Abstract
This paper explores the relationship of various trait emotions to the ethical choices of 189 college students who completed a managerial decision-making task as part of an in-basket exercise in a laboratory setting. Prior research regarding emotion influences on ethical decision-making and linkages between emotions and cognition informed hypotheses about how different types of emotions impact ethical choices. Findings supported our expectations that positive and negative emotions classified as active would be more strongly related to interpersonally-directed ethical choices than to organizationally-directed ones, and that passive emotions would be less related to ethical choices than active emotions. Implications for ethical decision-making research and organizational practices are discussed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alloy, L. B. and L. Y. Abramson: 1979, 'Judgment of Contingency in Depressed and Nondepressed Students: Sadder but Wiser?', Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 108, 441-485.
Alloy, L. B. and L. Y. Abramson: 1982, 'Learned Helplessness, Depression, and the Illusion of Control', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 42, 1114-1126.
Alloy, L. B., L. Y. Abramson and D. Viscusi: 1981, 'Induced Mood and the Illusion of Control', Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 41, 1129-1140.
Anastasi, A.: 1988, Psychological Testing, 6th Ed. (Macmillan Publishing Co, Inc., New York, NY).
Anderson, L. J. and R. G. Jones: 2000, 'Affective, Behavioral, and Cognitive Acceptance of Feedback: Individual Difference Moderators', in N. M. Ashkanasy, C. E. J. Hartel and W. J. Zerbe (eds.), Emotions in the Workplace: Research, Theory and Practice (Quorum Books, Westport, CT), pp. 130-140.
Archer, N. P., M. M. Head and Y. Yuan: 1996, 'Patterns in Information Search for Decision-Making: the Effects of Information Abstraction', International Journal of Human-Computer Studies 45, 599-616.
Ashkanasy, N. M.: In press, 'Emotions in Organizations: A Multilevel Perspective', in F. Dansereau and F. J. Yammarino (eds.), Research in Multi-Level Issues, Vol. 2 (JAI Press, Greenwich, CT).
Ashkanasy, N. M. and B. Tse: 2000, 'Transformational Leadership as Management of Emotion: A Conceptual View', in N. M. Ashkanasy, C. E. J. Hartel and W. J. Zerbe (eds.), Emotions in the Workplace: Research, Theory and Practice (Quorum Books, Westport, CT), pp. 221-235.
Ball, G. A., L. K. Trevino and H. P. Sims: 1992, 'Understanding Subordinate Reactions to Punishment Incidents: Perspectives from Justice and Social affect', Leadership Quarterly 3, 307-333.
Basch, J. and C. D. Fisher: 2000, 'Affective Events-Emotions Matrix: A Classification of Work Events and Associated Emotions', in N. M. Ashkanasy, C. E. J. Hartel and W. J. Zerbe (eds.), Emotions in the Workplace: Research, Theory and Practice (Quorum Books, Westport, CT), pp. 36-48.
Bass, B.: 2002, 'Cognitive, Social, and Emotional Intelligence of Transformational Leaders', in R. E. Riggio, S. E. Murphy, et al. (eds.), Multiple Intelligences and Leadership (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: Mahway, NJ), pp. 105-118.
Borman, W. and S. Motowidlo: 1993, 'Expanding the Criterion Domain to Include Elements of Contextual Performance', in N. Schmitt and W. Borman (eds.), Personnel Selection in Organizations (Jossey-Bass, San Francisco), pp. 71-98.
Bower, G. H.: 1981, 'Mood and Memory', American Psychologist 36, 129-148.
Bradburn, N. M.: 1969, The Structure of Psychological Well-Being (Aldine, Chicago, IL), xvi, 318 pp.
Cacioppo, J. T. and G. G. Berntson: 1999, 'The Affect System: Architecture and Operating Characteristics', Current Directions in Psychological Science 8, 133-137.
Cacioppo, J. T., W. L. Gardner and G. G. Berntson: 1999, 'The Affect System Has Parallel and Integrative Processing Components: Form Follows Function', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 76, 839-855.
Caruso, D. R., J. D. Mayer and P. Salovey: 2002, 'Emotional Intelligence and Emotional Leadership', in R. E. Riggio, S. E. Murphy, et al. (eds.), Multiple Intelligences and Leadership (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ), pp. 55-74.
Connelly, M. S., W. B. Helton, R. Schultz, J. R. Van Doorn, J. Benavidez, H. Thompson and M. D. Mumford: 2000, Assessment Tool Report: Review of Existing tools and Development of New Tools (Vols. 1 and 2). Technical Report for the Department of Defense (contract No. 1999*I033800*000). Norman, OK, University of Oklahoma, Department of Psychology.
Connelly, M. S., R. Reiter-Palmon, T. C. Clifton and M. D. Mumford: 1991, Exploring the C&I Division Regional Manager Position: Summary of Subject Matter Expert Meetings (Technical Report CBCS 91-6 for General Electric Corp.). Fairfax, VA, George Mason University, Center for Behavioral and Cognitive Studies.
Connelly, S., B. Gaddis and W. B. Helton-Fauth: 2002, 'A Closer Look at the Role of Emotions in Charismatic and Transformational Leadership', in B. Avolio and F. J. Yammarino (eds.), Transformational and Charismatic Leadership: The Road Ahead (Elsevier Science, Oxford, U.K.), pp. 255–283.
Crowne, D. P. and D. Marlow: 1964, The Approval Motive: Studies in Evaluative Dependence (Wiley, New York, NY).
Diener, E, H. Smith and F. Fujita: 1995, 'The Personality Structure of Affect', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69(1), 130-141.
Dubinsky, A. J. and B. Loken: 1989, 'Analyzing Ethical Decision Making in Marketing', Journal of Business Research 19, 83-107.
Dunegan, K. J., D. Duchon and S. L. Barton: 1992, 'Affect, Risk, and Decision Criticality: Replication and Extension in a Business Setting', Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes 53, 335-351.
Ekman, P.: 1972, 'Universals and Cultural Differences in Facial Expressions of Emotion', in J. Cole (ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, NE), pp. 207-283
Endler, N. S., L. Kantor and J. D. A. Parker: 1994, 'State-Trait Coping, State-Trait Anxiety and Academic Performance', Personality and Individual Differences 16, 663-670.
Forgays, D. G., D. K. Forgays and C. D. Speilberger: 1998, 'Factor Structure of the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory', Journal of Personality Assessment 69, 497-507.
Forgays, D. K., C. D. Speilberger, S. A. Ottaway and D. G. Forgays: 1997, 'Factor Structure of the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory for Middle-Aged Men and Women', Assessment 5, 141-155.
Frijda, N. H.: 1986, The Emotions (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England).
Frijda, N. H.: 1993, 'Moods, Emotions Episodes, and Emotions', in M. Lewis and J. M. Haviland (eds.), Handbook of Emotions (The Guilford Press, New York, NY).
Gaudine, A. and L. Thorne: 2001, 'Emotion and Ethical Decision-Making in Organizations', Journal of Business Ethics 31, 175-187.
George, J.: 2000, 'Emotions and Leadership: The Role of Emotional Intelligence', Human Relations 53, 1027-1055.
George, J. M., and K. Bettenhausen: 1990, 'Understanding Prosocial Behavior, Sales Performance, and Turnover: A Group-Level Analysis in a Service Context', Journal of Applied Psychology 75, 698-709.
Ginsberg, A. and N. Venkatraman: 1992, 'Investing in New Information Technology: The Role of Competitive Posture and Issue Diagnosis', Strategic Management Journal 13, 37-54.
Gross, J. J.: 1998, 'Sharpening the Focus: Emotion Regulation, Arousal, and Social Competence', Psychological Inquiry 9, 287-290.
Hammer, A. L.: 1992, 'Test Evaluation and Quality', in M. Zeidner and R. Most (eds.), Psychological Testing: An Inside View (Consulting Psychologists Press, Palo Alto, CA).
Harrington, S. J.: 1997, 'A Test of a Person-Issue Contingent Model of Ethical Decision Making in Organizations', Journal of Business Ethics 16, 363-375.
Helton, W. B., J. E. Benavidez and M. S. Connelly: 2000, Emotion and Emotional Processes: A Review and Some New Theoretical Considerations. Technical Report for the Department of Defense (contract No. 1999*I033800*000). Norman, OK, University of Oklahoma, Department of Psychology.
Hickson, D. J., R. J. Butler, D. Cray, G. R. Mallory and D. C. Wilson: 1986, Top Decisions: Strategic Decision Making in Organizations (Basil Blackwell, Oxford).
Hunt, S. D. and S. Vitell: 1986, 'A General Theory of Marketing Ethics', Journal of Macromarketing 6, 5-16.
Isen, A. M.: 1993, 'Positive Affect and Decision-Making', in M. Lewis and J. M. Haviland (eds.), Handbook of Emotions (The Guilford Press, New York, NY).
Isen, A. M. and R. A. Baron: 1991, 'Positive Affect as a Factor in Organizational Behavior', Research in Organizational Behavior 13, 1-53.
Isen, A. M. and K. A. Daubman: 1984, 'The Influence of Affect on Categorization', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 47, 1206-1217.
Isen, A. M., K. A. Daubman and G. P. Nowicki: 1987, 'Positive Affect Facilitates Creative Problem Solving', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 52, 1122-1131.
Isen, A. M. and N. Geva: 1987, 'The Influence of Positive Affect on Acceptable Level of Risk: The Person with a Large Canoe Has a Large Worry', Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 39, 145-154.
Isen, A. M., M. M. S. Johnson, E. Mertz and G. F. Robinson: 1985, 'The Influence of Positive Affect on the Unusualness of Word Associations', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 48, 1413-1426.
Isen, A. M. and B. Means: 1983, 'The Influence of Positive Affect on Decision-Making Strategy', Social Cognition 2, 18-31.
Isen, A. M. and R. Patrick: 1983, 'The Effect of Positive Feelings on Risk-Taking: When the Chips are Down', Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 31, 194-202.
Izard, C. E.: 1971, The Face of Emotion (Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York).
Izard, C. E.: 1977, Human Emotions (Plenum, New York).
Izard, C. E.: 1989, 'The Structure and Functions of Emotions: Implications for Cognition, Motivation, and personality', in I. S. Cohen (ed.), The G. Stanley Hall Lecture Series, Vol. 9 (American Psychological Association, Washington, DC), pp. 35-73.
Izard, C. E.: 1993, 'Organizational and Motivational Functions of Discrete Emotions', in M. Lewis and J. M. Haviland (eds.), Handbook of Emotions (The Guilford Press, New York).
Jones, T. M.: 1991, Ethical Decision Making by Individuals in Organizations: An Issue-Contingent Model', Academy of Management 16, 366-395.
Judge, T. A, and R. D. Bretz: 1992, 'The Effects of Work Values on Job Choice Decisions', Journal of Applied Psychology 77, 261-271.
Keltner, D.: 1996, 'Facial Expressions of Emotion and Personality', in C. Malatesta-Magai and S. S. H. McFadden (eds.), Handbook of Emotion, Adult Development, and Aging (Academic Press, New York), pp. 385-401.
Keltner, D., P. C. Ellsworth and K. Edwards: 1993, 'Beyond Simple Pessimism: Effects of Sadness and Anger on Social Perception', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64, 740-752.
Kline, P.: 1986, A Handbook of Test Construction: Introduction to Psychometric Design (Methuen, New York, NY).
Kline, S. B., L. Cosmides, J. Tooby and S. Chance: 2002, 'Decisions and the Evolution of Memory: Multiple Systems, Multiple Functions', Psychological Review 109, 306-329.
Lee, K. and J. N. Allen: 2002, 'Organizational Citizenship Behavior and Workplace Deviance: The Role of Affect and Cognitions', Journal of Applied Psychology 87, 131-142.
Lerner, J. S. and D. Keltner: 2000, 'Beyond Valence: Toward a Model of Emotion-Specific Influences on Judgment and Choice', Cognition and Emotion 14, 473-493.
Lewis, K.: 2000, 'When Leaders Display Emotion: How Followers Respond to Negative Emotional Expression of Male and Female Leaders', Journal of Organizational Behavior 21, 221-234.
Loevinger, J.: 1957, 'Objective Tests as Instruments of Psychological Theory', Psychological Reports 3, 635-694.
Malhotra, N. K. and G. L. Miller: 1998, 'An Integrated Model for Ethical Decisions in Marketing Research', Journal of Business Ethics 17, 263-280.
McColl-Kennedy, J. R. and R. D. Anderson: 2002, 'Impact of Leadership Style and Emotions on Subordinate Performance', The Leadership Quarterly 13, 545-559.
Megerian, L. E. and J. J. Sosik: 1996, 'An Affair of the Heart: Emotional Intelligence and Transformational Leadership', Journal of Leadership Studies 3, 31-48.
Mesquita, B. and N. H. Frijda: 1992, 'Cultural Variations in Emotions: A Review', Psychological Bulletin 112, 179-204.
Mittal, B. and W. T. Ross: 1998, 'The Impact of Positive and Negative Affect and Issue Framing on Issue Interpretation and Risk Taking', Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 76, 298-324.
Mumford, M. D., M. S. Connelly, W. B. Helton, J. R. VanDoorn and H. K. Osburn: 2001, 'Alternative Approaches for Measuring Values: Direct and Indirect Assessments in Performance Prediction', Journal of Vocational Behavior 61, 348-373.
Mumford, M. D., T. L. Gessner, M. S. Connelly, J. A. O'Connor and T. Clifton: 1993, 'Leadership and Destructive Acts: Individual and Situational Influences', Leadership Quarterly 4, 115-147.
Newcombe, M. and N. M. Ashkanasy: 2002, 'The Role of Affect and Affective Congruence in Perceptions of Leaders: An Experimental Study', The Leadership Quarterly 13, 601-614.
Nunnally, J. C.: 1978, Psychometric Theory (McGraw-Hill, New York).
Oatley, K.: 1993, 'Social Construction in Emotions', in M. Lewis and J. M. Haviland (eds.), Handbook of Emotions (The Guilford Press, New York, NY).
Organ, D.: 1988, Organizational Citizenship Behavior: The Good Soldier Syndrome (Lexington Books, Lexington, MA).
Organ D. W.: 1997, 'Organizational Citizenship Behavior: It's Construct Clean-Up Time', Human Performance 10, 85-97.
Pratt, M. G. and J. E. Dutton: 2000, 'Owning Up or Opting Out: The Role of Emotions and Identities in Issue Ownership', in N. M. Ashkanasy, C. E. J. Hartel and W. J. Zerbe (eds.), Emotions in the Workplace: Research, Theory and Practice (Quorum Books, Westport, Connecticut), pp; 103-129.
Ravlin, E. C. and B. M. Meglino: 1987, 'Effects of Values on Perception and Decision Making: A Study of Alternative Work Value Measures', Journal of Applied Psychology 72, 666-673.
Reidenbach, R. E. and D. P. and Robin: 1988, 'Some Initial Steps Toward Improving the Measurement of Ethical Evaluations of Marketing Activities', Journal of Business Ethics 7, 871-879.
Rest, J.: 1994, 'Background Theory and Research', in J. Rest and D. Narvaez (eds.), Moral Development in the Professions (Erlbaum and Associates).
Roseman, I. J.: 1984, 'Cognitive Determinants of Emotions: A Structural Theory', Review of Personality and Social Psychology 5, 11-36.
Ruch, F. L. and W. W. Ruch: 1980, Employee Aptitude Survey (Technical Report). Los Angeles, CA: Psychological Services.
Shaver, P., J. Schwartz, D. Kirson and C. O'Conner: 1987, 'Emotion Knowledge: Further Exploration of a Prototype Approach', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 52, 1061-1086.
Staw, B. M. and S. G. Barsade: 1993, 'Affect and Managerial Performance: A Test of the Sadder-but-Wiser vs. Happier-and-Smarter Hypotheses', Administrative Science Quarterly 38, 304-331.
Termine, N. T. and C. E. Izard: 1988, 'Infants' Responses to Their Mothers' Expressions of Joy and Sadness', Developmental Psychology 24, 223-229.
Thompson, W. C., C. L. Cowan and D. L. Rosenhan: 1980, 'Focus of Attention Mediates the Impact of Negative Affect on Altruism', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 38, 291-300.
Tomkins, S. S.: 1962, Affect, Imagery, and Consciousness (Springer, New York).
Totterdell, P.: 2000, 'Catching Moods and Hitting Runs: Mood Linkage and Subjective Performance in Professional Sports Teams', Journal of Applied Psychology 85(6), 848-859.
Totterdell, P., S. Kellett, K. Teuchmann and R. B. Briner: 1998, 'Evidence of Mood Linkage in Work Groups', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74, 1504-1515.
Townsend, J. T., K. M. Silva J. Spencer-Smith and M. J. Wegner: 2000, 'Exploring the Relations between Categorization and Decision-Making with Regard to Realistic Fact Stimuli', Pragmatics and Cognition 8, 83-105.
Trevino, L. K.: 1986, 'Ethical Decision Making in Organizations: A Person-Situation Interactionist Model', Academy of Management Review 11, 601-617.
Tversky, A. and G. R. Fox: 1995, 'Weighing Risk and Uncertainty', Psychological Review 102, 269-283.
Tversky, A. and D. Kahneman: 1981, 'The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice', American Association for the Advancement of Science 211(4481), 453-458.
Watson, D. and A. Tellegen: 1985, 'Toward a Consensual Structure of Mood', Psychological Bulletin 98, 219-235.
Weiss, H. M. and R. Cropanzano: 1996, 'Affective Events Theory: A Theoretical Discussion of the Structure, Causes, and Consequences of Affective Experiences at Work', in R. I. Sutton and B. M. Staw (eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior 18, 1-74.
Weiss, H. M., K. Suckow and R. Cropanzano: 1999, 'Effects of Justice Conditions on Discrete Emotions', Journal of Applied Psychology 84, 786-794.
Zerbe, W. J. and C. E. J. Härtel: 2000, 'Commentary: Emotions as Mediators and Moderators', in N. M. Ashkanasy, C. E. J. Hartel and W. J. Zerbe (eds.), Emotions in the Workplace: Research, Theory and Practice (Quorum Books: Westport, Connecticut), pp. 156-162.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Connelly, S., Helton-Fauth, W. & Mumford, M.D. A Managerial In-Basket Study of the Impact of Trait Emotions on Ethical Choice. Journal of Business Ethics 51, 245–267 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1023/B:BUSI.0000032494.51162.d3
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:BUSI.0000032494.51162.d3