sydney T. Sevier

Authors
  1. Meagan E. Brock
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Andrew Vert
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Vykinta Kligyte
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Ethan P. Waples
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Sydney T. Sevier
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Michael D. Mumford
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Meagan E. Brock.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Brock, M.E., Vert, A., Kligyte, V. et al. Mental Models: An Alternative Evaluation of a Sensemaking Approach to Ethics Instruction. Sci Eng Ethics 14, 449–472 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11948-008-9076-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11948-008-9076-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation