(2015) &quot;Extended Cognition and the Explosion of Knowledge&quot; - Philosophical Psychology

David Ludwig

This paper has two distinct but related goals: (1) to identify some of the potential consequences of the Internet for our cognitive abilities and (2) to suggest an approach to evaluate these consequences. I begin by outlining the Google effect, which (allegedly) shows that when we know information is available online, we put less effort into storing that information in the brain. Some argue that this strategy is adaptive because it frees up internal resources which can then be used for other cognitive tasks, whereas others argue that this is maladaptive because it makes us less knowledgeable. I argue that the currently available empirical evidence in cognitive psychology does not support strong conclusions about the negative effects of the Internet on memory. Before we can make value-judgements about the cognitive effects of the Internet, we need more robust and ecologically-valid evidence. Having sketched a more nuanced picture of the Google effect, I then argue that the value of our cognitive abilities is in part intrinsic and in part instrumental, that is, they are both valuable in themselves and determined by the socio-cultural context in which these cognitive abilities are utilised. Focussing on instrumental value, I argue that, in an information society such as ours, having the skills to efficiently navigate, evaluate, compare, and synthesize online information are (under most circumstances) more valuable than having a lot of facts stored in biological memory. This is so, partly because using the Internet as an external memory system has overall benefits for education, navigation, journalism, and academic scholarship.

It is undeniable that computer technology has had a major impact on how we engage in enquiry. We use computer devices to store information that helps us in our daily lives—just think of the contacts on your phone and whatever calendar app you might use to keep track of your schedule. Furthermore, people enjoy easy and quick access to a wide range of reliable online resources such as Nature, Reuters, and Encyclopedia Britannica through their laptops or smartphones. Powerful search engines such as Google open up the door to swaths of information, enabling people easily to acquire a wide range of true beliefs through reliable means about all kinds of subject-matters. However, what is the status of such true beliefs? In particular, once beliefs cease to be occurrent, do we still have non-occurrent beliefs and, if true and reliably sustained, do they still qualify as knowledge? If they do, we would have cases of extended belief and knowledge, as these computer devices go beyond onboard capacities such as perception and memory. However, unlike our beliefs and desires, many information storing apps and resources do not have the capacity automatically to “update” their information in light of new information. Moreover, wouldn’t extended belief and knowledge lead to massive cognitive bloat—an unpalatable explosion of belief and knowledge completely detached from an ability naturally to recall the relevant information? It would seem so given the wide variety of storage repositories and devices (literally) at one’s fingertips (online journals, Dropbox, Google, stored telephone contacts). Doesn’t cognitive bloat threaten to undermine the notion of expertise? Is it really possible to become an expert on a given topic by simply and easily looking up information via one’s smartphone and saving it? And where, now, would we place cognitive effort—steps taken by individuals to commit details to memory, to apply knowledge, to deliberate and to assess and reflect? In “Extended Knowledge Overextended?”, Nikolaj Jang Lee Linding Pedersen and Jens Christian Bjerring offer a comprehensive discussion of extended belief and knowledge. They criticize two recent attempts to mitigate concerns about cognitive bloat by arguing that their effectiveness is contingent on the current state of technology—in particular, the fact that computer devices are currently external to us. However, if computer devices seamlessly integrated with our own onboard capacities—so-called neuromedia—become reality, it may be much more difficult to resist extended belief and knowledge and, with them, massive cognitive bloat.

In Europe and United States the spread of fake news and of the discredit thrown over scientific authority is reaching a worrying level, with serious consequences on the political and social realms. The magnitude of the phenomenon, which was essential for the victory of populist parties in United States (Trump), UK (Brexit), and Italy (Salvini's Lega and the Five Star Movement), revels an issue that goes beyond the politics to call in an understanding of how the mind works from the cognitive viewpoint, what is changing as our mind is more and more intertwined with the digital ecosystem, especially with social networks. In this paper I try to contribute to the understanding of the specific vulnerability of the mind that people exhibit today. I start in 1. The Culturally-Extended Mind by reporting on the extended mind theory to stress that the mind is “lazy” i.e. it tends to save as much energy as possible, therefore tit routinely outsources as much of cognition job as possible to the tools available in the subject's anthropological surrounding. Since these tools are, from the functional viewpoint, part and parcel of the extended mind (yet not part of the brain), then the cultural environment is itself part of the mind and, therefore, its characteristics determine that of the mind (as discussed in 2. The Culturally-Shaped Mind). What are the characteristics of contemporary anthropology? In 3. Liquid Anthropology I focus on the digital ecosystem, consisting in the web of devices, GPS systems, and the internet, to address the issue of the relationship between mind and its cultural surrounding. Because of the unprecedentedly powerful capability of the digital ecosystem to take over cognitive processes, the brain delegates an unprecedented amount of cognitive work to the external system, with the result of becoming weaker and weaker in its internal ability to process information. The consequence is a paradoxical one: in fact, the digitally-extended mind is becoming both cognitively stronger and weaker as compared to the past culture-brain couplings—it becomes stronger as far as its cultural extension is concerned, and weaker as far as the brain is concerned in its own. This is the condition of the “liquid mind,” highly-performing thanks to its cognitive digital extensions, yet increasingly unable to run high-quality cognitive processes such as that of deep analysis and critical thinking. As a matter of fact, not only does the mind become “shallow” in its management style of information and knowledge; as it relates more and more with other minds through social networks, it also becomes ever less able to have social relations in a mature way. This topic is discussed in 4. The Socially-Networked Mind, where I underline how the mind—which exhibits now symptoms of functional illiteracy—gets trapped in its own echo chamber and becomes dangerously vulnerable to fake news, which are crafted to fuel this vulnerability. As a consequence, an “epistemic entropy” rises that makes ever more difficult for the average user (and voter) to tell the truth from falsehood.

Ex t e nde dc og ni t i ona ndt hee x pl os i onofkno wl e dg e Da v i dLudwi g Fi na lv e r s i o nf o r t hc o mi ngi nPh i l o s o p h i c a l Ps y c h o l o g y Abs t r a c t : Thea i mo ft hi sa r t i c l ei st os ho wt ha te x t e r na l i s ta c c o unt so fc o g ni t i o ns uc ha sCl a r ka nd Cha l me r s ’ ( 1998)“ a c t i v ee x t e r na l i s m”l e a dt oa ne x pl o s i o no fk no wl e dg et ha ti sc a us e db yo nl i ne r e s o ur c e ss uc ha sWi k i pe di aa ndGo o g l e . Ia r g uet ha te x t e r na l i s ta c c o unt so fc o g ni t i o ni mpl yt ha t s ub j e c t swhoi nt e g r a t emo bi l eI nt e r ne ta c c e s si nt he i rc o g ni t i v er o ut i ne sha v emi l l i o nso fs t a ndi ng be l i e f so nune x pe c t e di s s ue ss uc ha st hebi r t hda t e so fMo r o c c a npo l i t i c i a nso rt heg e o g r a phi c a l c o o r di na t e so fv i l l a g e si ns o ut he r nI ndo ne s i a .Al t ho ug hma nye x t e r na l i s t spr opo s ec r i t e r i af o rt he bo undso fc o g ni t i o nt ha ta r ede s i g ne dt oa v o i dt hi se x pl o s i o no fk no wl e dg e ,Ia r g uet ha tt he s e c r i t e r i aa r ef l a we da ndt ha ta c t i v ee x t e r na l i s m ha st oa c c e ptt ha ti nf o r ma t i o nr e s o ur c e ss uc ha s Wi k i pe di aa ndGo o g l ec o ns t i t ut ee x t e nde dc o g ni t i v epr o c e s s e s . Ke y wor ds :Ac t i v eEx t e r na l i s m;AndyCl a r k ;Co g ni t i v eBl o a t ;Co g ni t i v eEx t e ns i o n;Co g ni t i v e Ni c heCo ns t r uc t i o n; Di g i t a lMe di a ; Di s po s i t i o na lBe l i e f s ; Ex t e nde dMi nd; I nt e r ne t ; Wi k i pe di a 1. I nt r o duc t i o n Ac c o r di ngt ot hee x t e nde dmi ndt he s i s , huma nc o g ni t i o ne x t e ndsbe y o nds k i na nd s k ul la ndi spa r t l yc o ns t i t ut e db yt hee nv i r o nme nt .Thea i mo ft hi sa r t i c l ei st o a r g uet ha ta na c t i v ee x t e r na l i s ma si tha sbe e npr o po s e db yCl a r ka ndCha l me r s ( 1998 )i mpl i e sa ne x pl o s i o no fdi s po s i t i o na lbe l i e f sa ndk no wl e dg et ha ti sc a us e d b ydi g i t a li nf o r ma t i o nr e s o ur c e ss uc ha sWi k i pe di ao rGo o g l e .Mya r g ume nti s ba s e do nt he c o mmo no bs e r v a t i o nt ha ta ny f o r m o fe x t e r na l i s m f a c e sa de ma r c a t i o npr o bl e m:i fhuma nc o g ni t i o ne x t e ndsbe y o ndt hebo unda r i e so ft he o r g a ni s m,wene e dc r i t e r i at odi s t i ng ui s he x t e nde dc o g ni t i v epr o c e s s e sf r o m no nc o g ni t i v epr o c e s s e si nt hee nv i r o nme nt .Iwi l la r g uet ha tde ma r c a t i o nc r i t e r i aa s t he yha v ebe e npr o po s e db yCl a r ka ndCha l me r s ’ ( 1998)o rRo wl a nds( 2009)a r e no ts ui t e dt oe x c l udedi g i t a li nf o r ma t i o nr e s o ur c e ss uc ha sWi k i pe di ao rGo o g l e f r o mc o ns t i t ut i nge x t e nde dc o g ni t i v epr o c e s s e s . 1 Thepo s s i b i l i t yo fa“ we be x t e nde d mi nd”( Sma r t ,20 12;Sma r t ,Eng e l br e c ht , Br a i ne s ,St r ub ,& He ndl e r ,2009 )o r“ e me mo r y ”( Cl o we s ,2013) t ha ti s c o ns t i t ut e db ydi g i t a la ndmo bi l et e c hno l o g i e si sa ni mpo r t a nta ndpo t e nt i a l l y r a di c a lc o ns e que nc eo fe x t e r na l i s mt ha tha sa l s obe e na c k no wl e dg e db yCl a r k : “ pe r ha pse x t e r na lr e pr e s e nt a t i o nso nt heWe b ,whe ni nt e g r a t e da ppr o pr i a t e l yi nt o t hepr o c e s s e st ha tg ov e r na na g e nt ’ sbe ha v i o ur ,ma yc o unta spa r t so ft ha ta g e nt ’ s c o g ni t i v ea r c hi t e c t ur e ” ( Ha l pi n, Cl a r k , & Whe e l e r , 2010) . Al t ho ug hCl a r ks e e mst ot a k et hepo s s i b i l i t yo f a“ we be x t e nde dmi nd”s e r i o us l y , hea l s opr o po s e sc r i t e r i a( e . g . , Cl a r k , 2008, p . 80) t ha ta r e de s i g ne dt o pr e v e nta tl e a s tc o nt e mpo r a r yo nl i ne r e s o ur c e sf r o m c o ns t i t ut i ngpa r t so ft hec o g ni t i v er e a l m. Ia r g uet ha tt he s ec r i t e r i aa r ef l a we da nd t ha te x t e r na l i s t sha v et oa c c e pte x t e nde dc o g ni t i v epr o c e s s e st ha ta r epa r t l y c o ns t i t ut e db ydi g i t a li nf o r ma t i o nr e s o ur c e s .Thec o ns e que nc ei sas t a g g e r i ng e x pl o s i o no fdi s po s i t i o na lbe l i e f sa ndk no wl e dg e .I nt e r na l i s t sma yc o ns i de rt he c o nc l us i o no ft hi sa r t i c l ear e duc t i oo ft hev e r yi de ao fa ne x t e nde dmi ndwhi l e e x t e r na l i s t swi l lha v et o de v e l o ps t r a t e g i e st ha ti nc o r po r a t ea ne x pl o s i o no f k no wl e dg ei nt ot he i rt he o r i e s . 2. TheDe ma r c a t i o nPr o bl e mo fEx t e r na l i s m I nt he i ra r t i c l e“ Thee x t e nde d mi nd, ”Cl a r ka nd Cha l me r spr e s e ntt heno wf a mo ust ho ug hte x pe r i me nto fOt t owhos uf f e r sf r o m ami l dc a s eo fAl z he i me r ’ s a ndr e l i e so nano t e bo o ka sas ubs t i t ut ef o rhi sbi o l o g i c a lme mo r y( 1998, pp . 12– 17) .Whe nOt t owa nt st ok e e pi mpo r t a nti nf o r ma t i o n,hewr i t e si tdo wni nhi s no t e bo o ka ndi st he r e f o r ea bl et oa c c e s si tl a t e r .I nCl a r ka ndCha l me r s ’ e x a mpl e , Ot t owa nt st og ot ot heMus e um o f Mo de r nAr t( Mo MA)i nNe w Yo r k .He c o ns ul t shi sno t e bo o ka ndr e t r i e v e st hei nf o r ma t i o nt ha tt hemus e um i so n53r d s t r e e t .Cl a r ka ndCha l me r sc o mpa r eOt t ot oI ng awhoa l s owa nt st og ot ot he Mo MA butdo e sno tne e dano t e bo o kbe c a us es heha st hea ddr e s ss t o r e di nhe r bi o l o g i c a lme mo r y .Ofc o ur s e ,t he r ea r ema nydi f f e r e nc e sbe t we e n Ot t o ’ sa nd I ng a ’ si nf o r ma t i o nr e t r i e v a lbutCl a r ka ndCha l me r sa r g uet ha tt he ya r ea na l o g o us 2 i na l lf unc t i o na l l yi mpo r t a nta s pe c t s . Fo re x a mpl e , bo t hOt t oa ndI ng aha v ea c c e s s t oar e l i a bl ea ndpo r t a bl ei nf o r ma t i o nr e s o ur c et ha ta l l o wst he mt oqui c k l yr e t r i e v e t hei nf o r ma t i o nt ha tt heMo MA i sl o c a t e do n53r ds t r e e t .Whya r ema nyo fus i nc l i ne dt oc o ns i de rt heno t e bo o kme r e l yat o o lf o rOt t o ’ sc o g ni t i v es y s t e m whi l e a c c e pt i ngI ng a ’ sbi o l o g i c a lme mo r ya sapa r to fhe rc o g ni t i v e s y s t e m?Ac c o r di ngt oCl a r ka ndCha l me r s ,t he r ei snog o o dr e a s o nt oe x c l ude e x t e r na lo bj e c t ss uc ha sno t e bo o k sa spo t e nt i a lpa r t so fc o g ni t i v es y s t e ms .Ac c e s s t oa ne x t e r na li nf o r ma t i o nr e s o ur c ec a npl a yt hes a mef unc t i o na lr o l ei nac o g ni t i v e pr o c e s sa sa c c e s st obi o l o g i c a lme mo r y . The r e f o r e , c o g ni t i v epr o c e s s e sa nds y s t e ms a r eno ta l wa y ss o l e l yr e a l i z e db yt hebr a i na ndt hei nt ui t i o nt ha tOt t o ’ sno t e bo o ki s me r e l yat o o lf o rhi sc o g ni t i v es y s t e mt ur nso utt obeaf l a we dpr e j udi c e . AsCl a r ke l a bo r a t e si nhi sbo o kSupe r s i z i ngt hemi nd, Ot t o ’ si nc o r po r a t i o no fa n e x t e r na lo bj e c ti nc o g ni t i v er o ut i ne si sb ynome a nsa ni s o l a t e dc a s e .Ont he c o nt r a r y ,t hee x a mpl eo fOt t oi l l us t r a t e saubi qui t o usphe no me no nt ha tc a nbe de s c r i b e da s“ c o g ni t i v eni c hec o ns t r uc t i o n. ”Ma nys pe c i e sa l t e rt he i re nv i r o nme nt s t ot he i ro wnbe ne f i t s .Co mmo ne x a mpl e si nc l udes pi de r sa ndbe a v e r swhoc r e a t e phy s i c a lo b j e c t st ha tbe c o mec r uc i a lpa r t so ft he i re nv i r o nme nt s .So mec ha ng e s , ho we v e r ,s e r v edi s t i nc t i v e l yc o g ni t i v epur po s e sa ndc a nbede s c r i be da s“ c o g ni t i v e ni c hec o ns t r uc t i o n ”whi c hCl a r kde f i ne s“ a st hepr o c e s sb ywhi c ha ni ma l sbui l d phy s i c a ls t r uc t ur e st ha tt r a ns f o r m pr o bl e ms pa c e si nwa y st ha ta i d( o rs o me t i me s i mpe de )t hi nk i nga ndr e a s o ni nga bo uts o met a r g e tdo ma i no rdo ma i ns ”( Cl a r k , 2008, p . 62; c o mpa r eSt o t z , 2010) . Co g ni t i v eni c hec o ns t r uc t i o nc a nbet hewo r ko fa ni ndi v i dua l . Fo re x a mpl e , Ima y us eano t e bo o kt obea bl et or e me mbe rt a s k ss uc ha sg r o c e r ys ho ppi ng .OrIma y puta ne mpt ypa s t abo xo nmyk i t c he nt a bl et or e me mbe rt obuypa s t at hene x t da y .OrIo r g a ni z emyde s ki no r de rt omi ni mi z es o ur c e so fdi s t r a c t i o na ndt o ma k es ur et ha tIha v ea l lmyc o g ni t i v et o o l s( bo o k s , l a pt o p , c a l c ul a t o r , c o f f e e , e t c . ) a v a i l a bl e .Ma ny o ft he mo s tpo we r f ulc o g ni t i v e ni c he s ,ho we v e r ,a r es o c i a l i ns t i t ut i o ns . Co ns i de r , f o re x a mpl e , l i b r a r i e so ro nl i ner e s o ur c e ss uc ha sWi k i pe di a a ndt hec o unt l e s swa y si nwhi c ht he yt r a ns f o r m pr o bl e ms pa c e si nwa y st ha ta i d t hi nk i nga ndr e a s o ni nga bo utt a r g e tdo ma i ns . 3 Al t ho ug ht heubi qui t yo fc o g ni t i v eni c hec o ns t r uc t i o npr o v i de sag o o dr e a s o nf o r c o g ni t i v es c i e nt i s t st ol o o kbe y o ndt hebr a i n, i ta l s oo f f e r sa ni mpo r t a ntc ha l l e ng e f o rpr o po ne nt so fe x t e nde dc o g ni t i o n:whe ndo e sa ne x t e r na lpr o c e s squa l i f ya s pa r to fa c o g ni t i v e pr o c e s s ?Whe r ei st he l i ne be t we e ng e nui ne e x t e nde d k no wl e dg ea nd no nc o g ni t i v e ba c k g r o und pr o c e s s e st ha tmy a f f e c tc o g ni t i v e pr o c e s s i ngbuta r eno tt he ms e l v e spa r to ft hec o g ni t i v ema c hi ne r y( Cl a r k , 2008, p . 80;c o mpa r eAl l e n-He r ma ns o n,2012;Rupe r t ,2004 ) ?Ac c o r di ngt oCl a r ka nd Cha l me r s ,t he i nf o r ma t i o ni n Ot t o ’ sno t e bo o k me e t st he r e qui r e me nt sf o r e x t e nde dc o g ni t i o na ndOt t oa c t ua l l yk no wst hel o c a t i o no ft heMo MA de s pi t e t hef a c tt ha tt hi si nf o r ma t i o ni ss t o r e di na ne x t e r na lde v i c ei ns t e a do fhi sbr a i n. Butwha ta bo uti nf o r ma t i o ni nOt t o ’ sf a v o r i t el i b r a r y ?I two ul dbea bs ur dt oc l a i m t ha te v e r ypi e c eo fi nf o r ma t i o nt ha ti sa v a i l a bl ei nt hel i b r a r yc o ns t i t ut e sapa r to f Ot t o ’ sbe l i e fs y s t e m.Fo re x a mpl e ,Ot t o do e sno tk no w al o ta bo utr ur a l c o mmuni t i e si n Pa puaNe w Gui ne ade s pi t et hef a c tt ha tt hel i b r a r yr e c e nt l y a c qui r e dabo o ko nt hi st o pi c . I fno ta l lpa r t so ft hec o g ni t i v eni c hequa l i f ya spa r t so fc o g ni t i v es y s t e mso r pr o c e s s e s ,pr o po ne nt so fe x t e nde dc o g ni t i o nf a c eade ma r c a t i o npr o bl e m( o rt he pr o bl e mo f“ c o g ni t i v ebl o a t ” ;Cl a r k , 2008,p .80;Va r g a ,2013) :i no r de rt oma k ea c o nv i nc i ngc a s ef o re x t e nde dc o g ni t i o n,e x t e r na l i s t sha v et odi s t i ng ui s hg e nui ne c a s e so fe x t e nde dc o g ni t i o nf r o mi mpl a us i b l ec a ndi da t e ss uc ha sOt t o ’ sa l l e g e d be l i e f sa bo utt her ur a lc o mmuni t i e si nPa puaNe wGui ne a . Al t ho ug hde ma r c a t i o n i s s ue sa r eo f t e nr a i s e da spr o bl e msf o rpr o po ne nt so fe x t e nde dc o g ni t i o n( e . g . , Ma r s h,2010,p .312;Rupe r t ,2009,pp .15–18) ,Cl a r ka ndCha l me r sdono ts e e m t obet o owo r r i e da bo utt hede ma r c a t i o npr o bl e m.I ns t e a d,t he ys ug g e s tc r i t e r i a t ha ta r es uppo s e dt o di s t i ng ui s hg e nui ne c a s e so fe x t e nde dc o g ni t i o nf r o m i mpl a us i b l ec a ndi da t e ss uc ha sl i b r a r i e s .I nt her e ma i nde ro ft hi sa r t i c l e ,Iwi l l a r g uet ha tt hi ss t r a t e gyi sno ts a t i s f y i nga ndt ha tpr o po ne nt so fe x t e nde dc o g ni t i o n ha v et og e tc o mf o r t a bl ewi t haf a r r e a c hi ng“ e x pl o s i o no fk no wl e dg e ”t hr o ug h e x t e r na lme di a . 3. Cl a r ka ndCha l me r s ’ De ma r c a t i o nCr i t e r i a 4 Ho wc a nwede t e r mi newhe t he ra ne x t e r na lpr o c e s squa l i f i e sa spa r to fac o g ni t i v e pr o c e s s ?Cl a r ka nd Cha l me r s ’g e ne r a la ns we rt ot hi sque s t i o ni st he i rpa r i t y pr i nc i pl e :I f ,a swec o nf r o nts o met a s k ,apa r to ft hewo r l df unc t i o nsa sapr o c e s s whi c h,we r ei tdo nei nt hehe a d,wewo ul dha v enohe s i t a t i o ni nr e c o g ni z i nga s pa r to ft hec o g ni t i v epr o c e s s ,t he nt ha tpa r to ft hewo r l di s( s owec l a i m)pa r to f t hec o g ni t i v epr o c e s s . ( 1998, p . 8) Thepa r i t ypr i nc i pl e , ho we v e r , i sno tpr o po s e da sapr e c i s ec r i t e r i o nbutr a t he ra sa c o nv e ni e nt“ i nf o r ma lt e s t ”( Cl a r k ,2010,p .53 )whi l emo r es pe c i f i cc r i t e r i awo ul d ha v et o bei nf o r me db yr e s e a r c hi nc o g ni t i v es c i e nc e .Al t ho ug h Cl a r ka nd Cha l me r sa v o i dc o mmi t me ntt oo nepr e c i s ea ns we rt ot hede ma r c a t i o npr o bl e m, t he yo f f e rt hef o l l o wi ng“ r o ug ha ndr e a dys e to fa ddi t i o na lc r i t e r i at obeme tb y no nbi o l o g i c a lc a ndi da t e sf o ri nc l us i o ni nt oa ni ndi v i dua l ’ sc o g ni t i v es y s t e m” ( Cl a r k , 2008, p . 80 ) : ( 1)Tha tt her e s o ur c eber e l i a bl ya v a i l a bl ea ndt y pi c a l l yi nv o k e d. ( Ot t oa l wa y sc a r r i e s t heno t e bo o ka ndwo n ’ ta ns we rt ha the“ do e s n ’ tk no w”unt i la f t e rheha sc o ns ul t e di t . ) ( 2)Tha ta nyi nf o r ma t i o nt husr e t r i e v e dbemo r eo rl e s sa ut o ma t i c a l l ye ndo r s e d. I ts ho ul dno tus ua l l ybes ubj e c tt oc r i t i c a ls c r ut i ny( e . g . , unl i k et heo pi ni o nso f o t he rpe o pl e ) . I ts ho ul dbede e me da bo uta st r us t wo r t hya ss o me t hi ng r e t r i e v e dc l e a r l yf r o m bi o l o g i c a lme mo r y . ( 3)Tha ti nf o r ma t i o nc o nt a i ne di nt her e s o ur c es ho ul dbee a s i l ya c c e s s i bl ea sa nd whe nr e qui r e d. ( 4)Tha tt hei nf o r ma t i o ni nt heno t e bo o kha sbe e nc o ns c i o us l ye ndo r s e da ts o me po i nti nt hepa s ta ndi nde e di st he r ea sac o ns e que nc eo ft hi se ndo r s e me nt . Thec r i t e r i a( 1) – ( 4)pr o v i depr i maf a c i ea t t r a c t i v et o o l sf o rdi s t i ng ui s hi ngg e nui ne c a s e so fe x t e nde dc o g ni t i o nf r o mi mpl a us i b l ec a ndi da t e ss uc ha s“ be l i e f s ”t ha ta r e r e a l i z e db yl i b r a r i e s . Co nt r a r yt oOt t o ’ sno t e bo o k , al i b r a r ydo e sno ts a t i s f ya nyo f t he s ea ddi t i o na lc r i t e r i a :( 1 )I ti so nl ya v a i l a bl ea tas pe c i f i cpl a c edur i ngo pe ni ng ho ur s . ( 2 )No ta l lt hei nf o r ma t i o ni nal i b r a r ywi l lbe“ a ut o ma t i c a l l ye ndo r s e d”b y Ot t o .( 3)Thei nf o r ma t i o ni sno ta l wa y se a s i l ya c c e s s i b l e .( 4)Mo s to ft he i nf o r ma t i o ni nt hel i b r a r yha sno tbe e ne ndo r s e db yOt t oi nt hepa s ta ndi t 5 c e r t a i nl yi s n ’ t“ t he r ea sac o ns e que nc eo ft hi se ndo r s e me nt . ”I ts e e ms ,t he n,t ha t t he s ef o urc r i t e r i a do a pr e t t yg o o dj o bi ne x pl a i ni ng why Ot t o ha st he di s po s i t i o na lbe l i e ft ha tt heMo MA i so n53rd s t r e e ta ndwhyhedo e sno tha v e be l i e f sa bo utr ur a lc o mmuni t i e si nPa puaNe w Gui ne ade s pi t eabo o ko nt hi s t o pi ci n hi sf a v o r i t el i b r a r y .Unf o r t una t e l y ,t he s i t ua t i o n be c o me s mo r e c o mpl i c a t e dwhe nwet ur nt oo t he re x a mpl e s .I ma g i neOt t obuy i nghi sf i r s tc e l l pho newi t hI nt e r ne ta c c e s s .Dur i ngt hef i r s tmo nt h,hec a r r i e sbo t hhi sno t e bo o k a ndc e l lpho nea r o undbuthi sc e l lpho nes uc c e s s i v e l yt a k e so v e rt hef unc t i o ns f r o m hi so l dno t e bo o k . Fo re x a mpl e , Ot t of i g ur e so utt ha theo nl yha st ot y pet he na meo fa ni ns t i t ut i o ns uc ha s“ Mo MA Ne w Yo r k ”i nt hes e a r c hba ro fhi sc e l l pho nea ndGo o g l ewi l ldi s pl a yt hea ddr e s sa st hef i r s ts e a r c hr e s ul t . Fur t he r mo r e , her e a l i z e st ha tt hi sc e l l pho ne ba s e di nf o r ma t i o na c c e s si sf a s t e ra nd mo r e r e l i a bl et ha nhi so l dno t e bo o kme t ho d.Asac o ns e que nc e ,heg e t sr i do fhi so l d no t e bo o ka ndt hene x tt i mehewa nt st og ot ot heMo MA, hes i mpl ya c c e s s e st he i nf o r ma t i o no nGo o g l e . I st hi ss t i l lac a s eo fe x t e nde dc o g ni t i o na nds ho ul dwec o ns i de rGo o g l e ’ sda t a ba s e a ne x t e r na lme mo r ys t o r a g ei nt hes a mewa ya sOt t o ’ sno t e bo o k ?I tc e r t a i nl y s e e mst ha tt he r ea r eg o o dr e a s o nst oc o ns i de rbo t hc a s e st obeo npa r . I two ul dbe s t r a ng et oc l a i mt ha tOt t of o r g o tt hel o c a t i o no ft heMo MA a ndo t he ra ddr e s s e s be c a us e he s wi t c he dt o a mo r ee f f i c i e ntme t ho do fa c c e s s i ng i nf o r ma t i o n. Fur t he r mo r e ,Cl a r ka ndCha l me r si nt r o duc et hee x a mpl eo fOt t obe c a us et he y wa ntt os ho wt ha tf unc t i o na nd no tl o c a t i o n ma t t e ri nc o g ni t i v epr o c e s s i ng . Ho we v e r , i ts e e mst ha tOt t o ’ sa c c e s st ot hea ddr e s st hr o ug hGo o g l ei sf unc t i o na l l y e qui v a l e ntt ohi sa c c e s st ot hea ddr e s st hr o ug hhi sno t e bo o k . Ofc o ur s e , t he r ei so neo bv i o usdi f f e r e nc ebe t we e nOt t o ’ si nf o r ma t i o na c c e s sf r o m hi sno t e bo o ka ndf r o m hi sc e l lpho ne .Ot t oa dde dt hei nf o r ma t i o n—e . g . ,t he a ddr e s so ft heMo MA—t ot heno t e bo o k hi ms e l fwhi l ehedi d no ta dd t he i nf o r ma t i o nt oGo o g l e ’ sda t a ba s e . Gi v e nCl a r ka ndCha l me r s ’ f o ur t hc r i t e r i o n, o ne c a na r g uet ha tt hei nf o r ma t i o nf r o m Go o g l e ’ sda t a ba s ec a nno tc o ns t i t ut ee x t e nde d be l i e f si nt hes a mewa ya si nf o r ma t i o nf r o m Ot t o ’ sno t e bo o k .I nt hef o l l o wi ng s e c t i o n,Iwi l la r g uet ha tt hi ss t r a t e gyo fe x c l udi ngdi g i t a lme di awi l lno two r ka s 6 t he f o ur t hc r i t e r i o na c t ua l l yt ur nso utt o be i nc o mpa t i bl e wi t h Cl a r ka nd Cha l me r s ’ a c t i v ee x t e r na l i s m. 4. WhyAc t i v eEx t e r na l i s mI mpl i e sa nEx pl o s i o no fKno wl e dg e I fwedr o pt hef o ur t hc r i t e r i o n,wes e e mt oo pe n“ t hef l o o dg a t e st owha tma ny wo ul dr e g a r da sa nunwe l c o mee x pl o s i o no fpo t e nt i a ldi s po s i t i o na lbe l i e f s ”( Cl a r k , 2008, p . 80 ) . Att hes a met i me , i ti sf a rf r o mc l e a rwhyo nes ho ul da c c e pt( 4)a nd t r e a tc o ns c i o use ndo r s e me nta ndc a us a lr e s po ns i b i l i t ya sr e l e v a ntf o re x t e nde d c o g ni t i o n.Co ns i de rmye x a mpl eo fOt t os t a r t i ngt or e t r i e v ea ddr e s si nf o r ma t i o n f r o m as e a r c he ng i neo nhi sc e l lpho nei ns t e a do fhi sno t e bo o k .( 4)i mpl i e st ha t Ot t of o r g o tt hel o c a t i o no ft he Mo MA a ndo t he ra ddr e s s e sbe c a us ehes wi t c he d f r o m hi so l d no t e bo o k me t ho dt o a ne wc e l lpho ne me t ho do fa c c e s s i ng i nf o r ma t i o n. Ce r t a i nl y , t he r ea ppe a r st obeat e ns i o nbe t we e nt hi si mpl i c a t i o na nd a ny e x t e r na l i s m t ha tr e l i e so nf unc t i o na le qui v a l e nc ei ni t sa r g ume nt s . Fur t he r mo r e ,i ts e e mst ha tt heno t e bo o kme t ho da ndt hec e l lpho neme t ho dc a n beno to nl yf unc t i o na l l ybuta l s ophe no me no l o g i c a l l ye qui v a l e nt . Ot t o ’ sus eo fhi s c e l lpho nec a nbe c o mepa r to fhi ss e c o ndna t ur ei nt hes a mewa ya st heno t e bo o k us e dt obepa r to fhi ss e c o ndna t ur e . Co ns i de rCl a r k ’ sde s c r i pt i o no fOt t o ’ sus eo f t heno t e bo o k : Ot t oi ss oa c c us t o me dt o us i ng t he bo o kt ha the a c c e s s e si t a ut o ma t i c a l l ywhe nbi o me mo r yf a i l s .Ca l l st ot heno t e bo o ka r e... de e pl ya nds ubpe r s o na l l yi nt e g r a t e di nt ohi spr o bl e ms o l v i ngr o ut i ne s . Theno t e bo o kha sbe c o met r a ns pa r e nte qui pme ntf o rOt t o ,j us ta s bi o l o g i c a lme mo r yi sf o rI ng a .And i ne a c hc a s e ,do e s n ’ ti ta dd ne e dl e s sa ndps y c ho l o g i c a l l yunr e a lc o mpl e x i t yt oi nt r o duc ea ddi t i o na l be l i e f sa bo utt hebo o ko rbi o l o g i c a lme mo r yi nt ot hee x pl a na t o r y e qua t i o ns ?( 2008, p . 80) Ex a c t l yt hes a mec o ul dbes a i da bo utOt t o ’ sa c c e s st oa ddr e s si nf o r ma t i o nt hr o ug h as e a r c he ng i neo nhi sc e l lpho ne .Ho ws ho ul de x t e r na l i s t sr e a c tt ot hi st e ns i o n 7 be t we e nt hei mpl i c a t i o nso f( 4 )a nde x t e r na l i s m?Oneo pt i o ni st os i mpl ybi t et he bul l e to fa c c e pt i ngi mpl i c a t i o nss uc ha st hec l a i mt ha tOt t of o r g e t st hea ddr e s s e s o ft heMo MA whe ns wi t c hi ngf r o m hi so l dno t e bo o kme t ho dt ohi sne wc e l l pho ne me t ho do fa c c e s s i ng i nf o r ma t i o n.I nde e d,t hi si mpl i c a t i o n ma y be c o unt e r i nt ui t i v ebute x t e r na l i s t sne v e rc l a i me dt oo f f e rac o nc e pt ua la na l y s i so ft he c o nc e pto fc o g ni t i o n. As l i g ht l yc o unt e r i nt ui t i v er e v i s i o ni s ts t a nc et ha tr e qui r e s( 4) i na ddi t i o nt of unc t i o na la ndphe no me na le qui v a l e nc ema yt he r e f o r ebej us t i f i e d b yt heme t ho do l o g i c a la dv a nt a g e se v e ni fi ti spr i maf a c i eha r dt os e ewhyOt t o s ho ul df o r g e tt hea ddr e s so ft heMo MA whe ns wi t c hi ngt oa ne qui v a l e nto re v e n mo r ee f f i c i e ntwa yo fa c c e s s i ngt hea ddr e s si nf o r ma t i o n.I nt hi ss e c t i o n,Iwi l l a r g uet ha tt hi sj us t i f i c a t i o no f( 4)wo n ’ tbes uc c e s s f ula s( 4 )t ur nso utt obe i nc o mpa t i bl ewi t ht heo v e r a l lc l a i mso fa na c t i v ee x t e r na l i s m. Co ns i de rLa ur awhoc o ns t a nt l yus e sWi k i pe di ao nhe rc e l lpho net oc he c kba s i c f a c t ss uc ha sbi o g r a phi c a lda t ao rg e o g r a phi c a lc o o r di na t e s .Fo rLa ur a ,mo bi l e a c c e s st oWi k i pe di aha sbe c o mepa r to fhe rs e c o ndna t ur ea nds hea c c e s s e st he o nl i ne e nc y c l o pe di aa ut o ma t i c a l l y whe n he rbi o l o g i c a lme mo r yf a i l s .Do e s Wi k i pe di ac o ns t i t ut epa r t so fLa ur a ’ sbe l i e fa ndk no wl e dg es y s t e m?I fs o , wef a c ea l i t e r a l l ybr e a t ht a k i nge x pl o s i o no fk no wl e dg e( Ludwi g , f o r t hc o mi ng ) . La ur awo ul d k no wt hebi o g r a phi c a lda t ao fhundr e dso ft ho us a ndso fpe o pl e .Shewo ul dha v e me mo r i z e d mi l l i o nso fg e o g r a phi c a lc o o r di na t e s .Shewo ul dk no wt hel a t e s t e l e c t i o nr e s ul t so fe v e r yma j o rc o unt r yi nt hewo r l d,t hepo pul a t i o ne s t i ma t e so f t ho us a ndso fc i t i e s . Ands oo n. Ev e nma nypr o po ne nt so fe x t e nde dc o g ni t i o nwi l lber e l uc t a ntt oa c c e ptt hi s c o ns e que nc ea ndl o o kf o rwa y st oe x c l udeWi k i pe di af r o m La ur a ’ sbe l i e fs y s t e m. Ho we v e r ,c r i t e r i a( 1)a nd( 3)a r eme t :i nf o r ma t i o nf r o m Wi k i pe di ai sr e l i a bl y a v a i l a bl e ,t y pi c a l l yi nv o k e d,a nde a s i l ya c c e s s i b l eo nLa ur a ’ sc e l lpho ne .Of t e n,( 2 ) i sa l s ome t :La ur a( r i g ht l y )be l i e v e st ha tWi k i pe di ai smo r er e l i a bl et ha nhe r bi o l o g i c a lme mo r ywi t hr e g a r dt oba s i cf a c t ss uc ha st hepo pul a t i o no fac i t y ,t he g e o g r a phi c a lc o o r di na t e so fa ni s l a nd, o rbi o g r a phi c a lda t ao fas c i e nt i s t . The r e f o r e , s hea ut o ma t i c a l l ye ndo r s e s t hi si nf o r ma t i o nwhe ns her e t r i e v e si tf r o m Wi k i pe di a .Onema yo bj e c tt ha ta t 8 l e a s tc o nt e mpo r a r yo nl i nea c c e s si sno tqui c ka nde f f i c i e nte no ug ht ome e tt he t hi r dc o ndi t i o n.AsSma r t( 2012)e x pl a i nsi nhi sdi s c us s i o no ft hepo s s i b i l i t yo fa “ we be x t e nde dmi nd” : Thi nka bo utt hepr o bl e mo fa c c e s s i ngf a c t ua li nf o r ma t i o nf r o m aWe ba c c e s s i bl e r e s o ur c e ,s uc ha sWi k i pe di a .Ev e ni ft hede l a y sa s s o c i a t e dwi t hdo c ume ntr e t r i e v a l a ndpr e s e nt a t i o na r er e s o l v e d,t heus e ri ss t i l lc o nf r o nt e dwi t ht heo ne r o ust a s ko f s ur v e y i ng t hedo c ume ntf o rr e l e v a nti nf o r ma t i o nc o nt e nt .I n mo s tc a s e s ,t hi s r e qui r e st heus e rt os c r o l lt hr o ug ht heWe bpa g ea ndpr o c e s sl a r g ea mo unt so f l a r g e l yi r r e l e v a ntc o nt e nti no r de rt oi de nt i f yt hes ma l la mo unto fi nf o r ma t i o nt ha t i sa c t u a l l yne e de d.Thi si sav e r yi ne f f i c i e ntme a nso fi nf o r ma t i o na c c e s s .( Sma r t , 2012, p . 454) The r ei sc e r t a i nl ys o met r ut ht ot hi so bj e c t i o n. Of t e n, i nf o r ma t i o na c c e s sf r o ma n o nl i ner e s o ur c er e qui r e st o omuc ht i mea ndc o g ni t i v ee f f o r tt os a t i s f yCl a r ka nd Cha l me r s ’t hi r dc o ndi t i o nf o re x t e nde dc o g ni t i o n.Thi nk o far a t he rs i mpl e e x a mpl es uc ha st hebe l i e ft ha tCha r l e sDa r wi nbe c a met heSe c r e t a r yo ft he Br i t i s hGe o l o g i c a lSo c i e t yi n1838.I two ul dbeo ddt oa s c r i b eLa ur at hi sbe l i e f o nl ybe c a us et heWi k i pe di aa r t i c l eo n Da r wi nc o nt a i nst hi si nf o r ma t i o na nd be c a us eLa ur aha sr e l i a bl ea c c e s st oWi k i pe di a .La ur awo ul ds t i l lha v et os c r o l l t hr o ug ht hea r t i c l ea ndpr o c e s sl a r g ea mo unt so fi nf o r ma t i o ni no r de rt of i ndo ut t ha tCha r l e sDa r wi nbe c a met heSe c r e t a r yo ft heBr i t i s hGe o l o g i c a lSo c i e t yi n 1838. The r e f o r e , Cl a r ka ndCha l me r s ’ t hi r dc o ndi t i o ni sno tme ta ndt hi spi e c eo f i nf o r ma t i o ndo e sno tc o ns t i t ut ea ne x t e nde dbe l i e f . Bute v e ni fSma r t ’ so bj e c t i o ni ss uc c e s s f uli nt hi sc a s e ,i two n ’ tbes uc c e s s f ulwi t h r e s pe c tt oma nyo t he re x a mpl e so fo nl i nea c c e s st oi nf o r ma t i o n.Co ns i de rt he be l i e ft ha tCha r l e sDa r wi n wa sbo r ni n1809.La ur ado e sno tha v et os c r o l l t hr o ug ht hea r t i c l ea nd pr o c e s sl a r g ea mo unt so fi nf o r ma t i o nt oa c c e s st hi s i nf o r ma t i o n.Asa ne x pe r i e nc e dWi k i pe di aus e r ,La ur ak no wst ha ts he ’ l lf i nd Da r wi n ’ sbi r t hda t ei nt hef i r s ts e nt e nc eo ft heWi k i pe di aa r t i c l eo nDa r wi n. The r ei snor e a s o nt odo ubtt ha t Cl a r ka ndCha l me r s ’ t hi r dc o ndi t i o ni sme t .I nt hec a s eo fDa r wi n ’ sbi r t hda t e , 9 La ur a ’ sa c c e s st oi nf o r ma t i o nf r o m Wi k i pe di awi l lb ea tl e a s ta squi c ka ndr e l i a bl e a sOt t o ’ sa c c e s st oi nf o r ma t i o nf r o m hi sno t e bo o k .Fur t he r mo r e ,t he r ea r e c o unt l e s se x a mpl e st ha ta r ea na l o g o ust ot hec a s eo fDa r wi n ’ sbi r t hda t e .Ev e ni f weo nl yc o ns i de rav e r yl i mi t e ds e to fi nf o r ma t i o ns uc ha sbi o g r a phi c a lda t aa nd g e o g r a phi c a lc o o r di na t e s ,a c c e s st oWi k i pe di as e e mst oe ns ur et ha tLa ur aha s l i t e r a l l ymi l l i o nso fune x pe c t e ddi s po s i t i o na lbe l i e f sa bo utbi r t hda t e so fs c i e nt i s t s a ndpo l i t i c i a ns ,g e o g r a phi c a lc o o r di na t e so fv i l l a g e s ,i s l a nds ,mo nume nt s ,a nds o o n. I fweo nl yc o ns i de rCl a r ka ndCha l me r s ’c o ndi t i o ns( 1) –( 3 ) ,t he nweha v et o a c c e pta ne x pl o s i o no fk no wl e dg ea ndt hef a c tt ha tLa ur aa c t ua l l yha smi l l i o nso f une x pe c t e d di s po s i t i o na lbe l i e f st ha ta r ec o ns t i t ut e db yi nf o r ma t i o nf r o m Wi k i pe di aa ndo t he ro nl i ner e s o ur c e s . I fwewa ntt oa v o i dt hi sc o nc l us i o n, weha v e t oe ndo r s et hef o ur t hc o ndi t i o nt ha tr e qui r e ss o mef o r mo fa ut ho r s hi po rc a us a l r e s po ns i b i l i t yf o ri nf o r ma t i o n( c o mpa r eThe i ne r , 20 11, pp . 69–71 ) . Mo s to fusa r e no ta ut ho r so rc a us a l l yr e s po ns i b l ef o ra nyi nf o r ma t i o no nWi k i pe di a . The r e f o r e , ( 4 )s e e mst oo f f e ra na t t r a c t i v ewa yo fe x c l udi ngmi l l i o nso fWi k i pe di a ba s e d di s po s i t i o na lbe l i e f sa bo utbi r t hda t e s , g e o g r a phi c a lc o o r di na t e s , a nds oo n. Unf o r t una t e l y ,as l i g htv a r i a t i o no ft het ho ug hte x pe r i me nti l l us t r a t e st ha tt he f o ur t hc r i t e r i o ni si nc o mpa t i bl ewi t hCl a r ka ndCha l me r s ’ a c t i v ee x t e r na l i s m( s e e a l s oRupe r t ,2004f o rs i mi l a rwo r r i e sa bo utt hef o ur t hc r i t e r i o n) .Le tusa s s ume t ha tLa ur ai sa l s oapa s s i o na t ee di t o ro fWi k i pe di aa ndt ha ts hes pe c i a l i z e so n upda t i ngl a r g ec hunk so fda t a . Whe ne v e rs hef i ndsane wa ndt r us t wo r t hyda t as e t , s hea ddst hemi s s i ngi nf o r ma t i o nt oWi k i pe di a . Ass heo f t e na ddsl a r g ec hunk so f da t at ha tr e qui r ea nupda t eo fhundr e dso fa r t i c l e s , s hedo e sno tk e e pt r a c ko fwha t a r t i c l e ss heha se di t e d. Fo re x a mpl e , s heha supda t e dt hepo pul a t i o no fTi j ua nabut no tt he po pul a t i o no fGua da l a j a r a .She ha sa l s o upda t e dt he g e o g r a phi c a l c o o r di na t e so ft heBe l i z i a ni s l a ndLo ngCa ybutno to fHi c k ’ sCa y .I fwea c c e pt ( 4 ) ,weha v et oc o nc l udet ha tLa ur ak no wst hepo pul a t i o no fTi j ua naa ndt he g e o g r a phi c a lc o o r di na t e so fLo ngCa ybutno tt hepo pul a t i o no fGua da l a j a r ao r t heg e o g r a phi c a lc o o r di na t e so fHi c k ’ sCa y . Ho we v e r , t hi si suna c c e pt a bl ef o rpr o po ne nt so fa na c t i v ee x t e r na l i s m: a c c o r di ngt o 10 o urt ho ug hte x pe r i me nt ,La ur ado e sno te v e nr e me mbe rwha ta r t i c l e ss heha s upda t e d.I fs hene e dst hei nf o r ma t i o na ts o mel a t e rpo i nt ,he ra c c e s st ot he i nf o r ma t i o na bo utTi j ua nao rLo ngCa yi sf unc t i o na l l ya ndphe no me no l o g i c a l l y e qui v a l e nthe ra c c e s st ot hei nf o r ma t i o na bo utGua da l a j a r ao rHi c k ’ sCa y .I fs he wa nt st ok no wt hepo pul a t i o no fTi j ua naa ndGua da l a j a r ao rt heg e o g r a phi c a l c o o r di na t e so fLo ngCa ya ndHi c k ’ sCa y ,s hewi l ll o o kupt heWi k i pe di aa r t i c l e s a ndhe ri nf o r ma t i o nr e t r i e v a lwi l lbee x a c t l yt hes a menoma t t e rwhe t he rs he a dde dt hei nf o r ma t i o no rno t . Cl a r ka ndCha l me r ss t r e s st hea c t i v ec ha r a c t e ro ft he i re x t e r na l i s m: I nt hec a s e swede s c r i be. . . , t her e l e v a nte x t e r na lf e a t ur e sa r ea c t i v e , pl a y i ngac r uc i a l r o l ei nt hehe r e a ndno w. Be c a us et he ya r ec o upl e dwi t ht hehuma no r g a ni s m, t he y ha v eadi r e c ti mpa c to nt heo r g a ni s ma ndo ni t sbe ha v i o ur .I nt he s ec a s e s ,t he r e l e v a ntpa r t so ft hewo r l da r ei nt hel o o p ,no tda ng l i nga tt heo t he re ndo fal o ng c a us a lc ha i n. Co nc e nt r a t i ngo nt hi ss o r to fc o upl i ngl e a dsust oa na c t i v ee x t e r na l i s m, a so ppo s e dt ot hepa s s i v ee x t e r na l i s mo fPut na ma ndBur g e .( Cl a r k& Cha l me r s , 1998, p . 13) Thepr o bl e mi st ha t( 4)unde r mi ne st hea c t i v ec ha r a c t e ro ft he i re x t e r na l i s ma st he di f f e r e nc ebe t we e nLa ur a ’ sa c c e s st ot hei nf o r ma t i o na bo utTi j ua na / Lo ngCa ya nd t hei nf o r ma t i o na bo utGua da l a j a r a / Hi c k ’ sCa yi se nt i r e l yhi s t o r i c a lwhi l et he r e l e v a ntr o l e s“ i nt hehe r e a ndno w”a r ee x a c t l yt hes a me . Ano t he rwa yo fma k i ng t hes a mepo i nti st oi nv o k eTwi nEa r t ht ho ug hte x pe r i me nt s .I ma g i neTwi nLa ur awho upda t e sTwi nWi k i pe di ao nTwi nEa r t h.Twi nEa r t hi sa ne x a c t r e pl i c ao fo urEa r t hwi t ho nl yo nedi f f e r e nc e : • Whe nTwi nLa ur ae di t e dTwi nWi k i pe di a ,t heda t ao fTwi nGua da l a j a r awa s o ut da t e d, s os heupda t e dt hea r t i c l e . v e r s us • Whe nLa ur ae di t e dWi k i pe di a ,t heda t ao fGuda l a j a r awa sno to ut da t e ds os he di dno tupda t et hea r t i c l e . I fwee ndo r s e( 4) , weha v et oc o nc l udet ha tTwi nLa ur ak no wst hepo pul a t i o no f 11 Twi nGua da l a j a r a( s heupda t e dt hea r t i c l e )whi l eLa ur ado e sno tk no wt he po pul a t i o no fGua da l a j a r a( s hedi d no tupda t et hea r t i c l e ) .Ho we v e r ,t hi si s i nc o mpa t i bl ewi t ha na c t i v ee x t e r na l i s ma sLa ur aa ndTwi nLa ur ac a n bei n e x a c t l yt hes a mes i t ua t i o nwhe nt he yl o o kupt hepo pul a t i o no fGua da l a j a r ao na l a t e ro c c a s i o n.The r ei snof unc t i o na lo rphe no me no l o g i c a ldi f f e r e nc ebe t we e n La ur a ’ sa ndTwi nLa ur a ’ si nf o r ma t i o na c c e s s .Theo nl ydi f f e r e nc ei shi s t o r i c a l whi c hi swhyt hee ndo r s e me nto f( 4)wo ul dt r a ns f o r ma na c t i v ee x t e r na l i s mi nt oa pa s s i v ePut na mBur g e s t y l ee x t e r na l i s m. 5. Re s po ns e s Thee x a mpl e so ft hel a s ts e c t i o ns ug g e s tt ha t( 4 )i sno to nl yc o unt e r i nt ui t i v ebut a l s oa to ddswi t ht hev e r yi de ao fa na c t i v ee x t e r na l i s m. Obv i o us l y , o nec a nr e a c tt o t hi ss i t ua t i o ni ndi f f e r e ntwa y s . I nt e r na l i s t sa r ei nt hemo s tc o nv e ni e nts i t ua t i o na s t he yc a ns i mpl ya r g uet ha tt hee x pl o s i o no fk no wl e dg et hr o ug hdi g i t a lme di a c r e a t e saf ur t he rpr o bl e mf o ro rma y bee v e nar e duc t i oo fe x t e r na l i s m. Ex t e r na l i s t s c a nr e a c tt ot hi ss i t ua t i o ni nt hr e edi f f e r e ntwa y s :t he yc a n( i )e ndo r s ea na tl e a s t pa r t l ypa s s i v ee x t e r na l i s mt ha ts t i c k swi t h( 4) ;( i i )f o r mul a t edi f f e r e ntc r i t e r i at ha t e x c l udeme di as uc ha sWi k i pe di a ; o r( i i i )e mbr a c et hee x pl o s i o no fk no wl e dg e . 5. 1( Pa r t l y )Pa s s i v eEx t e r na l i s m Oneo pt i o ni st oe ndo r s ea na tl e a s tpa r t l ypa s s i v ee x t e r na l i s m whi c ha c c e pt st ha t hi s t o r i c a la s pe c t ss uc ha st hedi f f e r e nc ebe t we e nLa ur aa ndTwi nLa ur aa r ec r uc i a l f o rdi s t i ng ui s hi ng c o g ni t i v ea nd no nc o g ni t i v epr o c e s s e s .Thei mpo r t a nc eo f hi s t o r i c a la s pe c t sdo e sno tc o nt r a di c tt hei mpo r t a nc eno nhi s t o r i c a lf unc t i o na l a s pe c t s —bo t ho ft he m ma ybene c e s s a r ybuto nl yj o i nt l ys uf f i c i e nt . Byc o mbi ni ng f unc t i o na la ndhi s t o r i c a lc r i t e r i a ,e x t e r na l i s t sma yho pet of o r mul a t eapo s i t i o n t ha ti s“ a c t i v e ”e no ug ht ome e tCl a r ka ndCha l me r s ’ i nt ui t i o nswhi l es t i l la c c e pt i ng ( 4 )a ndt he r e f o r et hef o l l o wi ngc l a i ms : ( a )La ur ak no wst hepopul a t i o no fTi j ua naa ndt heg e o g r a phi c a lc o o r di na t e so f 12 Lo ngCa ybuts hedo e sno tk no wt hepo pul a t i o no fGua da l a j a r ao rt heg e o g r a phi c a l c o o r di na t e so fHi c k ’ sCa y . ( b)Twi nLa ur ak no wst hepo pul a t i o no fTwi nGua da l a j a r abutLa ur ado e sno t k no wt hepo pul a t i o no fGua da l a j a r a . Idono tt hi nkt ha tt hi smov es ui t se x t e r na l i s t swhos ha r eCl a r ka ndCha l me r s ’ mo t i v a t i o na ndIa s s umet ha ta nypo s i t i o nt ha tr e l i e so nhi s t o r i c a lc r i t e r i as uc ha s ( 4 )wi l le ndupi nc o nf l i c twi t ht hei nt ui t i o nst ha tf ue la c t i v ee x t e r na l i s m. Thev e r y po i nto faCl a r k Cha l me r s s t y l ee x t e r na l i s mi st or e j e c ta r t i f i c i a lbo unda r i e s be t we e nt hec o g ni t i v ea ndno nc o g ni t i v et ha tdono tr e f l e c ti mpo r t a ntdi f f e r e nc e s . Ho we v e r , t hebo unda r i e st ha ta r ei mpl i e db y( a )a nd( b)a r ea tl e a s ta sa r t i f i c i a la nd dubi o usa st hei nt e r na l i s tbo unda r ybe t we e nbr a i nbo unda nde x t e r na lpr o c e s s e s . I fe x t e r na l i s t sr e j e c tt hel a t t e rbo unda r ybe c a us ei ti sf unc t i o na l l yuni nt e r e s t i ng , t he ys ho ul dc e r t a i nl yno te ndo r s et hef o r me rbo unda r i e st ha ta r ev ul ne r a bl et ot he s a mek i ndo fo bj e c t i o ns . Or , t oputi tdi f f e r e nt l y : o fc o ur s e , wec a na ddahi s t o r i c a l c r i t e r i o ns uc ha s( 4 )a sane c e s s a r yc o ndi t i o nf o rc o g ni t i v epr o c e s s e s( whoc o ul d s t o pus ? ) , butCl a r ka ndCha l me r s ’ a c t i v ee x t e r na l i s mi sbui l to nt hei de at ha tt he di s t i nc t i o ns we dr a w be t we e nc o g ni t i v ea nd no nc o g ni t i v e pr o c e s s e s ne e d j us t i f i c a t i o n.Wene e dt obea bl et os ho wt ha to urdi s t i nc t i o nsc o r r e s po ndwi t h me a ni ng f uldi f f e r e nc e st ha ta r e , f o re x a mpl e , i nl i newi t ht hepa r i t ypr i nc i pl eo ri n s o me o t he rwa yi nt e r e s t i ng f o rc o g ni t i v es c i e nt i s t s . Ho we v e r ,my t ho ug ht e x pe r i me nt so fLa ur as ug g e s tt ha t( 4 )wi l li mpl ydi s t i nc t i o nss uc ha s( a )a nd( b) t ha ta r eno tj us t i f i a bl eb ypo i nt i ngt o wa r dst hepa r i t ypr i nc i pl eo ra nyo t he r me a ni ng f uldi f f e r e nc e si nLa ur a ’ sc o g ni t i v er o ut i ne s . Thedubi o uss t a t uso ft hedi s t i nc t i o nst ha ta r ei mpl i e db y( 4)a l s obe c o me sc l e a r b yc o ns i de r i ngpo s s i b l es c i e nt i f i ca ppl i c a t i o ns . Onet heo neha nd, wec a ni ma g i ne ame a ni ng f uli nt e r na l i s tf r a me wo r ki nps y c ho l o gyt ha tr e j e c t sLa ur a ’ sk no wl e dg e o ft hepo pul a t i o no fTi j ua naa nd Gua da l a j a r aa ss heo nl yha sa c c e s st ot hi s i nf o r ma t i o nt hr o ug h Wi k i pe di a .On t heo t he rha nd,wec a na l s oi ma g i nea me a ni ng f ule x t e r na l i s tf r a me wo r ki nps y c ho l o gyt ha ta c c e pt sLa ur a ’ sk no wl e dg eo f t hepo pul a t i o no fTi j ua naa ndGua da l a j a r aa she ri nf o r ma t i o na c c e s si si nma ny 13 wa y se qui v a l e ntt ohe ra c c e s st obr a i nbo undi nf o r ma t i o n. Ho we v e r , i ti sv e r yha r d t oi ma g i nea nys c i e nt i f i cus eo fa f r a me wo r kt ha tt r e a t sLa ur aa sk no wi ngt hepo pul a t i o no fTi j ua nabutno to f Gua da l a j a r a .Suc h af r a me wo r k do e s no ts e e m us e f ulbe c a us ei ti mpl i e s di s t i nc t i o nst ha tdono tc o r r e s po ndwi t ht hek i ndo fdi f f e r e nc e s( e . g . ,be ha v i o r a l , ne ur a l ,phe no me na l )t ha tc o g ni t i v es c i e nt i s t sa r eu s ua l l yi nt e r e s t e di n.Thev e r y po i nto fa ne x t e r na l i s mi nt hes pi r i tCl a r ka ndCha l me r si st oa l l o wc o g ni t i v e s c i e nt i s t st odr a wt hel i nebe t we e nc o g ni t i v ea ndno nc o g ni t i v epr o c e s s e sa l o ng di f f e r e nc e st ha ta c t ua l l yma t t e rf o rt he i rr e s e a r c hi ns t e a do ff o r c i ngt he mt oa c c e pt c r i t e r i as uc ha s“ i ns i det hehe a dv e r s uso ut s i det hehe a d”t ha ts e e ma r bi t r a r yf r o m ar e s e a r c hpe r s pe c t i v e .Unf o r t una t e l y ,t hedi s t i nc t i o nst ha ta r ei mpl i e db y( a )a nd ( b)wi l la ppe a re qua l l ya r bi t r a r ya st he ydono tc o r r e s po ndt odi f f e r e nc e st ha ta r e o fi mpo r t a nc ef o rc o g ni t i v es c i e nt i s t s . Onema yo bj e c tt ha thi s t o r i c a lc r i t e r i as uc ha s( 4)c a nbei mpo r t a nti ns c i e nc ea sa l o o ka to t he rdi s c i pl i ne si nt hel i f es c i e nc e si l l u s t r a t e s . Fo re x a mpl e , ma nya c c o unt s o fs pe c i e si nc o nt e mpo r a r ybi o l o gya r ea tl e a s tpa r t l yhi s t o r i c a la st he ypo s t ul a t e mo no phy l e t i co r i g i na sane c e s s a r yc o ndi t i o nf o rs pe c i e sme mbe r s hi p( c o mpa r e Er e s he f s k y ,2000 ) .Ho we v e r ,t he r ei sa ni mpo r t a ntdi f f e r e nc ebe t we e n pa r t l y hi s t o r i c a la c c o unt so fs pe c i e sa ndpa r t l yhi s t o r i c a la c c o unt so fc o g ni t i o ni nt he s e ns eo f( 4) . I nt hec a s eo fs pe c i e s , s ha r e da nc e s t r yi so f t e ns ug g e s t e da sac r i t e r i o n be c a us ei ti so fut mo s ti mpo r t a nc ef o rt heunde r s t a ndi ngo fbi o l o g i c a ldi f f e r e nc e s be t we e no r g a ni s ms .Thes i t ua t i o ni sdi f f e r e nti nt hec a s eo f( 4)a si ti sf a rf r o m c l e a rwha te x pl a na t o r ybe ne f i t sc o g ni t i v es c i e nt i s t swo ul dg a i nf r o m di s t i nc t i o nsa s t he ya r ei mpl i e db y( a )o r( b ) . Ofc o ur s e , t hi sdo e sno tpr ov et ha ti ti se mpi r i c a l l y o re v e nme t a phy s i c a l l yi mpo s s i b l et ha tc o g ni t i v es c i e nt i s t sc o ul dde v e l o pi nt e r e s t s t ha tt ur n( 4 )i nt oa ni nt e r e s t i ngc r i t e r i o n.Buts uc hapr o o fi sno tne c e s s a r ya nd a l s ono ta v a i l a bl ewi t hr e s pe c tt oc o unt l e s so t he ra r bi t r a r yc r i t e r i a . Ex t e r na l i s mi n t hes pi r i to fCl a r ka ndCha l me r sa v o i dst hepr o bl e mo fa r bi t r a r yc r i t e r i ab yur g i ng ust ol o o ka tt he a c t ua le x pl a na t o r yi nt e r e s t so fc o g ni t i v es c i e nt i s t s .Thi s s ug g e s t i o nbr i ng susba c kt ot heo bs e r v a t i o nt ha tdi s t i nc t i o nsa st he ya r ei mpl i e d b y( a )a nd( b)dono ts e e mt oc o r r e s po ndt oa nydi f f e r e nc e st ha ta r eo fa c t ua l 14 i mpo r t a nc ei nc o nt e mpo r a r yc o g ni t i v es c i e nc e . 5. 2Al t e r na t i v eCr i t e r i a Ex t e r na l i s t sdono tha v et oa c c e ptCl a r ka ndCha l me r s ’ c r i t e r i aa ndo nema ya r g ue t ha tt he e x pl o s i o no fk no wl e dg ec a n be a v o i de db yc o ns i de r i ng a l t e r na t i v e e x t e r na l i s tr e s po ns e st ot hede ma r c a t i o npr o bl e m.Ro wl a nds( 2009) ,f o re x a mpl e , s ug g e s t sa na l t e r na t i v es e to fc r i t e r i ai nhi sdi s c us s i o no ft hepr o bl e mo fc o g ni t i v e bl o a t . Ac c o r di ngt oRo wl a nds( 2009, p . 8 ) , apr o c e s sPi sac o g ni t i v epr o c e s si fa nd o nl yi ft hef o l l o wi ngf o urc o ndi t i o nsa r eme t : ( 1)P i nv o l v e si nf o r ma t i o n pr o c e s s i ng —t hema ni pul a t i o na nd t r a ns f o r ma t i o no f i nf o r ma t i o nbe a r i ngs t r uc t ur e s . ( 2)Thi si nf o r ma t i o npr o c e s s i ngha st hepr o pe rf unc t i o no fma k i nga v a i l a bl ee i t he rt o t hes ub j e c to rt os ubs e que ntpr o c e s s i ngo pe r a t i o nsi nf o r ma t i o nt ha twa s( o rwo ul d ha v ebe e n)pr i o rt o( o rwi t ho ut )t hi spr o c e s s i ng , una v a i l a bl e . ( 3)Thi si nf o r ma t i o ni sma dea v a i l a bl eb ywa yo ft hepr o duc t i o n, i nt hes ub j e c to fP , o far e pr e s e nt a t i o na ls t a t e . ( 4)Pi sapr o c e s st ha tbe l o ng st ot hes ubj e c to ft ha tr e pr e s e nt a t i o na ls t a t e . Al t ho ug h Ro wl a nds ’c r i t e r i ac l e a r l ye x c l udema nyba c k g r o und pr o c e s s e sf r o m c o unt i nga sc o g ni t i v epr o c e s s e s ,i ti sf a rf r o mc l e a rt ha tt he ya l s oe x c l udedi g i t a l i nf o r ma t i o nr e s o ur c e st ha ta r ea c c e s s e dt hr o ug hamo bi l ede v i c e . Le tuss t i c kwi t h t hee x a mpl eo fLa ur a ’ sus eo f Wi k i pe di at oa c c e s st hei nf o r ma t i o nt ha tDa r wi n wa sbo r ni n1809. Ia s s umet ha tt he r ec a nbel i t t l edo ubtt ha tt hi se x a mpl es a t i s f i e s Ro wl a nds ’c r i t e r i a( 1) – ( 3) . Cl e a r l y , La ur a ’ si nf o r ma t i o n a c c e s s“ i nv o l v e s i nf o r ma t i o npr o c e s s i ng”i nt hes e ns eo f( 1)a sLa ur a ’ sc e l lpho neus ei nv o l v e st he ma ni pul a t i o n a nd t r a ns f o r ma t i o n o f a n i nf o r ma t i o nbe a r i ng s t r uc t ur e . Fur t he r mo r e , t hef unc t i o no ft hi spr o c e s si st oma k ei nf o r ma t i o na v a i l a bl et ha twa s pr e v i o us l yuna v a i l a bl ea ndt he r e f o r es a t i s f i e sRo wl a nds ’ c o ndi t i o n( 2) . Fi na l l y , i ti s e qua l l yo bv i o ust ha tt hec o ndi t i o n( 3)i ss a t i s f i e dt hr o ug hLa ur a ’ sr e pr e s e nt a t i o na l s t a t et ha tDa r wi nwa sbo r ni n1809. Whe t he rRo wl a nds ’ c r i t e r i aa v o i da ne x pl o s i o no fk no wl e dg et he r e f o r ede pe ndso n t hei nt e r pr e t a t i o no fhi sf o ur t hc r i t e r i o n, i . e . , t hei de at ha tt hepr o c e s smus tbe l o ng 15 t ot he c o g ni t i v es ubj e c t .Al t ho ug h Ro wl a nds a dmi t st ha tt he c r i t e r i o no f o wne r s hi pi sr a t he rv a g ue ,hea t t e mpt st oc l a r i f yi tt hr o ug ha na na l o gywi t h o wne r s hi po fno nc o g ni t i v edi g e s t i v epr o c e s s e s( 2009, pp . 16–17) . Us ua l l y , di g e s t i v e pr o c e s s e si nmybo dybe l o ngt omewhi l edi g e s t i v epr o c e s s e si ns o me o nee l s e ’ s bo dydono tbe l o ngt ome .Ho we v e r ,wec a nc o ns t r uc ts c i e nc ef i c t i o nt ho ug ht e x pe r i me nt si nwhi c hmydi g e s t i v epr o c e s s e sa r el o c a t e di ns o me o nee l s e ’ sbo dyi f t he ya r epr o pe r l yi nt e g r a t e dwi t hmybo di l yf unc t i o nsi nt hes e ns et ha tt he y ,f o r e x a mpl e , pr o c e s smyf o o da ndr e l e a s ee ne r gyi nt omybo dy . Ro wl a ndss ug g e s t st ha t we c a n unde r s t a nd o wne r s hi po fc o g ni t i v e pr o c e s s e si na na na l o g o uswa y . I nt e g r a t i o na ndno tl o c a t i o ni st hec r uc i a lf e a t ur e —i no r de rf o rapr o c e s st obemy c o g ni t i v epr o c e s s , i tmus tbepr o pe r l yi nt e g r a t e di nmyc o g ni t i v es y s t e m. Ro wl a nds ’c r i t e r i aa v o i da ne x pl o s i o no fk no wl e dg eo nl yi fo nec a ns ho wt ha t i nf o r ma t i o na c c e s sf r o m di g i t a lr e s o ur c e ss uc ha s Wi k i pe di ai sno tpr o pe r l y i nt e g r a t e di nc o g ni t i v es y s t e ms .Unf o r t una t e l y ,Idono ts e ewhyOt t o ’ sa c c e s st o Go o g l eo rLa ur a ’ sa c c e s st oWi k i pe di as ho ul dno tbepr o pe r l yi nt e g r a t e di nt he i r c o g ni t i v es y s t e ms .Ag a i n,c o ns i de rt hec a s eo fOt t os wi t c hi ngf r o m ano t e bo o k ba s e dme t ho do fi nf o r ma t i o na c c e s st oac e l l pho ne ba s e dme t ho do fi nf o r ma t i o n a c c e s s . Whi l eOt t ous e dt or e t r i e v et hei nf o r ma t i o nt ha tt heMo MA i sl o c a t e do f 53r ds t r e e tf r o m hi sno t e bo o k , heno wr e t r i e v e si tf r o m as e a r c he ng i neo nhi sc e l l pho ne .Iha v ea r g ue dt ha tbo t hme t ho dsc a nt ur no utt obef unc t i o na l l ya nd phe no me no l o g i c a l l ye qui v a l e nt :i nbo t hc a s e s ,Ot t oha squi c ka ndr e l i a bl ea c c e s s t oi nf o r ma t i o na ndo nec a ni ma g i net ha tbo t hf o r mso fi nf o r ma t i o na c c e s sc a n be c o mepa r to fOt t o ’ s“ s e c o ndna t ur e ”i nt hes e ns et ha thea ut o ma t i c a l l ya c c e s s e s a nde ndo r s e st hei nf o r ma t i o nwhe nhi sbi o l o g i c a lme mo r yf a i l s .Bo t hf o r mso f i nf o r ma t i o na c c e s st he r e f o r es ho wt hes a mede g r e eo fi nt e g r a t i o n,a ndRo wl a nds ’ c r i t e r i adono tl e a dt oa ne x t e r na l i s mt ha ta v o i dst hee x pl o s i o no fk no wl e dg e . Ev e ni fCl a r ka nd Cha l me r s ’c r i t e r i aa swe l la sRo wl a nds ’c r i t e r i ai mpl ya n e x pl o s i o no fk no wl e dg e , e x t e r na l i s t sma ys t i l lho pet oc o meupwi t ha na l t e r na t i v e s e to fc r i t e r i at ha tl e a v e sr o o mf o re x t e nde dc o g ni t i o nwhi l ee x c l udi ngi nf o r ma t i o n r e s o ur c e ss uc ha sGo o g l eo rWi k i pe di a .Fo re x a mpl e ,Ka pl a nha ss ug g e s t e da n a c c o unt“ a c c o r di ngt owhi c hc o g ni t i v ebo unda r i e sa r ede t e r mi ne db yr e l a t i o ns hi ps 16 o fmut ua lma ni pul a bi l i t y be t we e nt he pr o pe r t i e sa nd a c t i v i t i e so fput a t i v e c o mpo ne nt sa ndt heov e r a l lbe ha v i o ro ft hec o g ni t i v eme c ha ni s mi nwhi c ht he y f i g ur e ”( 2012,p .545) . We i s k o pfha spr o po s e da“ v i e wo fs y s t e msde ma r c a t i o no n whi c hc o g ni t i v es y s t e msa r es e t so f me c ha ni s msf o rpr o duc i ngc o g ni t i v epr o c e s s e st ha ta r ebo unde db yt r a ns duc e r s a nde f f e c t o r s ”( 2010, p . 313) . Ev e ni fbo t hpr o po s a l sa r ev e r yi nt e r e s t i ng , t he ywi l l c l e a r l y no ts o l v et he e x t e r na l i s t s ’t r o ubl e swi t h Wi k i pe di a .Ka pl a n ’ s“ mut ua l ma ni pul a bi l i t y ”pr ov i de sf unc t i o na lc o ndi t i o nsf o rc o g ni t i v epr o c e s s e st ha twi l lno t di s t i ng ui s hbe t we e nLa ur a ’ sus eo fWi k i pe di aa ndt y pi c a le x t e r na l i s te x a mpl e s s uc ha s Ot t o ’ s us eo f a no t e bo o k .We i s k o pf f o l l o ws Py l y s hy n ’ s( 1984 ) c ha r a c t e r i z a t i o no ft r a ns duc e r sa nd e f f e c t o r s whi c hl e a ds t oa ni nt e r na l i s t f r a me wo r kt ha tpr e v e nt sa ne x pl o s i o no fk no wl e dg eb uta l s oe x c l ude sa l lo t he r c o mmo ne x t e r na l i s te x a mpl e s . Ano t he rpo t e nt i a ls o ur c ef o rde ma r c a t i o nc r i t e r i aa r e“ s e c o ndwa v ee x t e r na l i s ms ” t ha tdono tr e l yo nc o ns i de r a t i o nso fpa r i t ya ndt hes i mi l a r i t yo fi nt e r na la nd e x t e r na lpr o c e s s e s( Me na r y ,2010;Sut t o n,2010 ) .I ns t e a do fpa r i t y ,s e c o ndwa v e r s s t r e s s“ c o mpl e me nt a r i t y ”a nd t hef unc t i o na le nt a ng l e me nto ft hebr a i n wi t h e x t e r na lme di a : Br a i nsl i k eo ur sne e dme di a ,o bj e c t s ,a ndo t he rpe o pl et of unc t i o nf ul l ya smi nds . Se e i ngt hebr a i na sal e a k ya s s o c i a t i v ee ng i ne ,i t sc o nt e nt sf l i c k e r i nga nduns t a bl e r a t he rt ha nmi r r o r i ngt hewo r l di nf ul l ,f o r c e sa t t e nt i o nt oo urr e l i a nc eo ne x t e r na l r e pr e s e nt a t i o nsi nt het e c hno l o g i c a la ndc ul t u r a lwi l d. ( Sut t o n, 2010, p . 205) Al t ho ug hs e c o ndwa v ee x t e r na l i s mi sa t t r a c t i v ei nma nywa y s ,i tdo e sno to f f e ra s i mpl es o l ut i o nt ot hepr o bl e mo fa ne x pl o s i o no fk no wl e dg e .Ont hec o nt r a r y ,i t s e e ms o bv i o us t ha ta c o ns i de r a t i o n o ff unc t i o na le nt a ng l e me nt sa nd c o mpl e me nt a r i t ywi l lno tl e a dt oadi s t i nc t i o nbe t we e ns t a nda r dc a s e so fe x t e nde d c o g ni t i o na nd mye x a mpl e si nv o l v i ngWi k i pe di ao rGo o g l ebe c a us eo ft he i r f unc t i o na le qui v a l e nc e . Ofc o ur s e ,t he r ec o ul ds t i l le x i s ts o mes e to fe x t e r na l i s tc r i t e r i at ha ts uc c e s s f ul l y pr e v e nt sa ne x pl o s i o no fk no wl e dg e ,buti ti sdi f f i c ul tt os e ewha ts uc hc r i t e r i a 17 c o ul dl o o kl i k e .Fur t he r mo r e ,t he f unc t i o na la s we l la s phe no me no l o g i c a l e qui v a l e nc eo fOt t o ’ sme t ho dso fi nf o r ma t i o nr e t r i e v a ls ug g e s tt ha ti twi l lbev e r y di f f i c ul tt of o r mul a t ec r i t e r i at ha ta v o i da ne x pl o s i o no fk no wl e dg ewhi l es t i l l be i ngc o ns i s t e ntwi t ht heba s i ci nt ui t i o nst ha tmo t i v a t ee x t e r na l i s m. 5. 3Embr a c i ngt heEx pl o s i o no fKno wl e dg e I fe x t e r na l i s t sg i v eup( 4 )a ndc a nno tc o meupwi t ha l t e r na t i v ec r i t e r i at ha te x c l ude di g i t a lme di a , t he yha v et opa yt hepr i c eo fa ne x pl o s i o no fk no wl e dg e . Pe o pl es uc h a sOt t oa ndLa ur awhoha v ema demo bi l ea c c e s st oGo o g l eo rWi k i pe di apa r to f t he i rs e c o ndna t ur eha v eat r ul yi mpr e s s i v ea mo unto ff a c t ua lk no wl e dg e .Ot t o do e sno to nl yk no wt hea ddr e s so ft heMo MA butt hea ddr e s so fa l mo s te v e r y ma j o rmus e um i nt hewo r l d.La ur ado e sno to nl yk no wt hepo pul a t i o no f Gua da l a j a r abuto fe v e r yma j o rc i t yi nt hewor l d.Ands oo n.Qui c ka ndr e l i a bl e mo bi l ea c c e s st oi nf o r ma t i o nr e s o ur c e ss uc ha sGo o g l eo rWi k i pe di al i t e r a l l y c r e a t e smi l l i o nso fdi s po s i t i o na lbe l i e f s . Ma nyi nt e r na l i s t swi l lbei nc l i ne dt oi nt e r pr e tt hi sr e s ul ta sar e duc t i oo ft hev e r y i de ao fe x t e nde dc o g ni t i o n. Ho we v e r , a ne x pl o s i o no fk no wl e dg ema ya c t ua l l yno t bea sa bs ur da si ta ppe a r so nf i r s ts i g ht . Pe o pl ewhoi nc o r po r a t edi g i t a la ndmo bi l e t e c hno l o g i e si nt he i re v e r y da yl i f ea ndt he i rc o g ni t i v er o ut i ne sa l t e rt he i rc o g ni t i v e e c o no mypr o f o undl y .Thet ho ug hte x pe r i me nto fOt t o ’ sc e l lpho nei sj us to ne e x a mpl eo ft het r a ns f o r ma t i o no fa na l o gi nt odi g i t a lc o g ni t i v ee nv i r o nme nt st ha ti s mo r et ha nc o mmo na tt hebe g i nni ngo ft het we nt y f i r s tc e nt ur y .Ma y bei ti sno t t ha ti mpl a us i b l et oc l a i mt ha tt hi st r a ns f o r ma t i o nc o me swi t ha ne x pl o s i o no f di s po s i t i o na lbe l i e f sa ndk no wl e dg ea bo uts i mpl ef a c t ss uc ha sa ddr e s s e so rc i t y po pul a t i o ns . No t et ha ta ne x pl o s i o no fk no wl e dg ei nt hi ss e ns edo e sno ti mpl ya ne x pl o s i o no f unde r s t a ndi ngo fc o mpl e xs i t ua t i o ns . La ur a ,f o re x a mpl e , ma yk no wal o to fba s i c f a c t sa bo utCha r l e sDa r wi n,butt ha tdo e sno tme a nt ha ts heha sa c t ua l l y unde r s t a ndi ngo fDa r wi n ’ ss c i e nt i f i cwo r k . Shema yk no wma nyde mo g r a phi cf a c t s a bo utMe x i c o ,butt ha tdo e sno tme a nt ha ts heha sapr o f o undunde r s t a ndi ngo f t hede mo g r a phi c so fMe x i c o( de mo g r a phi cdy na mi c s ,t he i runde r l y i ngc a us e s , 18 t he i re f f e c t so ns o c i e t y ,e t c . ) .Al t ho ug ht hi sk i ndo fi nde pt hi nf o r ma t i o nma ybe a v a i l a bl eo nl i ne ,i t sr e t r i e v a lwo ul dr e qui r et o omuc ht i mea ndc o g ni t i v ee f f o r tt o s a t i s f yCl a r ka ndCha l me r s ’ t hi r dc o ndi t i o na ndt oc o ns t i t ut ee x t e nde dbe l i e f s . Gi v e nt hi sdi s t i nc t i o n be t we e nk no wl e dg eo fs i mpl ef a c t ss uc ha sa ddr e s s e s , bi o g r a phi c a l da t a ,o r po pul a t i o n numbe r sa nd unde r s t a ndi ng o fc o mpl e x s i t ua t i o ns ,t hee x pl o s i o no fk no wl e dg et hr o ug hdi g i t a lme di ama ya c t ua l l ys o und l e s sa bs ur da ndbe c o mepa r to fac o nv i nc i ngi nt e r pr e t a t i o no ft hei mpa c to fdi g i t a l me di aa ndmo bi l et e c hno l o g i e so no urc o g ni t i v ee c o no mi e s( s e ea l s oLudwi g , f o r t hc o mi ng ) . Re f e r e nc e s • Al l e nHe r ma ns o n,S.( 2012) .Supe r dupe r s i z i ng t he mi nd:Ex t e nde d c o g ni t i o na ndt hepe r s i s t e nc eo fc o g ni t i v ebl o a t .Phi l o s o phi c a lSt udi e s , 158( 1 ) , 1–16. • Cl a r k , A. ( 2008) . Supe r s i z i ngt hemi nd. Ox f o r d: Ox f o r dUni v e r s i t yPr e s s . • Cl a r k ,A.( 2010) .Me me nt o ’ sr e v e ng e .I nR.Me na r y( Ed. ) ,Thee x t e nde d mi nd( pp . 43–66 ) . 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