Oscar H. Gandy
Skip Abstract Section
Abstract
In the future systems of ambient intelligence will include decision support systems that will automate the process of discrimination among people that seek entry into environments and to engage in search of the opportunities that are available there. This article argues that these systems must be subject to active and continuous assessment and regulation because of the ways in which they are likely to contribute to economic and social inequality. This regulatory constraint must involve limitations on the collection and use of information about individuals and groups. The article explores a variety of rationales or justifications for establishing these limits. It emphasizes the unintended consequences that flow from the use of these systems as the most compelling rationale.
- ACORN Fair Housing. (2007). Foreclosure exposure: A study of racial and income disparities in home mortgage lending in 172 American cities. Chicago: ACORN Housing Corporation.Google Scholar
- Altman, E., & Saunders, A. (1998). Credit risk measurement: Developments over the last 20 years. Journal of Banking and Finance, 21:1721-1742. See also, Mester, L. (1997). What's the point of credit scoring? Business Review, October/November, pp. 3-16.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Amegashie, J. A. (2008). Socially-tolerable discrimination. MPRA paper no. 8543, Munich Personal RePEc Archive. http://mpra.ub. uni-meunchen.de/8543.Google Scholar
- Armour, J. (1997). Negrophobia and reasonable racism (pp. 35-67). New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
- Ayres, I. (2007). Market power and inequality: A competitive conduct standard for assessing when disparate impacts are unjustified. California Law Review, 95, 669-719.Google Scholar
- Ayres, I., Vars, F., & Zakariya, N. (2005). To insure prejudice: Racial disparities in taxicab tipping. Yale Law Journal, 114, 1640.Google Scholar
- Baker, C. E. (2002). Media, markets, and democracy. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
- Balkin, J. M. (1997). The constitution of status. Yale Law Journal, 106, 2366.Google Scholar
- Barnes, P. (2006). Capitalism 3.0: A guide to reclaiming the commons. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.Google Scholar
- Baumgartner, F., & Jones, B. (1993). Agendas and instability in American politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
- Becker, G. (1971). The economics of discrimination (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
- Belavkin, R. (2001). The role of emotion in problem solving. In C. Johnson (ed), Proceedings of the AISB '01 Symposium on emotion, cognition and affective computing (pp. 49-57). York: Heslington. See also, Canamero, D. (2001). Modeling motivations and emotions as a basis for intelligent behavior. Agents '97, ACM, 1997, and Aaron Sloman. Beyond shallow models of emotion. Cognitive Processing, 2:177-198. Google Scholar
- Birnbaum, B. (2003). Insurers' use of credit scoring for homeowners insurance in Ohio. Columbus: Ohio Civil Rights Commission.Google Scholar
- Bowker, G. C., & Star, S. L. (1999). Sorting things out: Classification and its consequences. Cambridge: The MIT Press. Google Scholar
- Brey, P. (2005). Freedom and privacy in ambient intelligence. Ethics and Information Technology, 7, 157-166. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Brockett, P. L., & Golden, L. L. (2007). Biological and psychobehavioral correlates of credit scores and automobile insurance losses: Toward an explication of why credit scoring works. The Journal of Risk and Insurance, 74, 23-63.Google Scholar
- Camerer, C., & Fehr, E. (2006). When does "Economic Man" dominate social behavior? Science, 311, 47-52.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Carusi, A. (2008). Data as representation: Beyond anonymity in e-research ethics. International Journal of Internet Research Ethics, 1, 37-65.Google Scholar
- Case, M. A. (2002-2003). Developing a taste for not being discriminated against. Stanford Law Review, 55 :2273-2291.Google Scholar
- Chandler, S. (2002). Visualizing adverse selection: An economic approach to the law of insurance underwriting. Connecticut Insurance Law Journal, 8, 435-503.Google Scholar
- Charles, C. Z. (2003). The dynamics of racial residential segregation. Annual Review of Sociology, 29, 167-207.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Chin, G. J. (2002). Race, the war on drugs, and the collateral consequences of criminal conviction. The Journal of Gender, Race & Justice, 6(25), 3-275.Google Scholar
- Committee on Networked Systems of Embedded Computers. (2001). Embedded, everywhere: A research agenda for networked systems of embedded computers. Washington: National Research Council, National Academy Press. Google Scholar
- Dahrendorf, R. (1979). Life chances: Approaches to social and political theory. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
- DiPrete, T., & Eirich, G. (2006). Cumulative advantage as a mechanism for inequality: A review of theoretical and empirical developments. Annual Review of Sociology, 32, 271-297.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Elster, J. (1990). When rationality fails. In K. S. Cook & M. Levi (Eds.), The limits of rationality (pp. 19-51). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
- Florescu, D., Koller, D., & Levy, A. (1997). Using probabilistic information in data integration. Proceedings of the 23rd VLDB Conference. Athens: Greece, pp. 216-225. Google Scholar
- Friedewald, M., Lindner, R., & Wright, D. (eds.), (2006). Policy options to counteract threats and vulnerabilities in ambient intelligence, SWAMI. Deliverable D3: A report of the SWAMI consortium to the European Commission under contract 006507. http://swami.jrc.es.Google Scholar
- Gandy, O. H., Jr. (1982). Beyond agenda setting: Information subsidies and public policy. Norwood: Ablex. See also, Gandy, O. H., Jr. (2003). Public opinion surveys and the formation of privacy policy. Journal of Social Issues, 59: 283-299.Google Scholar
- Gandy, O. (1993). The panoptic sort: A political economy of personal information. Boulder: Westview Press.Google Scholar
- Gandy, O. (1995). It's discrimination stupid. In J. Brook & I. Boal (Eds.), Resisting the virtual life: The culture and politics of information (pp. 35-47). San Francisco: City Lights Books.Google Scholar
- Gandy, O. (1996). Legitimate business interest: No end in sight? An inquiry into the status of privacy in cyberspace (pp. 77-137). Chicago: University of Chicago Legal Forum.Google Scholar
- Gandy, O. (2006a). Quixotics unite! Engaging the pragmatists on rational discrimination. In D. Lyon (Ed.), Theorizing surveillance: The Panopticon and beyond (pp. 318-336). Portland: Willan Publishing.Google Scholar
- Gandy, O. H., Jr. (2006b). Data mining, surveillance, and discrimination in the post-9/11 environment. In K. Haggerty & R. Ericson (Eds.), The new politics of surveillance and visibility (pp. 363-384). Toronto: University of Toronto Press.Google Scholar
- Gandy, O., & Baruh, L. (2006). Racial profiling: They said it was against the law!. University of Ottawa Law & Technology Journal, 3, 297-327.Google Scholar
- Giddens, A. (1984). The constitution of society (pp. 5-14). Cambridge: Polity Press.Google Scholar
- Graham, S. (2005). Software-sorted geographies. Progress in Human Geography, 29, 1-19.Google Scholar
- Haddawy, P. (1999). An overview of some recent developments in Bayesian problem solving techniques. The AI Magazine, 20, 11-19.Google Scholar
- Hahn, R., & Tetlock, P. C. (2007). Has economic analysis improved regulatory decisions? Working paper 07-08. Washington: AEI-Brookings Joint Center for Regulatory Studies.Google Scholar
- Harcourt, B. (2007). Against prediction: Profiling, policing, and punishment in an actuarial age. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
- Harmon, A. (2008). Congress passes bill to bar bias based on genes. In New York Times Online, http://www.nytimes.com/ 2008/05/02/health/policy/02gene.html.Google Scholar
- Hausman, D., & McPherson, M. (1996). Economic analysis and moral philosophy. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
- Hildebrandt, M. (2006). Profiling: From data to knowledge. Datenschutz und Datensicherheit, 30, 548-552.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Hildebrandt, M., & Meints, M. (eds). (2006). D7.7: RFID, Profiling, and AmI. Future of identity in the information society (FDIS Consortium).Google Scholar
- Hildebrandt, M., Gutwirth, S., & De Hert, P. (2005). Implications of profiling practices on democracy and the rule of law. Deliverable D7.4, FIDIS Consortium.Google Scholar
- Holland, P. W. (2008). Causation and race. In T. Zuberi & E. Bonita-Silva (Eds.), White logic, White methods (pp. 93-109). Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
- Jost, J., Nosek, B., & Gosling, S. (2008). "Ideology: Its resurgence in social, personality, and political psychology. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3(2), 126-136.Google Scholar
- Kahn, S., & Lambert, A. (2001). Perceptions of rational discrimination: When do people attempt to justify race-based prejudice? Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 23, 43-53.Google Scholar
- Kang, J., & Banaji, M. (2006). Fair measures: A behavioral realist revision of affirmative action. California Law Review, 94, 1063- 1118.Google Scholar
- Klasen, S. (2006). The efficiency of equity. Discussion paper no. 145, Goettingen: Ibero-America Institute for Economic Research.Google Scholar
- Kleindorfer, P., Kunreuther, H., & Shoemaker, P. (1993). Decision sciences: An integrative perspective (pp. 86-104). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
- Knoch, D., Pascual-Leone, A., Meyer, K., Treyer, V., & Fehr, E. (2006). Diminishing reciprocal fairness by disrupting the right prefrontal cortex. Science, 314, 829-832.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Koomey, J., et al. (2002). Sorry wrong number: The use and misuse of numerical facts in analysis and media reporting of energy issues. Annual Review of Energy and the Environment, 27: 119-158. See also, Best, J. (2001). Damned lies and statistics: Untangling numbers from the media, politicians, and activists. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
- Kurzweil, R. (2005). The singularity is near: When humans transcend biology. New York: Viking. Google Scholar
- Lafuente-Rojo, A., Abascal-Gonzalez, J., & Cai, Y. (2007). Ambient intelligence: Chronicle of an announced technological revolution. UPGRADE, 8, 8-12.Google Scholar
- Lakoff, G. (2002). Moral politics: How liberals and conservatives think. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. See also, Wilson, M. S. (2004). Values and political ideology: Rokeach's two-value model in a proportional representation environment. New Zealand Journal of Psychology 23.Google Scholar
- Landes, W. M., & Posner, R. A. (2004). The political economy of intellectual property law. Washington: The AEI Press.Google Scholar
- Le Grand, J. (1990). Equity versus efficiency: The elusive trade-off. Ethics, 100, 554-568.Google Scholar
- Lejano, R. P. (2008). Technology and institutions: A critical appraisal of GIS in the planning domain. Science, Technology and Human Values, 33, 653-678.Google Scholar
- Lemmens, T., & Thiery, Y. (2007). Insurance and human rights: What can Europe learn from Canadian anti-discrimination law? In H. Cousy & C. V. Schoubroeck (Eds.), Discrimination in insurance. Maklu: Academia-Bruylant.Google Scholar
- Link, B., & Phelan, J. C. (2001). Conceptualizing stigma. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 363-385.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Medina, H. (2004). Consumer protection: Federal and state agencies face challenges in combating predatory lending. Washington: United States General Accounting Agency. See also, Engel, K., & McCoy, P. (2002). A tale of three markets: The law and economics of predatory lending. Texas Law Review, 80:1255- 1367.Google Scholar
- Moll, J., Oliveira-Souza, R., & Zahn, R. (2008). The neural basis of moral cognition: Sentiments, concepts, and values. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1124, 161-180.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Norman, P. (2003). Statistical discrimination and efficiency. The Review of Economic Studies, 70, 615-627.Google Scholar
- Nosek, B., Greenwald, A., & Banaji, M. (2006). The implicit association test at age 7: A methodological and conceptual review. In J. A. Bargh (Ed.), Social psychology and the unconscious: The automaticity of higher mental processes (pp. 265-292). London: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
- Okun, A. (1975). Equality and efficiency: The big tradeoff. Washington: The Brookings Institution.Google Scholar
- Patrick, G. (2007). The locus opus: Playing with privacy in a world of ambient intelligence. Manuscript online at http://ssrn.com/ abstract=1091116.Google Scholar
- Pirttila, J., & Uusitalo, R. (2007). Leaky bucket in the real world: Estimating inequality aversion using survey data. Paper presented to the Conference on Public Sector Economics. Munich.Google Scholar
- Quillian, L. (2006). New approaches to understanding racial prejudice and discrimination. Annual Review of Sociology, 32, 299-328.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Ramirez, S. A. (2004). Bearing the costs of racial inequality: Brown and the myth of the equality/efficiency trade-off. Washburn Law Journal, 44, 87-104.Google Scholar
- Rawls, A. J. (1971). Theory of justice. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
- Regan, M. C., Jr. (2007). Moral intuitions and organizational culture. Saint Louis University Law Journal, 51, 941-988.Google Scholar
- Rokeach, M. (1973). The nature of human values. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
- Rouvroy, A. (2008). Privacy, data protection, and the unprecedented challenges of ambient intelligence. Studies in Ethics, Law, and Technology, 2, 1-51.Google Scholar
- Saguaro Seminar on Civic Engagement in America. (2000). Better together. Cambridge: John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University.Google Scholar
- Sampson, R., Morenoff, J., & Gannon-Rowley, T. (2002). Assessing 'neighborhood effects': Social processes and new directions in research. Annual Review of Sociology, 28, 443-478.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Sandefur, R. (2008). Access to civil justice and race, class and gender inequality. Annual Review of Sociology, 34(16), 1-20.Google Scholar
- Sanfey, A., Rilling, J., Aronson, J., Nystrom, L., & Cohen, J. (2003). The neural basis of economic decision-making in the Ultimatum game. Science, 300, 1755-1758.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Schauer, F. F. (2003). Profiles, probabilities and stereotypes. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
- Schneider, J. D. (2004). The psychology of stereotyping (pp. 197- 206). New York: The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
- Schneier, B. (2003). Beyond Fear: Thinking sensibly about security in an uncertain world. New York: Copernicus Books. See also, Wall, D. S. (2007). Cybercrime: The transformation of crime in the information age. Cambridge: Polity.Google Scholar
- Sen, A. (1992). Inequality reexamined. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
- Tenner, E. (1996). Why things bite back: Technology and the revenge of unintended consequences. New York: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
- The Genetic Nondiscrimination Act (2008). Public Law No: 110-233, 21 May.Google Scholar
- Thiery, Y., & Van Shoubroeck, C. (2006). Fairness and equality in insurance classification. The Geneva Papers, 31:190-211. See also, Marmor, T., & Mashaw, J. (2006). Understanding social insurance: Fairness, affordability, and the 'modernization' of Social Security and Medicare. Health Affairs, 25:114-134.Google Scholar
- Van Hoyweghen, I., Horstman, K., & Schepers, R. (2005). 'Genetics is not the issue': Insurers on genetics and life insurance. New Genetics and Society, 24, 79-98.Google Scholar
- Waldo, J., Lin, H., & Millett, L. (Eds.). (2007). Engaging privacy and information technology in a digital age. Washington: National Academies Press. Google Scholar
- Weiss, M. J. (1988). The clustering of America. New York: Harper & Row.Google Scholar
- Weiss, J. M. (2000). The clustered world: How we live, what we buy, and what it all means about who we are. Boston: Little, Brown & Co.Google Scholar
- Whitby, A., Josang, A., & Indulska, J. (2004). Filtering out unfair ratings in Bayesian reputation systems, Proceedings of the autonomous agents and multi agent systems conference. New York.Google Scholar
- Wilson, M. S. (2005). A social-value analysis of postmaterialism. The Journal of Social Psychology, 145(2), 209-224.Google Scholar
- Wortham, L. (1986). Insurance classification: Too important to be left to the actuaries. Journal of Law Reform, 19, 349-423.Google Scholar
- Yamamiya, Y., Cash, T., Melnyk, S., Posavac, H., & Posavac, S. (2005). Women's exposure to thin-and beautiful media images: Body image effects of media-ideal internalization and impactreduction interventions. Body Image, 2:74-80. See also, Johnson, P., McCreary, D., & Mills, J. (2007). Effects of exposure to objectified male and female media images on men's psychological well-being. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 8:95-102.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Zuberi, T. (2001). Thicker than blood: How racial statistics lie. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 126-130. See also, Freedman, D. A. (1997). From association to causation via regression. In V. McKim & S. Turner (eds), Causality in crisis? Statistical methods and the search for causal knowledge in the social sciences (pp. 113-162). Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press.Google Scholar
Index Terms
- Engaging rational discrimination: exploring reasons for placing regulatory constraints on decision support systems
Index terms have been assigned to the content through auto-classification.
Recommendations
CONFIDENTIAL COMMUNICATION
Background. Sophisticated ethics games that focus on corporate social responsibility, ethical decision-making and/or moral reasoning are virtually non-existent.
The problem. The ambiguity and controversial nature of ethics as a subject matter make ...
Identity, profiling algorithms and a world of ambient intelligence
The tendency towards an increasing integration of the informational web into our daily physical world (in particular in so-called Ambient Intelligent technologies which combine ideas derived from the field of Ubiquitous Computing, Intelligent User ...
Privacy and perfect voyeurism
I argue that there is nothing wrong with perfect voyeurism, covert watching or listening that is neither discovered nor publicized. After a brief discussion of privacy I present attempts from Stanley Benn, Daniel Nathan, and James Moor to show that the ...
Comments