Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

How Theories became Knowledge: Morgan's Chromosome Theory of Heredity in America and Britain

  • Published:
Journal of the History of Biology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

T. H. Morgan, A. H. Sturtevant, H. J. Muller and C. B. Bridges published their comprehensive treatise The Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity in 1915. By 1920 Morgan's ``Chromosome Theory of Heredity'' was generally accepted by geneticists in the United States, and by British geneticists by 1925. By 1930 it had been incorporated into most general biology, botany, and zoology textbooks as established knowledge. In this paper, I examine the reasons why it was accepted as part of a series of comparative studies of theory-acceptance in the sciences. In this context it is of interest to look at the persuasiveness of confirmed novel predictions, a factor often regarded by philosophers of science as the most important way to justify a theory. Here it turns out to play a role in the decision of some geneticists to accept the theory, but is generally less important than the CTH's ability to explain Mendelian inheritance, sex-linked inheritance, non-disjunction, and the connection between linkage groups and the number of chromosome pairs; in other words, to establish a firm connection between genetics and cytology. It is remarkable that geneticists were willing to accept the CTH as applicable to all organisms at a time when it had been confirmed only for Drosophila. The construction of maps showing the location on the chromosomes of genes for specific characters was especially convincing for non-geneticists.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abbott, James Francis. 1914. The Elementary Principles of General Biology. New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen, G. E. 1966. “Thomas Hunt Morgan and the Problem of Sex Determination.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 110: 48–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1971. “Castle, William Ernest.” Dictionary of Scientific Biography 3: 120–124.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1973. “McClung, Clarence Erwin.” Dictionary of Scientific Biography 8: 586–590.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1975. “The Introduction of Drosophila into the Study of Heredity and Evolution, 1900-1910.” Isis 66: 322–333.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1978. Thomas Hunt Morgan: The Man and his Science. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen, G. E. 1983. “T. H. Morgan and the Split between Embryology and Genetics, 1910-1935.” T.J. Horder et al. (eds.), A History of Embryology, New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 113–146.

    Google Scholar 

  • Altenburg, Edgar. 1916. “Linkage in Primula sinensis.” Genetics 1: 354–366.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1928. How we Inherit. New York: Holt.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ashworth, James. 1923. “Modern Zoology.” Science 58: 231–236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Babcock, E. B. 1920. “Crepis — A promising Genus for Genetic Investigations.” American Naturalist 54: 270–276.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1949. “The Development of Fundamental Concepts in the Science of Genetics.” Portug. Acta Biol. A., R. B. Goldschmidt Volume, pp. 1–46.

  • Babcock. E. B. and Clausen, R. E. 1918. Genetics in Relation to Agriculture. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1927. Genetics in Relation to Agriculture, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.

  • Barthelmess, Alfred. 1952. Vererbungswissenschaft. Freiburg/München: Alber.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartlett, H. H. 1916. “The status of the mutation theory, with especial reference to Oenothera.” American Naturalist 50: 573–529.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bateson, W. 1907. “Facts limiting the Theory of Heredity.” Science [new series] 26: 649–660. Reprinted in R.C. Punnett(ed.), Scientific Papers of William Bateson, vol. 2, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1928, pp. 162-177.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1909/1913. Mendel's Principles of Heredity. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press. Published March 1909, third impression with additions 1913. See Appendix on new work in last 3 years.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1916. Review of Morgan et al., Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity. Science 44: 536–543.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1920a. “Croonian Lecture: — Genetic Segregation.” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Part B, 91: 358–368. Reprinted in American Naturalist, 55: 5-19, 1921.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1920b. “Obituary. Prof. L. Doncaster, F. R. S.” Nature 105: 461–162.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1921. “Leonard Doncaster, 1877-1920.” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Part B, 92: xli–xlvi.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1922a. “Genetics.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 12th ed., New Volumes, v. 31: 199–203. London: Encyclopedia Britannica Co., Ltd.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1922b. “Evolutionary Faith and modern Doubts.” Science 55: 55–61. Address to the American Association for the Advancement of Science meeting at Toronto.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1922/1926. “Segregation: Being the Joseph Leidy Memorial Lecture of the University of Pennsylvania, 1922.” Journal of Genetics 16: 201–235.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1928. William Bateson, F. R. S., Naturalist, His Essays & Addresses together with A Short Account of his Life by Beatrice Bateson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Reprinted, New York: Garland 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bauer, Hans. 1937. “Cytogenetik.” Fortschritte der Zoology [for 1935] 2: 521–538.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baxter, Alice and Farley, John. 1979. “Mendel and Meiosis.” Journal of the History of Biology 12: 137–173.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beatty, John. 1986. “The Synthesis and the Synthetic Theory.” William Bechtel (ed.), Integrating Scientific Disciplines, Dordrecht: Nijhoff, pp. 125–135.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beatty, John, Brandon, Robert, Sober, Elliott and Mitchell, Sandra D. 1997. “Symposium: Are there Laws of Biology?” Lindley Darden (ed.), PSA 1996, Part II, Supplement to Philosophy of Science 64: S432–S479.

  • Bennett, J. 1983. see Fisher 1983.

  • Biological Sciences Curriculum Study. 1968. High School Biology, BSCS Green Version. Chicago: Rand McNally.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blaringhem, Louis. 1928. Principes et Formules de l'Hérédité Mendélienne. Paris: Gauthier-Villars.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bower, F. O. 1923. Botany of the Living Plant, 2nd ed. London: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowler, Peter J. 1989. The Mendelian Revolution. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Box, Joan Fisher. 1978. R. A. Fisher, The Life of a Scientist. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bridges, C. B. 1913. “Non-Disjunction of the Sex Chromosomes of Drosophila.” Journal of Experimental Zoology 15: 587–606.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1914. “Direct Proof through Non-Disjunction that the Sex-Linked Genes of Drosophila are borne by the X-Chromsome.” Science 40: 107–109.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1916. “Non-Disjunction as Proof of the Chromosome Theory of Heredity.” Genetics 1: 1–52, 107-163.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brimhall, Dean R. 1922. “Family Resemblances among American Men of Science.” American Naturalist 56: 504–547.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brink, R. A. 1927. “Genetics and the Problems of Development.” American Naturalist 61: 280–283.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brush, Stephen G. 1978a. The Temperature of History: Phases of Science and Culture in the Nineteenth Century. New York: Burt Franklin & Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1978b. “Nettie M.Stevens and the Discovery of Sex Determination by Chromosomes.” Isis 69: 163–172.

    Google Scholar 

  • ― 1980. “The Chimerical Cat: Philosophy of Quantum Mechanics in Historical Perspective.” Social Studies of Science 10: 393–447.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1989. “Prediction and Theory Evaluation: The Case of Light Bending.” Science 246: 1124–1129.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1995. “Dynamics of Theory Change: The Role of Predictions.” PSA 1994 2: 133–145.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1996a. “The Reception of Mendeleev's Periodic Law in America and Britain.” Isis 87: 595–628.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1996b. “Dynamics of Theory Change in the Social Sciences: Relative Deprivation and collective Violence.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 40: 523–545.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1996c. Nebulous Earth: The Origin of the Solar System and the Core of the Earth from Laplace to Jeffreys. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1999a. “Dynamics of Theory Change in Chemistry.” Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 30: 21–79, 263-402.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1999b. “Why was Relativity accepted?” Physics in Perspective 1: 184–214.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burian, R. 1985. “On conceptual Change in Biology: The Case of the Gene.” D.J. Depew and B.H. Weber (eds.), Evolution at a Crossroads, Cambridge: MIT Press, pp. 21–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burian, R. M. 1996. “Against Generality: Meaning in Genetics and Philosophy.” Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 27: 1–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burlingame, Leonas Lancelot, Heath, Harold, Martin, Ernest Gale and Peirce, George James. 1922. General Biology. New York: Holt.

    Google Scholar 

  • Calkins, Gary N. 1917. Biology, 2nd ed. New York: Holt.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, Elof Axel. 1966/1989. The Gene: A critical History. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1966; reprinted, Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1971. “An unacknowledged Founding of Molecular Biology: H. J. Müller's Contributions to Gene Theory, 1910-1936.” Journal of the History of Biology 4: 149–170.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1974. “The Drosophila Group: The Transition from the Mendelian Unit to the individual Gene.” Journal of the History of Biology 7: 31–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1981. Genes, Radiation, and Society: The Life and Work of H. J. Muller. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carothers, E. Eleanor. 1917. “The Segregation and Recombination of homologous Chromosomes as found in two Genera of Acrididae (Orthoptera).” Journal of Morphology 28: 445–622.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1921. “Genetical behavior of heteromorphic homologous Chromosomes of Circotettrix (Orthoptera).” Journal of Morphology 35: 457.

    Google Scholar 

  • Castle, W. E. 1911. Heredity in Relation to Evolution and Animal Breeding. New York: Appleton.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1914. “The theoretical Distinction between multiple Allelomorphs and close Linkage.” American Naturalist 48: 503–504.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1915. “Mr. Muller on the Constancy of Mendelian Factors.” American Naturalist 49: 37–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1916. Genetics and Eugenics: A Text-Book. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1919. “Piebald Rats and Selection, A Correction.” American Naturalist 53: 370–376.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1920. Genetics and Eugenics. A Text-Book, 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1920c. “The Measurement of Linkage.” American Naturalist 54: 264–267.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1924. Genetics and Eugenics, 3rd ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1930. Genetics and Eugenics: A Text-Book for Students, 4th ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1951. “The Beginnings of Mendelism in America.” L.C. Dunn (ed.), Genetics in the 20 th Century, New York: Macmillan, pp. 59–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caullery, Maurice. 1943/1964. Genetics and Heredity. New York: Walker 1964, translated from Génétique et Hérédité, 1943, by Mark Holloway.

    Google Scholar 

  • Child, Charles Manning. 1915. Individuality in Organisms. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Churchill, F. B. 1987. “From Heredity Theory to Vererbung: The Transmission Problem, 1850-1915.” Isis 78: 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clausen, R. E. and Goodspeed, T. H. 1916. “Hereditary Reaction-System Relations — An Extension of Mendelian concepts.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2: 240–244.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cock, A. G. 1973. “William Bateson, Mendelism, and Biometry.” Journal of the History of Biology 6: 1–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1983. “William Bateson's Rejection and eventual Acceptance of the Chromosome Theory.” Annals of Science 40: 19–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cole, Leon J. 1930. “Heredity as we see it today.” Sigma Xi Quarterly 18: 41–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coleman, William. 1965. “Cell, Nucleus and Inheritance: An historical Study.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 109: 124–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coleman, William. 1970a. “Bateson,William.” Dictionary of Scientific Biography 1: 505–506.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1970b. “Bateson and Chromosomes: Conservative thought in science.” Centaurus, 15: 228–314.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conklin, E. G. 1916. Heredity and Environment in the Development of Men, 2nd ed. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1919. Heredity and Environment in the Development of Men, 3rd ed. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1922. Heredity and Environment in the Development of Men, 5th ed. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cook, O. F. 1914. “Reticular Heredity.” Journal of Heredity 5: 341–347.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooke, Kathy J. 1997. “From Science to Practice, or Practice to Science? Chickens and Eggs in Raymond Pearl's Agricultural Breeding Research, 1907-1916.” Isis 88: 62–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coulter, John Merle, and Coulter, Merle. 1918. Plant Genetics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crampton, Henry Edward. 1907/1911. The Doctrine of Evolution. New York: Columbia University Press [Hewitt Lectures, 1907, published 1911].

    Google Scholar 

  • Crane, Morley Benjamin and Lawrence, William John Cooper. 1934. The Genetics of Garden Plants. London: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cravens, Hamilton. 1978/1988. The Triumph of Evolution. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1978; new edition, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  • Creighton, Harriet B. and McClintock, Barbara. 1931. “A Correlation of cytological and genetical Crossing-over in Zea mays.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 17: 492–497.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cremer, Thomas. 1985. Von der Zellenlehre zur Chromosomentheorie: Naturwissenschaftliche Erkenntnis und Theorienwechsel in der frühen Zell-und Vererbungsforschung. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crew, F. A. E. 1925. Animal Genetics: An Introduction to the Science of Animal Breeding. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1927. “The Germplasm and its Architecture.” Nature 120: 696–698, 732-734.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1931. “Mammalian Genetics.” Nature 127: 847–848.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crow, W. B. 1924. “Variation and Species in Cyanophyceae.” Journal of Genetics 14: 397–424.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1926. “Phylogeny and the Natural System.” Journal of Genetics 17: 85-155.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, J. T. 1921. Hormones and Heredity. London: Constable.

    Google Scholar 

  • Curtis, Winterton C. and Guthrie, Mary J. 1927. Textbook of General Zoology. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cutler, D. Ward. 1925. Evolution, Heredity, and Variation. London: Christophers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dakin, William John. 1928. An Introduction to Biology. London: Benn.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darbishire, A. D. 1911. Breeding and the Mendelian Discovery. London: Cassell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darden, Lindley. 1977. “William Bateson and the Promise of Mendelism.” Journal of the History of Biology 10: 87–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1991. Theory Change in Science: Strategies from Mendelian Genetics. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darden, Lindley and Maull, Nancy. 1977. “Interfield Theories.” Philosophy of Science 44: 43–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darlington, C. D. 1929. “Chromosome Behaviour and structural Heredity in the Tradescantiae.” Journal of Genetics 21: 207–286.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1932. Recent Advances in Cytology. Philadelphia: Blakiston.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1960. “Chromosomes and the Theory of Heredity.” Nature 187: 892–895.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1979. “Morgan's Crisis.” Nature 278: 786–787.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1980. “The Evolution of genetic Systems: Contributions of Cytology to evolutionary Theory.” E. Mayr and W.B. Provine, (eds.), The Evolutionary Synthesis, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, pp. 70–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davenport, C. B. 1912. “Sex-limited Inheritance in Poultry.” Journal of Experimental Zoology 13: 1–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Beer, G. R. 1923-1924. “Introduction to the Study of Genetics.” School Science Review 4 (1923): 204–211; 5 (1923): 34-39; 6 (1924): 211-225. Reprinted in De Beer, Introduction to the Study of Genetics, London: Murray, 1924.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deichmann, Ute. 1996. Biologists under Hitler. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

  • Delage, Yves. 1903. L'Heredité et les grands Problemes de la Biologie Générale. Paris: Reinwald.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dendy, Arthur. 1922. “Biology.” A. Dendy (ed.), Problems of Modern Science, A Series of Lectures Delivered at King's College University of London, Reprinted, Freeport, NY: Books for Libraries Press, 1972, pp. 111–147.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1923. Outlines of Evolutionary Biology, 3rd ed. London: Constable.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1924. The Biological Foundations of Society. London: Constable.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dietrich, Michael R. 1996. “On the Mutability of Genes and Geneticists: The 'Americanization' of Richard Goldschmidt and Victor Jollos.” Perspectives on Science 4: 321–345.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dobell, Clifford. 1925. “The Chromosome Cycle of the Sporozoa considered in Relation to the Chromosome Theory of Heredity.” La Cellule 35: 167–192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dobzhansky, T. 1930. “Translocations involving the third and the fourth Chromosomes of Drosophila melanogaster.” Genetics 15: 347–399.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1980. “Morgan and his School in the 1930s.” E. Mayr and W. Provine (eds.), The Evolutionary Synthesis, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, pp. 445–452.

    Google Scholar 

  • Doncaster, Leonard. 1911. “Note on the Inheritance of Characters in which Dominance appears to be influenced by Sex.” Journal of Genetics 1: 377–379.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1913. “On Sex-limited Inheritance in Cats, and its Bearing on the Sex-limited Transmission of certain Human Abnormalities.” Journal of Genetics 3: 11–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1914. “Chromosomes, Heredity and Sex: A Review of the present State of the Evidence with Regard to the material Basis of hereditary Transmission and Sex-determination.” Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science 59: 487–521.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1920a. An Introduction to the Study of Cytology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1920b. “Genetic Studies of Drosophila.” Nature 105: 405–406. Review of T.H. Morgan et al., Contributions to the Study of Drosophila melanogaster.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1920c. “Progress in Biology during the last sixty years.” F.S. Marvin (ed.), Recent Developments in European Thought, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 229–246.

    Google Scholar 

  • Donovan, Arthur, Laudan, Larry, and Laudan, Rachel (eds.). 1988. Scrutinizing Science: Empirical Studies of Scientific Change. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, L. C. 1920. ALinkage in Mice and Rats.” Genetics 5: 325-43.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1965a. “William Ernest Castle, 25 October 1867-3 June 1962.” Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences 38: 33–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1965b/1991. A Short History of Genetics: The Development of Some of the Main Lines of Thought, 1864-1939. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1991, reprint of the 1965 edition.

    Google Scholar 

  • East, E. M. 1911. “The Genotype Hypothesis and Hybridization.” American Naturalist 45: 160–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1915. “The Chromosome View of Heredity and its Meaning to Plant Breeders.” American Naturalist 49: 457–494.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1918. “The Role of Reproduction in Evolution.” American Naturalist 52: 273–289.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1922. “As Genetics comes of Age.” Journal of Heredity 13: 207–214.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1927. Heredity and Human Affairs. New York: Scribner's.

    Google Scholar 

  • East, E.M. and Jones, Donald F. 1919. Inbreeding and Outbreeding. Philadelphia: Lippincott.

    Google Scholar 

  • East, E. M. and Park, J. B. 1917. “Studies in Self-sterility. I. The Behavior of self-sterile Plants.” Genetics 2: 505–609.

    Google Scholar 

  • Emerson, R. A. 1913. “The simultaneous Modification of distinct Mendelian factors.” American Naturalist 47: 633–636.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1922. “The Nature of Bud Variations as indicated by their Mode of Inheritance.” American Naturalist 56: 64–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Emerson, R. A. 1924. “Aberrant Endosperm Development as a means of distinguishing Linkage Groups.” American Naturalist 58: 272–277.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1932. “The present Status of Maize Genetics.” Proceedings of the 6th International Congress of Genetics, Ithaca, 1932, Vol. 1, Menosha, WI: Brooklyn Botanic Garden, pp. 141–152.

    Google Scholar 

  • Emerson, R. A., Beadle, G. W. and Fraser, A. C. 1935. “A Summary of Linkage Studies in Maize.” Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station Memoirs 180: 1–83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Emerson, Sterling. 1971. “Alfred Henry Sturtevant (21 November 1891-6 April 1970).” Annual Review of Genetics 5: 1–4.

    Google Scholar 

  • Engledow, F. L. 1924. “Inheritance in Barley. III. The Awn and lateral Floret (contd.): Fluctuation: A Linkage: Multiple Allelomorphs.” Journal of Genetics 14: 49–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eyster, W. H. 1934. “Genetics of Zea Mays.” Bibiographica Genetica 11: 187–392.

    Google Scholar 

  • Falk, Raphael. 1986. “What is a Gene?” Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 17: 133–173.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1995. “The Struggle of Genetics for Independence.” Journal of the History of Biology 28: 219–246.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―2000. “The Gene — A Concept in Tension.” P.J. Beurton et al. (eds.), The Concept of the Gene in Development and Evolution, New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 317–348.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fasten, Nathan. 1929. Origin through Evolution. New York: Knopf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Federley, Harry. 1927. “Chromosomverhältnisse bei Mischlingen.” Verhandlungen des V. Internationaler Kongresses für Vererbungswissenschaft. Berlin, pp. 194–222.

  • Fisher, Ronald A. 1983. Natural Selection, Heredity, and Eugenics, J.H. Bennett (ed.), New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foot, Katherine and Strobell, E. C. 1913. “Preliminary Note on the Results of Crossing two hemipterous Species with Reference to the Inheritance of an exclusively Male Character and its Bearing on modern Chromosome Theories.” Biological Bulletin 24: 187–204.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1914a. “Results of crossing Euschistus Variolarius and Euschistus servus with Reference to the Inheritance of an Exclusively Male Character.” Linnean Society's Journal Zoology 32: 337–373.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1914b. “Preliminary Report of crossing two hemipterous Species with Reference to the Inheritance of a second exclusively Male Character.” Biological Bulletin 27: 217–234.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1915. “Results of crossing two hemipterous Species, with Inheritance of two exclusively Male Characters.” Linnean Society's Journal (Zoology) 32: 457–493.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1917. “Results of crossing Euschistus variolarius and Euchistus ictericus with Reference to the Inheritance of two exclusively Male Characters.” Biological Bulletin 32: 322–339.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ford, E. B. 1931. Mendelism and Evolution. London: Methuen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gager, C. Stuart. 1926. General Botany, with special Reference to its Economic Aspects. With three chapters on Heredity and Variation in Plants, by Orland E. White. Philadelphia: Blakiston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ganong, William F. 1916. A Textbook of Botany for Colleges. New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gardner, M. R. 1982. “Predicting novel Facts.” British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 33: 1–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gatenby, J. B. 1920. “Review of Doncaster, Introduction to the Study of Cytology.” Nature 105: 190–191.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gates, R. Ruggles. 1915a. The Mutation Factor in Evolution, with particular Reference to Oenothera. London: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1915b. “Heredity and Mutation as Cell Phenomena.” American Journal of Botany 2: 519–528.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gates, William Hazen. 1926. “The Japanese Waltzing Mouse . . ..” Publications of the Carnegie Institution of Washington No. 337, Part III, pp. 83–138 + plates.

  • Geison, Gerald L. and Laublichler, Manfred D. 2001. “The varied Lives of Organisms.” Studies in History and Philosophy of Biology and Biomedical Science 32: 1–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, Scott. 1975. “Sex Determination and the Embryological Origins of the Gene Theory.” M. A. Essay, Johns Hopkins University.

  • Gilbert, Scott F. 1978 “The Embryological Origins of the Gene Theory.” Journal of the History of Biology 11: 307–351.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldschmidt, Richard B. 1913. [Report on paper by Foot and Strobell, 1913] Zeitschrift für induktive Abstammungs-und Vererbungslehre 10: 289–290.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1950. “Fifty Years of Genetics.” American Naturalist 84: 313–340.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1960. In and Out of the Ivory Tower: The Autobiography of Richard B Goldschmidt. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodrich, Edwin S. 1924. Living Organisms. An Account of their Origin and Evolution. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodspeed, T. H. and Clausen, R. E. 1917. “Mendelian Factor Differences versus Reaction System Contrasts in Heredity.” American Naturalist 51: 31–46, 92-101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gregory, R. P., de Winton, D. and Bateson, W. 1923. “Genetics of Primula sinensis.” Journal of Genetics 13: 219–253.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guyénot, E. 1918. “L'Oeuvre de T. H. Morgan et le Mécanisme de l'Hérédité.” Revue Generale des Sciences Pures et Appliquées 79: 262–269.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guyer, Michael F. 1927. Being Well-Born: An Introduction to Heredity and Eugenics, 2nd ed. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haldane, J. B. S. 1919a. “The Probable Errors of Calculated Linkage Values, and the most accurate Method of Determining Gametic from certain Zygotic Series.” Journal of Genetics 8: 291–297.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1919b. “The Combination of Linkage Values, and the Calculation of Distances between the Loci of Linked Factors.” Journal of Genetics 8: 299–309.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1931. The Philosophical Basis of Biology. London: Hodder and Stoughton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrington, Anne. 1996. Reenchanted Science: Holism in German Culture from Wilhelm II to Hitler. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harwood, Jonathan. 1984. “The Reception of Morgan's Chromosome Theory in Germany: Inter-war Debate over Cytoplasmic Inheritance.” Medizinhistorische Journal 19: 3–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1993. Styles of Scientific Thought: The German Genetics Community, 1900-1933. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1996. “Weimar Culture and Biological Theory: A Study of Richard Woltereck (1877-1944).” History of Science 34: 347–377.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haupt, Arthur W. 1928. Fundamentals of Biology. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hegner, Robert W. 1912. College Zoology. New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henking, H. 1891. “Über Spermatogenese und deren Beziehung zur Entwicklung bei Pyrrhocoris apterus L.” Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Zoologie 51: 685–736.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hentschel, C. C. and Cook, W. R. Ivemey. 1932. Biology for Medical Students. London: Longmans.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hogben, Lancelot. 1927. Principles of Evolutionary Biology. Cape Town: Juta.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1930. The Nature of Living Matter. London: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1938. Science for the Citizen. New York: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1940. Principles of Animal Biology, Second edition. New York: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holmes, Samuel J. 1923. Studies in Evolution and Eugenics. Harcourt Brace.

  • Holmes, Samuel J. 1926. Life and Evolution: An Introduction to General Biology. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hull, David L. 1988. Science as a Process. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1993. “Testing Philosophical Claims about Science.” PSA 1992 2: 468–475.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1998. “Studying the Study of Science scientifically.” Perspectives on Science 6: 209–231.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hull, David L., Tessner, Peter D. and Diamond, Arthur M. 1978. “Planck's Principle.” Science 202: 717–723.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hurst, C. C. 1932. The Mechanism of Creative Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hurst, Rona. 1971. The Evolution of Genetics [typescript]. Copy at Cambridge University Library, Add. 7955, bundle 23, boxes 3 and 4.

  • Hutchinson, G. Evelyn. 1962. The Enchanted Voyage and Other Studies. New Haven: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1979. The Kindly Fruits of the Earth: Recollections of an Embryo Ecologist. NewHaven: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huxley, Julian S. 1923. “Further Data on Linkage in Gammarus chevreuxis and its Relation to Cytology.” British Journal of Experimental Biology 1: 79–96.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1926a. Essays in Popular Science. London: Chatto & Windus.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1926b. “Genes and Linkage Groups.” Nature 117: 154–155, 268.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1932. Letter to L. C. Dunn, 12 April, quoted by R. Olby, C.K. Waters and A. Van Helden (eds.), Julian Huxley: Biologist and Statesman of Science, Houston, TX: Rice University Press, p. 67.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1970. Memories, volume 1. New York: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacob, Francois. 1974. The Logic of Life: A History of Heredity. New York: Pantheon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins, J. A. 1913. “Mendelian Sex-Factors in Man.” Journal of Genetics 3: 121–122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jennings, H. S. 1913. “Causes and Determiners in radically experimental Analysis.” American Naturalist 47: 349–360.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1917a. “Modifying Factors and Multiple Allelomorphs in relation to the Results of Selection.” American Naturalist 51: 301–306.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1917b. “Observed Changes in Hereditary Characters in relation to Evolution.” Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 7: 281–301.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1918. “Disproof of a certain Type of Theories of Crossing Over between Chromosomes.” American Naturalist 52: 247–261.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1923. “The numerical Relations in the Crossing over of the Genes, with a critical Examination of the Theory that the Genes are arranged in a linear Series.” Genetics 18: 393–457.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1930. The Biological Basis of Human Nature. New York: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johannsen, W. 1923. “Some Remarks about Units in Heredity.” Hereditas 4: 133–141.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnstone, James. 1932. The Essentials of Biology. London: Arnold.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, D. F. 1922. “Indirect Evidence from Duplex Hybrids bearing upon the Number and Distribution of Growth Factors in the Chromosomes.” American Naturalist 56: 166–173.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1925. Genetics in Plant and Animal Improvement. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Junker, Thomas. 1996. “Kulturpessimismus und Genetik: Von Weimar zum Dritten Reich.” Biologisches Zentralblatt 115(2-3): 145–152.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keirns, Carla. 1999. “Seeing Patterns: Models, visual Evidence and pictorial Communication in the work of Barbara McClintock.” Journal of the History of Biology 32: 163–196.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keller, Evelyn Fox. 1983. A Feeling for the Organism: The Life and Work of Barbara McClintock. San Francisco: Freeman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keller, Evelyn Fox. 1995. Refiguring Life: Metaphors of Twentieth-Century Biology. New York: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―2000. The Century of the Gene. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kerr, John Graham. 1929. An Introduction to Zoology. London: Benn.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kevles, Daniel J. 1980. “Genetics in the United States and Great Britain, 1890-1930: A Review with Speculations.” Isis 71: 441–455.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kimmelman, Barbara A. 1992. “Organisms and Interests in Scientific Research: R. A. Emerson's Claims for the unique Contributions of Agricultural Genetics.” A.E. Clarke and J.H. Fujimura (eds.), The right Tools for the Job, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, pp. 198–232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kohler, Robert E. 1993. “Subcultures in Genetics.” Science 261: 1061–1062.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1994. Lords of the Fly: Drosophila Genetics and the Experimental Life. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuhn, Thomas S. 1962. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lakatos, Imre. 1970. “Falsification and the Methodology of scientific Research Programmes.” I. Lakatos and A. Musgrave (eds.), Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge, New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 91–196.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lander, Eric S. and Robert A.Weinberg. 2000. “Genomics: Journey to the Center of Biology.” Science 287: 1777–1782.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lane, Henry Higgins. 1929. Animal Biology: An Introduction to Zoölogy for College and University Students. Philadelphia: Blakiston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lashley, Karl S. 1929. Brain Mechanisms and Intelligence: A Quantitative Study of Injuries to the Brain. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laublichler, Manfred D. 2000. “The Organism is Dead: Long Live the Organism!” Perspectives on Science 8: 286–315.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lawrence, Christopher and Weisz, George (eds.). 1998. Greater than the Parts: Holism in Biomedicine, 1920-1951. Oxford: Oxford Medical Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lederberg, Joshua. 1993. “Genetic Maps — Fruit Flies, People, Bacteria, and Molecules: A Tribute to Morgan and Sturtevant.” R.B. Barlow, Jr. et al. (eds.), The Biological Century, Woods Hole: Marine Biological Laboratory, pp. 26–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lederman, Muriel. 1989. “Genes on Chromosomes: The Conversion of Thomas Hunt Morgan.” Journal of the History of Biology 22: 163–176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lehmann, Ernst. 1920. “Zur Terminologie und Begriffsbildung in der Vererbungslehre.” Zeitschrift für induktive Abstammungs-und Vererbungslehre 22: 236–260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leplin, Jarrett. 1997. A Novel Defense of Scientific Realism. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewin, Roger. 1982. “Biology is not Postage Stamp Collecting.” Science 216: 718–720.

    Google Scholar 

  • Little, C. C. 1919. “Colour Inheritance in Cats, with special reference to the Colours Black, Yellow and Tortoise-Shell.” Journal of Genetics 8: 279–290.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lochhead, W. 1920. An Introduction to Heredity and Genetics. Montreal: MacDonald College of McGill University (Lecture Notes).

    Google Scholar 

  • Lock, R. H. 1906. Recent Progress in the Study of Variation, Heredity, and Evolution. New York: Dutton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lock, R. H. and Doncaster, Leonard. 1916. Recent Progress in the Study of Variation, Heredity, and Evolution, 4th edition. London: Murray.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loeb, Jacques. 1916. The Organism as a Whole. New York: Putnam's.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lorenzano, Pablo. 1995. Geschichte und Struktur der klassischen Genetik. Frankfurt am Main: Lang.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lundgren, Anders and Bensaude-Vincent, Bernadette (eds.). 2000. Communicating Chemistry: Textbooks and their Audiences, 1789-1939. Canton, MA: Science History Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lutz, Frank Eugene. 1916. “Heredity and sex. Mendelism and some of its recent Developments.” American Museum Journal 16: 228–242.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacBride, E. W. 1915. “Discussion on the Relation of Chromosomes to Heredity.” Report of the 85th Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 469–470.

  • ―1924. An Introduction to the Study of Heredity. New York: Holt.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1926. “Genes and Linkage Groups in Genetics.” Nature 117: 232, 340–341.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1929. Evolution. New York: Cape & Smity.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1937. “Mendel, Morgan and Genetics.” Nature 140: 348–350.

    Google Scholar 

  • Macmillan, Malcolm. 2000. An Odd Kind of Fame: Stories of Phineas Gage. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maienschein, Jane. 1983. “Preformation or new Formation — or neither or both?” T.J. Horder et al. (eds.), A History of Embryology, New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 73–112.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1984. “What determines Sex? A Study of converging Approaches, 1880-1916.” Isis 75: 457–480.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1987. “Arguments for Experimentation in Biology.” PSA 1986, 2: 180–195.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1994. “Cutting Edges cut both Ways.” Biology and Philosophy 9: 1–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Margenau, Henry. 1950. The Nature of Physical Reality. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayr, Ernst. 1973. “The Recent Historiography of Genetics.” Journal of the History of Biology 6: 125–154.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1982. The Growth of Biological Thought. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1988. Toward a New Philosophy of Biology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayr, Ernst and Provine, William B. (eds.). 1980/1998. The Evolutionary Synthesis: Perspectives on the Unification of Biology. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980; reprinted with a new preface by Ernst Mayr, 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  • McClintock, Barbara. 1929. “Chromosome Morphology in Zea Mays.” Science 69: 629.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1931. “The cytological Identification of the Chromosome associated with the R-G Linkage Group in Zea Mays.” Genetics 16: 175–190.

    Google Scholar 

  • McClung, C. E. 1902. “The Accessory Chromosome — Sex Determinant?” Biological Bulletin 3: 43–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meek, Alexander. 1930. The Progress of Life. A Study in Psychogenetic Evolution. London: Arnold/New York: Longmans, Green.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore, John A. 1963. Heredity and Development. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1972. Heredity and Development, 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1980. “Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions Revisited.” American Biology Teacher 42: 298–304.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1983. “Thomas Hunt Morgan — The Geneticist.” American Zoologist 23: 855–865.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morgan. T. H. 1910. “Sex-limited Inheritance in Drosophila.” Science 32: 120–122.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1911a. “The Application of the Conception of Pure Lines to Sex-Limited Inheritance and to Sexual Dimorphism.” American Naturalist 45: 65–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1911b. “An Attempt to analyze the Constitution of the Chromosomes on the Basis of Sex-limited Inheritance in Drosophila.” Journal of Experimental Zoology, 11: 365–413.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1926. “William Bateson.” Science 63: 531–535.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1928. The Theory of the Gene. Enlarged and revised ed. New Haven: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morgan. T. H. 1934/1965. “The Relation of Genetics to Physiology and Medicine.” Nobel Lecture, 4 June 1934. Nobel Lectures including Presentation Speeches and Laureates' Biographies. Physiology or Medicine, 1922-1941, Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1965, pp. 313–328.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, T. H., Sturtevant, A. H., Muller, H. J. and Bridges, C. B. 1915. The Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity. New York: Holt. Reprinted with an introduction by G. E. Allen, New York: Johnson Reprint 1972.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1922. The Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity, Second edition. New York: Holt.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―B 1923. Le Mécanisme de l'Hérédité Mendélienne.. Bruxelles: Lamertin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morholt, Evelyn, Brandwein, Paul F. and Joseph, Alexander. 1958. Teaching High School Science: A Sourcebook for the Biological Sciences. New York: Harcourt, Brace.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moritz, Karl B. 1993. Theodor Boveri 1862-1915: Pioniere der modernen Zell-und Entwicklungsbiologie. Stuttgart: Fischer, 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mott, F.W. 1925. The Harveian Oration on Some Recent Developmewnts of Harvey's Doctrine “Omne vivum ex ovo” Delivered before the Royal College of Physicians of London on 19 October 1925. London: Bale.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muller, H. J. 1916. “The Mechanism of Crossing Over.” American Naturalist 50: 193–221, 284-305.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murken, Jan-Diether and vonWilmowsky, Hubertus. 1973. Die Chromosomen des Menschen: Die Geschichte ihrer Erforschung. München: Werner Fritsch.

    Google Scholar 

  • Needham, James G. 1917. General Biology, 9th ed. Ithaca, NY: Comstock.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newman, H. H. 1921. Readings in Evolution, Genetics, and Eugenics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1921.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1924. Outlines of General Zoology. New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1925. Evolution, Genetics, and Eugenics, 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ogilvie, Marilyn Bailey and Choquette, Clifford J. 1981. “Nettie Maria Stevens 1861-1912: Her Life and Contributions to Cytogenetics.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 125: 292–311.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olby, Robert C. 1984. “Historiographical Problems in the History of Genetics.” Rivista di Storia della Scienza 1: 25–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1993. “Das Experiment nach Mendel.” H.-J. Rheinberger and M. Hagner (eds.), Die Experimentalisierung des Lebens, Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, pp. 135–149.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oppenheimer, Jane M. 1967. Essays in the History of Embryology and Biology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Painter, T. S. 1933. “A new Method for the Study of Chromosome Rearrangements and the plotting of Chromosome Maps.” Science 78: 585–586.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pauly, Philip J. 1987. Controlling Life: Jacques Loeb and the Engineering Ideal in Biology. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pearl, Raymond. 1915. Modes of Research in Genetics. New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pearse, A. S. 1917. General Zoology, 2nd ed. New York: Holt.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1928. General Zoology, Rev. ed. New York: Holt.

    Google Scholar 

  • Popenoe, Paul. 1916. “Mendelism up to Date.” [review of Morgan et al., 1915] Journal of Heredity 7: 17–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Plunkett, Charles Robert. 1930. Outlines of Modern Biology. New York: Holt.

    Google Scholar 

  • Popper, Karl. 1974. “Darwinism as a Metaphysical Research Programme.” P.A. Schilpp (ed.), The Philosophy of Karl Popper, Open Court, pp. 133–143.

  • ―1978. “Natural Selection and the Emergence of Mind.” Dialectica 32: 339–355.

    Google Scholar 

  • Portin, Petter. 1993. “The Concept of the Gene: Short History and present Status.” Quarterly Review of Biology 68: 173–223.

    Google Scholar 

  • Portugal, Franklin H. and Cohen, Jack S. 1977. A Century of DNA: A History of the Discovery of the Genetic Substance. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Provine, William B. 1971. “East, Edward Murray.” Dictionary of Scientific Biography 4: 270–272. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1980/1998. “Genetics.” E. Mayr and W. Provine (eds.), The Evolutionary Synthesis, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univerity Press, pp. 51–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1986. Sewall Wright and Evolutionary Biology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Punnett, R. C. 1910. “Mendelism.” Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed. Cambridge University Press. Vol. 17: 115–120.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1911. Mendelism. New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1923a. Heredity in Poultry. London: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1923b. “Linkage in the sweet Pea (Lathyrus orodatus).” Journal of Genetics 13: 101–123.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1926. “Genes and Linkage Groups in Genetics.” Nature 117: 514–515.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1927a. Mendelism, 7th ed. London: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1927b. “Linkage Groups and Chromosome Number in Lathyrus.” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Part B, 102: 236–238.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1932. “Further Studies of Linkage in the sweet Pea.” Journal of Genetics 26: 97–112.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1950. “Early Days of Genetics.” Heredity 4: 1–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Punnett, R. C. and Bateson, W. 1908. “The Heredity of Sex.” Science [new series] 27: 785–787.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ravin, Arnold W. 1965. The Evolution of Genetics. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1977. “The Gene as Catalyst; the Gene as Organism.” Studies in History of Biology 1: 1–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reid, G. Archdall. 1910. The Laws of Heredity. London: Methuen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Resnick, David Benjamin. 1990. The Methodology of Biological Science. Chapel Hill: Ph.D. Dissertation, University of North Carolina.

  • Rhoades, M. M. 1984. “The early Years of Maize Genetics.” Annual Review of Genetics 18: 1–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhoades, M. M. and McClintock, B. 1935. “The Cytogenetics of Maize.” Botanical Review 1: 292–325.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richmond, Marsha L. 1986. Richard Goldschmidt and Sex Determination: The Growth of German Genetics, 1900-1935, Ph.D. Dissertation, Indiana University.

  • ―2001. “British Cell Theory on the Eve of Genetics.” Endeavour 25(2): 55–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robbins, W. J. and Harold W. Rickett. 1929. Botany: A Textbook for College and University Students. London: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, Gloria. 1979. A Prelude to Genetics. Theories of a Material Substance to Heredity: Darwin to Weismann. Lawrence, Kansas: Coronado Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robson, G. C. and Richards, O. W. 1936. The Variation of Animals in Nature. London: Longmans Green.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roll-Hansen, Nils. 1978. “Drosophila Genetics: A reductionist Research Program.” Journal of the History of Biology 11: 159–210.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1984. “E. S. Russell and J.H.Woodger: The Failure of two Twentieth-Century Opponents of mechanistic Biology.” Journal of the History of Biology 17: 399–428.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1992. “Philosophical Ideas and Scientific Empiricism: A Note on the Empiricism of T. H. Morgan.” Biology and Philosophy 7: 69–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, Charles E. 1997. “The Social Environment of Scientific Innovation: Factors in the Development of Genetics in the United States.” In his No Other Gods: On Science and American Social Thought, revised and expanded edition. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rostand, Jean. 1933. Les Problémes de l'Hérédité et du Sexe. Paris: Rider.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rushton, Alan R. 1994. Genetics and Medicine in the United States, 1800 to 1922. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Russell, E. S. 1924. The Study of Living Things: Prolegomena to a Functional Biology. London: Methuen.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1930. The Interpretation of Development and Heredity: A Study in Biological Method. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sander, Klaus. 1986. “The Role of Genes in Ontogenesis — Evolving Concepts from 1883 to 1983 as perceived by an Insect Embryologist.” T.J. Horder et al. (eds.), A History of Embryology, New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 363–395.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sapp, Jan. 1983. “The Struggle for Authority in the Field of Heredity, 1900-1932: New Perspectives on the Rise of Genetics.” Journal of the History of Biology 16: 311–342.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1986. “Inside the Cell: Genetic Methodology and the Case of the Cytoplasm.” J.A. Schuster and R.R. Yeo (eds.), The Politics and Rhetoric of the Scientific Method, Dordrecht: Reidel, pp. 167–202.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1987. Beyond the Gene: Cytoplasmic Inheritance and the Struggle for Authority in Genetics. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaffner, John H. 1926. “Questionnaire on certain Facts bearing on the Theory of Sexuality and Chromosome Constitution.” Science 63: 384–385.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schrader, Franz. 1928. Die Geschlechtschromosomen. The Sex Chromosomes. Berlin: Borntraeger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schultz, Jack. 1967. “Innovators and Controversies.” Science 157: 296–301.

    Google Scholar 

  • Serebrovsky, A. S. 1927. “The Influence of the 'Purple' Gene on the crossing-over between 'Black' and 'Cinnabar' in Drosophila melanogaster.” Journal of Genetics 18: 137–175.

    Google Scholar 

  • Serebrovsky, A. S., Ivanova, O. A. and Ferry, Leo. 1929. “On the Influence of Genes y, li and Ni on the crossing-over close to their Loci in the Sex-Chromosome of Drosophila melanogaster.” Journal of Genetics 21: 287–314.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sharp, Lester W. 1921. An Introduction to Cytology. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1934. An Introduction to Cytology, 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sherrington, Charles S. 1925. “Address of the President at the Anniversary Meeting.” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Part B 97: 254–267.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shull, A. Franklin. 1917. “The Method of Evolution from the Viewpoint of a Geneticist.” American Naturalist 51: 361–369.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1926. Heredity. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1938. Heredity. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shull, A. Franklin, Larue, George R. and Ruthven, Alexander G. 1920. Principles of Animal Biology. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1929. Principles of Animal Biology, 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shull, George Harrison. 1914a. [Review of T. H. Morgan, Heredity and Sex, 1913.] Zeitschrift für induktive Abstammungs-und Vererbungslehre 12: 159–161.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1914b. “Sex-limited Inheritance in Lychnis dioica L.” Zeitschrift für induktive Abstammungs-und Vererbungslehre 12: 265–302.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sinnott, E. W. and Dunn, L. C. 1925. Principles of Genetics: An Elementary Text. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Small, James. 1929. A Textbook of Botany, 2nd ed. London: Churchill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smallwood, W. M. 1916. A Text-Book of Biology, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, Gilbert M., Overton, James B., Gilbert, Edward M., Denniston, Rollin H., Bryan, George S. and Allen, Charles E. 1929. A Textbook of General Botany, rev. ed. New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, Laurence, Best, Lisa A., Stubbs, D. Alan, Johnston, John and Archibald, Andrea Bastiani. 2000. “Scientific Graphs and the Hierarchy of the Sciences: A Latourian Survey of Inscription Practices.” Social Studies of Science 30: 73–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steche, Otto. 1922. Grundriss der Zoologier, 2nd ed. Berlin & Leipzig: Walter de Gruyter.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sterelny, Kim and Griffiths, Paul E. 1999. Sex and Death. An Introduction to the Philosophy of Biology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stern, Curt. 1928. “Fortschritte der Chromosomtheorie der Vererbung.” Ergebnisse der Biologie 4: 205–359.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1931. “Zytologisch-genetische Untersuchungewn als Beweise fuer die Morgansche Theories des Faktorenaustausches.” Biologisches Centralblatt 51: 547–587.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, Nettie M. 1905. Studies in Spermatogenesis with Especial Reference to the “Accessory Chromosome.” Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publication No. 36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sturtevant, A. H. 1913. “The Linear Arrangement of six Sex-Linked Factors in Drosophila, as shown by their Mode of Association.” Journal of Experimental Zoology 14: 43–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1914. “The Reduplication Hypothesis as applied to Drosophila.” American Naturalist 48: 535–549.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1915. “The Behavior of Chromosomes as studied through Linkage.” Zeitschrift für induktive Abstammungs-und Vererbungslehre, 13: 234–287. Ph.D. Dissertation, Columbia University.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1951. “The Relation of Genes and Chromosomes.” L.C. Dunn (ed.), Genetics in the 20 th Century, New York: Macmillan, pp. 101–110.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1965. A History of Genetics. New York: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sturtevant, A. H. and Beadle, G.W. 1937. An Introduction to Genetics. Philadelphia: Saunders.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sulloway, Frank J. 1996. Born to Rebel: Birth Order, Family Dynamics, and Creative Lives. New York: Pantheon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sumner, Francis B. 1918. “Continuous and Discontinuous Variations and their Inheritance in Peromyseus.” American Naturalist 52: 177–208, 290-301, 439-454.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1919. “Adaptation and the Problem of 'Organic Purposefulness' II.” American Naturalist 53: 338–369.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1920. “Geographic Variation and Mendelian Inheritance.” Journal of Experimental Biology 30: 369–402.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1945. The Life History of an American Naturalist. Lancaster, PA: Jacques Cattell Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sumner, Francis B., and Huestis, R. R. 1921. “Bilateral Asymmetry and its Relation to certain Problems of Genetics.” Genetics 6: 445–485.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sverdrup, Aslaug. 1927. “Linkage and independent Inheritance in Pisum sativum.” Journal of Genetics 17: 221–251.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swinburne, R. G. 1962. “The Presence-and-Absence Theory.” Annals of Science 18: 131–145.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomson, J. Arthur. 1919. Heredity, 3rd ed. London: Murray.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1925. Concerning Evolution. New Haven: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1926. Heredity, 5th ed. London: Murray.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1929. Outlines of Zoology, 8th ed. London: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trow, A. H. 1913. “Forms of Reduplication: Primary and Secondary.” Journal of Genetics 2: 313–324.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1916. “A Criticism of the Hypothesis of Linkage and Crossing Over.” Journal of Genetics 5: 281–297.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Balen, Gerrit. 1987. “Conceptual Tensions between Theory and Program: the Chromosome Theory and the Mendelian Research Program.” Biology and Philosophy 2: 435–461.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vicedo, Marga. 1990. “T. H. Morgan, neither an epistemological Empiricist nor a 'methodological' Empiricist.” Biology and Philosophy 5: 293–311.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1994. “Simplicity in Theory-Construction and Evaluation: The Case of the Chromosome Theory of Mendelian inheritance.” D. Prawitz and D. Westerstahl (eds.), Logic and Philosophy of Science in Uppsala, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 525–539.

    Google Scholar 

  • Visher, Stephen Sargent. 1947. “American Men of Science.” Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Voeller, Bruce R. (ed.) 1968. The Chromosome Theory of Heredity: Classic Papers in Development and Heredity. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, Bruce. 1992. The Search for the Gene. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walter, Herbert Eugene. 1912. Genetics: An Introduction to the Study of Heredity. New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1922. Genetics: An Introduction to the Study of Heredity, rev. ed. New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warren, Don C. 1920. “Spotting Inheritance in Drosophila busckii Coq.” Genetics 5: 60–110.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waters, C. Kenneth and Van Helden, Albert (eds.). 1993. Julian Huxley: Biologist and Statesman of Science. Houston, TX: Rice University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weber, Marcel. 1998. “Representing Genes: Classical Mapping Techniques and the Growth of Genetical Knowledge.” Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 29C: 295–315.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weinstein, Alexander. 1980. “Cytology in the T. H. Morgan School.” E. Mayr and W.B. Provine (ed.), The Evolutionary Synthesis, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, pp. 80–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, Orland E. 1917. “Studies of inheritance in Pisum. II. The present state of knowledge of Heredity and Variation in Peas.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 56: 487–588.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitehouse, H. L. K. 1969. Towards an Understanding of the Mechanism of Heredity, 2nd ed. New York: St. Martins Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitney, Leon. 1928. The Basis of Breeding. New Haven: Fowler.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wieman, Harry L. 1925. General Zoology. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, Mary B. 1973. “Falsifiable Predictions of Evolutionary Theory.” Philosophy of Science 40: 518–537.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1982. “The Importance of Prediction Testing in Evolutionary Biology.” Erkenntnis 17: 291–306.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, E. B. 1905. “Studies on Chromosomes. I. The Behavior of the Idiochromosomes in Hemiptera.” Journal of Experimental Zoology 2: 371–405.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1912a. “Some Aspects of Cytology in relation to Genetics.” American Naturalist 46: 57–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1912b. “Studies on Chromosomes. VIII. Observations on the Maturation-Phenomena in certain Hemiptera and other Forms, with Considerations on Synapsis and Reduction.” Journal of Experimental Zoology 13: 345–450.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1914. “Croonian Lecture: The Bearing of Cytological Research on Heredity.” Proceedings of the Royal Society, B88: 333–352.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1923. The Physical Basis of Life. New Haven: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, James. 1929. A Manual of Mendelism, 2nd ed. London: Black.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wimsatt, William. 1987. “False Models as Means to Truer Theories.” M. Nitecki and A. Hoffman (eds.), Neutral Models in Biology, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 23–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1991. “Taming the Dimensions — Visualization in Science.” PSA 1990, 2: 111–135.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wimsatt, William. 1992. “Golden Generalities and Co-Opted Anomalies: Haldane vs. Muller and the Drosophila Group on the Theory and Practice of Linkage Mapping.” S. Sarka (ed.), The Founders of Evolutionary Genetics, Dordrecht: Nijhoff, pp. 107–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Winge, Ö. 1923. “Crossing-over between the X-and the Y-Chromsome.” Journal of Genetics 13: 201–217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodger, J. Henry. 1929. Biological Principles. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul/ New York: Harcourt.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodruff, Lorande Loss. 1922. Foundations of Biology, 2nd ed. New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1927. Foundations of Biology, 3rd ed. New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • ―1930. Foundations of Biology, 4th ed. New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wriedt, Christian. 1930. Heredity in Live Stock. London: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, R. T. 1922. Biology in America. Boston: Badger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zahar, Elie. 1973. “Why did Einstein's Programme supersede Lorentz's?” British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 24: 95–123, 223-262.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of History and Institute for Physical Science & Technology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, 20742, U.S.A.

    Stephen G. Brush

Authors
  1. Stephen G. Brush
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Brush, S.G. How Theories became Knowledge: Morgan's Chromosome Theory of Heredity in America and Britain. Journal of the History of Biology 35, 471–535 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021175231599

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021175231599

Search

Navigation