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In pursuit of a historical tradition: N. A. Rozhkov’s scientific laws of history

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Abstract

Despite all that has been written about Russian historiography and how it profoundly changed after the Bolsheviks seized power in 1917, very little is known about the historical tradition immediately before the Soviet era. This article attempts to begin to address this issue by examining the major forces that shaped the historical and sociological thought of Nikolai Alesandrovich Rozhkov (1868–1927). It argues that as Kliuchevskii’s successor and as the first professional historian to eventually present a Marxist analysis of Russian history, Rozhkov was not only the most important historian at that time but one whose work best represented the most significant transition in Russia’s historical tradition. The article concludes that an examination of Rozhkov’s historical methodology offers a new interpretation of the origins of Soviet historiography.

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Notes

  1. A. L. Litvin, Writing history in twentieth-century Russia: A view from within, translated and edited by J. L. H. Keep (Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001), pp. 3–4.

  2. There are two notable exceptions worth mentioning: J. D. White, M. N. Pokrovsky and the origins of Soviet historiography, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis (University of Glasgow, 1971) and M. V. Nechkina, Russkaia istoriia v osveshchenii ekonomicheskogo materializma (istoriograficheskii ocherk) (Kazan’: Gosudarstvennoe Izdatel’stvo, 1922).

  3. See: J. Gonzalez, "N. A. Rozhkov: His Bolshevik Years and the Origin of his Polemics with Lenin." Revolutionary Russia, Vol. 18, no.1, 2005, pp. 1–22; "N. A. Rozhkov and V. I. Lenin: The Forgotten Polemics of the Interrevolutionary Years, 1908–17." Revolutionary Russia, Vol. 18, no. 2, 2005, pp. 169–200 and "N. A. Rozhkov and V. I. Lenin: The Polemics of Revolutionary Practice, 1917–27." Revolutionary Russia, Vol. 19, no. 2, 2006, pp. 151–174.

  4. This feat is even more remarkable when we take into consideration the fact that Rozhkov spent over 12 years of his adult life in exile and in prison.

  5. K. V. Sivkov, “Materialy dlia bibliografii trudov N. A. Rozhkova”, Uchenye zapiski instituta istorii Rossiiskoi Assotsiatsii Nauchno-Issledovatel’skikh Institutov Obshchestvennykh Nauk (RANION). Vol. 5. Moscow, 1928, pp. 164–184.

  6. N. Chekhov, “Pamiati N. A. Rozhkova: (Iz lichnykh vospominanii)”,Vestnik Prosveshcheniia, No. 3, 1927, p. 120. See also: A. A. Gaisinovich, “Rozhkov-uchitel’ (Vospominaniia)”, Uchenye zapiski instituta istorii Rossiiskoi Assotsiatsii Nauchno-Issledovatel’skikh Institutov Obshchestvennykh Nauk (RANION). Vol. 5. Moscow, 1928, pp. 157–163.

  7. A. Bol’shakov, “N. A. Rozhkov kak uchenyi”, Nauchnyi rabotnik, Nos. 5–6, 1927, p. 158.

  8. T. C. Radzilowski, Feudalism, revolution, and the meaning of Russian history: An intellectual biography of Nikolai Pavlovich Pavlov-Silvanskii (East European Monographs, Boulder: 1994), p. 137.

  9. N. N. Stepanov, “Politicheskaia deiatel’nost’ N. A. Rozhkova”, Uchenye zapiski instituta istorii RANIONa, op. cit., pp. 69–128. See also: V. I. Nevskii, “N. A. Rozhkov-revoliutsioner (iz vospominanii)”, Uchenye zapiski instituta istorii RANIONa, op. cit., pp. 146–156.

  10. N. A. Rozhkov, Avtobiografiia, in “Pamiati N. A. Rozhkova”, Katorga i Ssylka, No. 3, 1927, pp. 163–164.

  11. Ibid., p. 164. See also R. Hellie's article in The Modern Encyclopedia of Russian and Soviet History, Vol. 31, 1983, pp. 217–221 and R. P. Browder and A. F. Kerensky (Eds.), The Russian Provisional Government 1917, vol. 1 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1961), p. 432.

  12. M. N. Pokrovskii, Istoricheskaia nauka i bor'ba klassov, 2 Vols. (Moscow and Leningrad, 1933), Vol. 1, pp. 99–100.

  13. R. H. McNeal, Bride of the Revolution (Michigan: The University of Michigan Press, 1972), p. 190. See also: N. K. Krupskaya, Reminiscences of Lenin (New York: International Publishers, 1960), p. 152 and P. S. R. Payne, The Life and Death of Trotsky (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1977), p. 255.

  14. See: O. V. Volobuev, “N. A. Rozhkov: Istorik vmeste s revoliutsiei i v spore s revoliutsiei” in Problemy politicheskoi i ekonomicheskoi istorii rossii: sbornik statei, (Moscow: Rossiiskaia Politicheskaia Entsiklopediia, 1998), pp. 271–283; O. V. Volobuev, “N. A. Rozhkov v gody pervoi russkoi revoliutsii”, Uchenye zapiski Moskovskogo oblastnogo pedagogicheskogo instituta im. N. K. Krupskoi, Vol. 121, 1965, pp. 103–119; O. V. Volobuev, “N. A. Rozhkov—Metodist-istorik”, Uchenye zapiski Moskovskogo oblastnogo pedagogicheskogo instituta im. N. K. Krupskoi, Vol. 121, 1965, pp. 254–293; O. V. Volobuev, “Voprosy sotsial’noi psikhologii v trudakh N. A. Rozhkov”, Istoriia i psikhologiia. Reprint, Moscow: Nauka, 1971; O. V. Volobuev, Bol’shaia Sovetskaia Entsiklopediia, Vol. 22, Moscow, 1975; O. V. Volobuev and N. Simonov. “Stan’te diktatorom, Vladimir Il’ich!”, Rodina, nos. 11–12, 1991, pp. 29–32 and O. V. Volobuev, “Bez grazhdanskoi voiny nigde ne oboitis’”, Rodina, no. 3, 1992.

  15. R. A. Averbukh, “Evoliutsiia sotsiologicheskikh vozzrenii N. A. Rozhkova”, Uchenye zapiski instituta istorii RANIONa, op. cit., pp. 15–68.

  16. M. Tsvibak, “Rozhkov-istorik”, Kommunisticheskaia mysl’, Tashkent, No. 4, 1927, pp. 1–24.

  17. Nechkina, op. cit., passim.

  18. See: A. Petrova, “N. A. Rozhkov kak istorik rossii” in M. N. Pokrovskii (Ed.), Russkaia istoricheskaia literatura v klassovom osveshchenii, Vol. 2 (Moscow, 1930), p. 344; A. A. Sidorov, “Istoricheskie vzgliady N. A. Rozhkova”, Istorik-Marksist, No. 13, 1929. p. 191, 195, 198 and N. L. Rubinshtein, Russkaia istoriografiia (Moscow: Gospolitizdat, 1941), p. 564.

  19. N. N. Tarasova, “O filosofskikh i teoretiko-metodologicheskikh vzgliadakh N. A. Rozhkova (po rabotam 1893–1907 gg.) in Istoriia i istoriki. Istoriograficheskii sbornik (Moscow: Nauka, 1990), pp. 258–283.

  20. M. B. Sheinfel’d, Istoriografiia Sibiri: konets XIX–nachalo XX vv (Krasnoiarsk: Krasnoiarskii gosudarstvennyi pedagogicheskii institut, 1973), pp. 378–394.

  21. I. E. Gorelov, “Rozhkov, Nikolai Aleksandrovich (1868–1927)” in A. A. Chernobaev (Ed.), Istoriki rossii: Biografii (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 2001), pp. 455–461.

  22. A. V. Sedunov and A. A. Chernobaev, “Vozmestit’ poteriu nikto ne mozhet, N. A. Rozhkov o V. I. Lenine. Ianvar’ 1924 g”. in Istoricheskii arkhiv. Komitet po delam arkhivov pri pravitel’stve Rossii (Moscow: LIT, 2006), pp. 3–10.

  23. See: P. K. Brodovskii, “Filosofskie vzgliady Rozhkova”, Uchenye zapiski Kazanskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta imeni V. I. Ul’ianova-Lenina, Nos. 3–4, 1930, pp. 745–760. For good accounts of Rozhkov’s political activities, particularly while he was in exile, see: L. S. Fedorchenko, “O. N. A. Rozhkove”; N. Chuzhak, “Rozhkov v ssylke”; N. Teterin, “Moi vstrechi s N. A. Rozhkovym” and V. Bogoiavlenskii, “Iz vospominanii O. N. A. Rozhkove” in “Pamiati Nikolaia Aleksandrovicha Rozhkova”, Katorga i Ssylka, No. 3(32), 1927, pp. 165–191.

  24. See: Pokrovskii, op. cit., pp. 99–100 and E. N. Gorodetskii, Lenin osnovopolozhnik sovetskoi istoricheskoi nauki (Moscow, 1970), pp. 171–174.

  25. White, op. cit., pp. 50–56.

  26. Hellie, op. cit., pp. 217–221.

  27. G. Vernadsky, Russian historiography: A history (Massachusetts: Nordland Publishing Company, 1978), pp. 276–277.

  28. . Yaresh, “The Problem of Periodization”. In C. E. Black (Ed.), Rewriting Russian history: Soviet interpretations of Russia’s past (New York: Vintage Books, 2nd ed., Revised, 1962), pp. 34–77, esp., pp. 42–49.

  29. Klas-Göran Karlsson, “N. A. Rožkov—First-wave Soviet historian on troubled waters”, Nordic Journal of Soviet and East European Studies, Vol. 6, No. 1, 1989, pp. 43–69.

  30. Litvin, op. cit., p. 6.

  31. J. Barber, Soviet Historians in Crisis, 1928–1932 (London: Macmillan, 1981), p. 13.

  32. A. G. Mazour, Modern Russian historiography (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1975 revised edition), p. 185.

  33. Ibid.

  34. S. H. Baron, Plekhanov in Russian history and Soviet historiography (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1995), p. 39.

  35. T. Emmons “Kliuchevskii’s Pupils” in T. Sanders (Ed.), Historiography of imperial Russia: The profession and writing of history in a multinational state (Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), p. 119.

  36. Nechkina, op. cit., passim.

  37. V. O. Kliuchevskii, Sochineniia v deviati tomakh, Vol. 1 (Moscow: Mysl’, 1987), p. 35.

  38. See: M.N. Pokrovskii, Izbrannye proizvedeniia in 4 Vols. (Moscow: Mysl', 1965–1967), passim.

  39. This phrase is used by G. V. Plekhanov in his essay entitled “For The Sixtieth Anniversary of Hegel’s Death” in Selected philosophical works in five volumes (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 3rd ed., 1977), Vol. 1, p. 414. See also: H. Sheehan, Marxism and the philosophy of science: A critical history (Atlantic Highlands: Humanities Press, 1985), Vol. 1, pp. 98–102 and L. Kolakowski, Main currents of Marxism: Its origins, growth and dissolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978), Vol. 2, pp. 339–340.

  40. J. Wilczynski, An encyclopedic dictionary of Marxism, Socialism and Communism (Berlin and New York: Walter De Gruyter, 1981), p. 157. See also: I. Frolov (Ed.), Dictionary of philosophy (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1984), p. 117 and D. D. Runes (Ed.), Dictionary of philosophy (London: Peter Owen Ltd., 1972), p. 87.

  41. P. Pomper, The Russian revolutionary intelligentsia (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Inc., second printing, 1971), pp. 148–196.

  42. Sheehan, op. cit., p. 120.

  43. See: N. A. Rozhkov Russkaia istoriia v sravnitel’no-istoricheskom osveshchenii (Osnovy sotsial’noi dinamiki). Vol. 1 was published in 1918 and Vol. 12 was published in 1926.

  44. M. V. Nechkina et al., Ocherki istorii istoricheskoi nauki v SSSR, Vol. 4 (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo Nauka, 1966), p. 171. It is difficult to accept that this was the same Nechkina that not only admired Rozhkov in her younger days but also believed that the term “economic materialism” was an acceptable synonym for Marxism in its early period in Russia. See: Nechkina, op. cit., p. 26 and passim.

  45. Sheehan has a good survey of the wide literature on the Marx-Engels relationship. See Ch. 1 in Sheehan, op. cit., esp. pp. 48–66.

  46. See: J. D. White, op. cit., pp. 5–8 and J. D. White, “The First Pravda and the Russian Marxist Tradition”, Soviet studies, Vol. 26, 1974, p. 186.

  47. See: V. I. Lenin, “The Three Sources And Three Component Parts Of Marxism”. In V. I. Lenin, Selected Works in Three Volumes, Vol. 1 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), pp. 44–48. Lenin wrote: “The genius of Marx consists precisely in his having furnished answers to questions already presented by the foremost minds of mankind. His doctrine emerged as the direct and immediate continuation of the teachings of the greatest representatives of philosophy, political economy and socialism... It is the legitimate successor to the best that man [sic] produced in the nineteenth century”, p. 44.

  48. F. L. Baumer, Modern European Thought: Continuity and Change in Ideas, 1600–1950 (New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1977), p. 367. See also Ch. 3, pp. 302–336.

  49. G. Therborn, Science, class and society: On the formation of sociology and historical materialism (London: Verso Edition, 1980), pp. 116–117.

  50. Kolakowski, op. cit., p. 1.

  51. Sheehan, op. cit., pp. 113, 115 and 122.

  52. V. V. Zenkovsky, A history of Russian philosophy (New York: Columbia University Press, 1953), Vol. 2, p. 677.

  53. White, M. N. Pokrovsky, p. 7.

  54. Ibid., p. 6.

  55. Ibid.

  56. Zenkovsky, op. cit., p. 707.

  57. White, “The First Pravda “, p. 185.

  58. Ibid. See also: G. P. Steenson, Karl Kautsky 1854–1938: Marxism in the classical years (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1991), p. 24.

  59. A. I. Vvedenskii, “Sud’by filosofii”, in Voprosy filosofii i psikhologii, Book II (42), 1898, p. 349 cited in White, “The First Pravda “, p. 185.

  60. A. MacIntyre, “Positivism” in G. D. Mitchell (Ed.), A new dictionary of sociology (London: Routledge Keegan Paul, 1979), pp. 144–145. See also: W. F. Boeselager, The Soviet critique of neopositivism (Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing Company, 1975), pp. 4–6 and Z. A. Jordan, The evolution of dialectical materialism: A philosophical and sociological analysis (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1967), pp. 144–145.

  61. Zenkovsky, op. cit., p. 706.

  62. Ibid.

  63. Kolakowski, The alienation of reason: A history of positivist thought (New York: Doubleday and Co., Inc., 1968), p. 2. This work was first published in Poland in 1966 as Filozofia Pozytywistyczna (od Hume ‘a do Kola Wiedenskiego). It was republished in 1972 by Penguin. This time the work was more accurately translated as Positivist philosophy: From Hume to the Vienna Circle.

  64. Ibid., p. 3.

  65. Ibid., p. 8.

  66. Ibid., p. 9.

  67. Ibid.

  68. C. G. A. Bryant, Positivism in social theory and research (London: Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1985), p. 7.

  69. A. Giddens (Ed.), Positivism and sociology (London: Heinemann, 1974), p. 3.

  70. Ibid. See also: M. Cornforth, Communism and philosophy (London: Lawrence and Wishart Ltd., 1980), p. 137.

  71. Ibid.

  72. Ibid., p. 4.

  73. T. Bottomore (Ed.), A dictionary of Marxist thought (Oxford: Basil Blackwell Publisher Ltd., 1985), p. 382.

  74. M. Shaw, Marxism and social science: The roots of social knowledge (London: Pluto Press Ltd., 1975), p. 86.

  75. White, “The First Pravda “, p. 185.

  76. See for example: “The Latent Positivism of Marx’s Philosophy of History”. In A. Wellmer, Critical Theory of Society (New York: The Continuum Publishing Co., 1971), pp. 67–121; G. Lichtheim, From Marx to Hegel (London: Orbach & Chambers, 1971), p. 14; T. Bottomore, Marxist sociology (London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1975), pp. 11–12 and Sheehan, op. cit., pp. 48–66.

  77. Bottomore, Marxist sociology, p. 11.

  78. Runes, op. cit., p. 243.

  79. Bottomore, A dictionary of Marxist thought, p. 382.

  80. Ibid.

  81. Ibid. See also: Boeselager, op. cit., pp. 8–10.

  82. N. A. Rozhkov, “Istoriia, moral’ i politika”, Istoricheskie i sotsiologicheskie ocherki. Sbornik statei, Vol. 1 (Moscow, 1906), p. 2. This article was published in the journal Pravda, No. 1, 1904, pp. 170–185.

  83. Rozhkov, Russkaia istoriia, Vol. 1, op. cit., p. 21.

  84. Ibid.

  85. It is worth mentioning that Bogdanov expressed a similar thought when he claimed that “every science represents a systematized understanding of the phenomena of a definite sphere of human experience”. See: A. Bogdanoff, A short course of economic science, trans. J. Fineberg (London: The Labour Publishing Company Ltd., 1923), p. 1.

  86. Rozhkov, Russkaia istoriia, Vol. 1, op. cit., p. 21.

  87. Rozhkov, “Istoriia, moral’ i politika”, op. cit., p. 18. In 1907 Rozhkov elaborated this idea in his book entitled The fundamental laws of the development of social phenomena.

  88. Ibid., pp. 5–6 and 16–19.

  89. N. A. Rozhkov, Osnovnye zakony razvitiia obshchestvennykh iavlenii (Kratkii ocherk sotsiologii) (Moscow, 1907), p. 5.

  90. Ibid.

  91. Ibid.

  92. G. Lenzer (Ed.), Auguste Comte and Positivism: The essential writings (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1975), p. 241.

  93. Ibid.

  94. Ibid., p. 246.

  95. Ibid., p. 247.

  96. Ibid., p. 248.

  97. Ibid.

  98. Rozhkov, Osnovnye zakony, op. cit., p. 6.

  99. Ibid.

  100. Ibid., p. 7.

  101. Ibid.

  102. Ibid.

  103. N. A. Rozhkov, Obzor’ russkoi istorii s’ sotsiologicheskoi tochki zreniia, Chast’ 1, second edition (Moscow, 1905), p. 2.

  104. Ibid.

  105. N. A. Rozhkov, Obzor’ russkoi istorii s’ sotsiologicheskoi tochki zreniia, Chast’ 2, Vypusk 2 (Moscow, 1905), p. 142.

  106. Rozhkov, “Uspekhi sovremennoi sotsiologii v ikh sootnoshenii s istoriei”, op. cit., pp. 17–36 which was reproduced under the title “Psikhologicheskaia shkola v sotsiologii” as the first article of the work entitled “Psikhologiia kharaktera i sotsiologiia” In N. A. Rozhkov, Istoricheskie i sotsiologicheskie ocherki. Sbornik statei, Vol. 1 (Moscow, 1906), pp. 165–185.

  107. Rozhkov, Obzor ‘, Chast’ 1, op. cit., p. 2. As Gareth Stedman Jones observed in 1976, the belief that historical research should precede sociological theory is still quite common among many historians. Today, the relationship between history and sociology is still debated. See, for example: G. Stedman Jones, “From Historical Sociology to Theoretic History”, British Journal of Sociology, Vol. 27, September, 1976, pp. 295–305. See also: P. Burke, Sociology and history (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1980); C. Tilly, As sociology meets history (New York: Academic Press, 1981); P. Abrams, Historical sociology (Somerset: Open Books, 1982); A. Giddens, Central problems in social theory (London: Macmillan, 1979) and the introduction to H. J. Kaye, The British Marxist historians: An introductory analysis (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1984).

  108. Rozhkov, “Uspekhi sovremennoi sotsiologii v ikh sootnoshenii s istoriei”, op. cit., p. 17.

  109. Ibid.

  110. Rozhkov, Obzor’, Chast’ 1, op. cit., p. 2.

  111. Ibid.

  112. Ibid., p. 7. In 1918, Rozhkov reiterated this belief and used it to promote his Menshevik interpretation of Russia’s development. See: Rozhkov, Russkaia istoriia, Vol. 1, op. cit., p. 9.

  113. See: A. A. Sidorov, “ Istoricheskie vzgliady N. A. Rozhkova”, Istorik-Marksist, No. 13, 1929, p. 186; N. L. Rubinshtein, Russkaia istoriografiia (Moscow: Gospolitizdat, 1941), p. 561; M. V. Nechkina, op. cit., pp. 60–95; R. A. Averbukh, “Evoliutsiia sotsiologicheskikh vozzrenii”, Uchenye zapiski instituta istorii RANIONa, p. 17 and White, M. N. Pokrovsky, p. 52.

  114. Rozhkov, Istoricheskie i sotsiologicheskie ocherki, op. cit., p. 2.

  115. Rozhkov, Obzor’, Chast’ II, Vypusk II, op. cit., p. 142 and Rozhkov, “Uspekhi sovremennoi sotsiologii”, op. cit., p. 17.

  116. Rozhkov, “Uspekhi sovremennoi sotsiologii”, op. cit., p. 28.

  117. Ibid.

  118. A. Comte, Cours de philosophie positive, Vol. 1, Lecture 1, cited in Lenzer, op. cit.

  119. Comte, Cours de philosophie positive, cited in Lenzer, op. cit., p. 96.

  120. Rozhkov, Russkaia istoriia, Vol. 1. op. cit., p. 9. Rozhkov was quoting the 1902 publication of the lectures of the well-known physicist A. G. Stoletov. See: Kolakowski, The alienation of reason, p. 9.

  121. Rozhkov, “Uspekhi sovremennoi sotsiologii”, op. cit., pp. 18–19 and Rozhkov, “Neskol’ko spornykh sotsiologicheskikh voprosov”, op. cit., pp. 83–84.

  122. Rozhkov, “Uspekhi sovremennoi sotsiologii”, op. cit., p. 17.

  123. Rozhkov, Obzor’, Chast’ I, op. cit., p. 7.

  124. For a good and brief discussion of the debates see: G. McLennan, Marxism and the methodologies of history (London, Verso Edition, 1981), pp. 66–76.

  125. Rozhkov, Obzor’, Chast’ I, op. cit., p. 7.

  126. Rozhkov, Istoricheskie i sotsiologicheskie ocherki, op. cit., p. 177.

  127. Ibid.

  128. Ibid.

  129. Ibid.

  130. Ibid.

  131. Ibid.

  132. Rozhkov, “Neskol’ko spornykh sotsiologicheskikh voprosov”, op. cit., p. 87.

  133. Volobuev, “Voprosy sotsial’noi psikhologii”, op. cit., passim.

  134. Rozhkov, Obzor, Chast' II, Vypusk II, op. cit., p. 157. See also: Rozhkov, Osnovnye zakony, op. cit., p. 41.

  135. Rozhkov, Istoricheskie i sotsiologicheskie ocherki, op. cit., p. 257.

  136. Ibid.

  137. R. D. Markwick, “Cultural History under Khrushchev and Brezhnev: From Social Psychology to Mentalités”, The Russian Review, Vol. 65, 2006, pp. 283–301.

  138. Rozhkov, “Neskol’ko spornykh sotsiologicheskikh voprosov”, op. cit., p. 84.

  139. Ibid.

  140. Ibid., p. 85.

  141. Rozhkov, “Uspekhi sovremennoi sotsiologii”, op. cit., p. 19. See also: Rozhkov, Istoricheskie i sotsiologicheskie ocherki, op. cit., p. 167.

  142. Rozhkov, “Neskol’ko spornykh sotsiologicheskikh voprosov”, op. cit., pp. 84–85.

  143. Rozhkov, Obzor, Chast’ I, op. cit., p. 5.

  144. Rozhkov, Osnovnye zakony, p. 25. See also: Rozhkov, Obzor’, Chast’ I, op. cit., p. 5.

  145. Rozhkov, Obzor, Chast’ I, op. cit., p. 6.

  146. See: F. Gregory, Scientific materialism in nineteenth century Germany (Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing Company, 1977), p. 158.

  147. Rozhkov, Osnovnye zakony, op. cit., p. 25.

  148. Ibid.

  149. Ibid.

  150. Ibid.

  151. Ibid.

  152. Rozhkov, Osnovnye zakony, op. cit., p. 7. See also Russkaia istoriia, Vol. 1, op. cit., pp. 9–22.

  153. Ibid.

  154. Comte, Système de politique positive, Vol. 2, cited in L. A. Coser, Masters of sociological thought: Ideas in historical and social context (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 2nd ed., 1977), p. 10.

  155. Ibid.

  156. R. Aron, Main currents in sociological thought (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1965), Vol. 1, p. 86.

  157. Rozhkov, Obzor, Chast’ II, Vypusk II, op. cit., p. 142 and Rozhkov, Osnovnye zakony, op. cit., pp. 7–8.

  158. Rozhkov, Obzor, Chast’ II, Vypusk II, op. cit., p. 142.

  159. See the discussion of the term “economic materialism” in White, M. N. Pokrovsky, op. cit., pp. 24–28. See also: J. Wilczynski, op. cit., p. 161.

  160. P. Struve, “Pamiati V. O. Kliuchevskogo” in Sotsial’naia i ekonomicheskaia istoriia rossii, p. 332 cited in White, op. cit., pp. 46–47.

  161. N. A. Rozhkov, “Prokhorovskaia manufaktura za pervye 40 let ee sushchestvovaniia”, Istorik-Marksist, No. 6, 1927, pp. 79–110.

  162. Ibid., p. 79.

  163. Ibid., p. 80.

  164. M. M. Bogoslovskii, “Iz vospominanii o N. A. Rozhkove”, Uchenye zapiski instituta istorii RANIONa, op. cit., p. 132.

  165. Ibid., p. 143.

  166. N. A. Rozhkov, Gorod i derevnia v russkoi istorii (St. Petersburg, 1902, 4th ed., Petrograd, 1918), p. 6.

  167. Ibid.

  168. Ibid.

  169. Rozhkov, Obzor, Chast’ II, Vypusk II, op. cit., pp. 160–161.

  170. V. O. Kliuchevskii, Sochineniia v deviati tomakh (Moscow: Mysl’, 1987), Vol. 1, pp. 50–53.

  171. Ibid.

  172. Ibid. This is the way Hogarth summarised Kliuchevskii’s major stages of colonisation in V. O. Kliuchevskii, A history of Russia, translated by C. J. Hogarth in Vol. 5 (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd., 1911–1931), Vol. 1, p. 2. Kliuchevskii explained his divisions in greater detail. See: V. O. Kliuchevskii, Sochineniia v deviati tomakh, Vol. 1, pp. 50–53.

  173. Cf: Kliuchevskii, Sochineniia, Vol. 1, op. cit., Lecture V and Rozhkov, Gorod i derevnia, op. cit., pp. 8, 9 and 30.

  174. See: N. A. Rozhkov, Uchebnik russkoi istorii dlia srednikh uchebnykh zavedenii i dlia samoobrazovaiia (Moscow, 1901); Rozhkov, Gorod i derevnia, op. cit. and Rozhkov, Obzor’, Chast’ I and II op. cit.

  175. V. O. Kliuchevskii, Sochineniia, Vol. 6, op. cit. (Moscow: Mysl’, 1989), p. 436. This is the first time that Kliuchevskii’s lectures entitled “Metodologiia russkoi istorii” have been published. There are twenty lectures in all and they were read, along with his other lectures entitled “Terminologiia russkoi istorii”, for the first time in 1884 and 1885. These lectures are more than a century old and, as R. A. Kireeva has pointed out: “Since that time the science of history has progessed significantly. The conception of the general historical process has changed qualitatively. There has been an increase in demands for theoretical, methodological works. In a word, readers have before themselves not a late twentieth century work but a monument of historical thought from the eighties of the last century, that is, the first attempt in pre-revolutionary Russia to create a course of studies with a methodological character. This was novel even in his time and since then there have not been too many detailed studies of this type”. See pp. 436–437.

  176. Ibid., p. 5.

  177. Ibid., pp. 5–6.

  178. Ibid., p. 6.

  179. Ibid.

  180. V. O. Kliuchevskii, Sochineniia v deviati tomakh, Vol. 1, op. cit., p. 24.

  181. M. M. Bogoslovskii, “V. O. Kliuchevskii kak uchenyi” in V. O. Kliuchevskii: Kharakteristiki i vospominaniia (Moscow: Nauchnoe Slovo, 1912), p. 35.

  182. See: E. Chumachenko, V. O. Kliuchevskii—istochnikoved (Moscow: Nauka, 1970).

  183. V. O. Kliuchevskii, Pis’ma, dnevniki, aforizmy i mysli ob istorii (Moscow: Nauka, 1968), p. 288.

  184. Ibid., p. 289.

  185. Kliuchevskii, Sochineniia, Vol. 1, op. cit., pp. 39, 45.

  186. Ibid., p. 35.

  187. Kliuchevskii, Sochineniia, Vol. 6, op. cit., p. 61.

  188. For example, see: B. D. Grekov’s comments in his work Kiev Rus (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1959), pp. 46ff.

  189. M. N. Tikhomirov, The towns of ancient Rus, trans. by Y. Sdobnikov in 2 Pts. (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1959), Pt. 1, pp. 8–13. See also: Grekov, op. cit., pp. 32–40.

  190. R. G. Collingwood, The idea of history (London: Oxford University Press, reprint, 1978), p. 127.

  191. Ibid.

  192. See: Rozhkov, Osnovnye zakony, op. cit.

  193. Coser, op. cit., p. 12.

  194. M. Shaw, Marxism and social science: The roots of social knowledge (London: Pluto Press Ltd., 1975), p. 85. See also: T. B. Bottomore, Sociology: A guide to problems and literature (London: Unwin University Books, eighth impression, 1969), pp. 66–69 and Kaye, op. cit., pp. 1–3.

  195. Collingwood, op. cit., pp. 128–129.

  196. Ibid., p. 128.

  197. Zenkovsky, op. cit., Vol. 2, p. 706.

  198. See: M. Mandelbaum, “The Problem of ‘Covering Laws’” in P. Gardiner (Ed.), The philosophy of history (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1974), pp. 51–65. See also: W. Dray, “The Historical Explanation of Actions Reconsidered” in Gardiner, op. cit., pp. 66–89; C. G. Hempel, “Reasons and Covering Laws in Historical Explanation” in Gardiner, op. cit., pp. 66–89 and Collingwood, op. cit., p. 176.

  199. Collingwood, op. cit., p. 175.

  200. Ibid., p. 176.

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Gonzalez, J. In pursuit of a historical tradition: N. A. Rozhkov’s scientific laws of history. Stud East Eur Thought 59, 309–346 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11212-007-9038-3

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