Abstract
The choice between organic and conventional agriculture for farmers is modeled as an ethical decision. Farmers are either loyal to one of the systems or they optimize between systems. This model is empirically validated through a survey among Swiss farmers. A cluster analysis separates farmers into loyal organic, loyal conventional, and optimizing farmers. However, the three resulting clusters bore some, but not all the necessary characteristics of “optimizers” and “loyals.” A probit analysis shows that loyal farmers have larger farms than optimizers. Loyal organic farmers receive less direct payments than optimizers, which confirms the utility-maximizing pattern of the latter group.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aeberhard, A., & Rist, S. (2009). Transdisciplinary co-production of knowledge in the development of organic agriculture. Ecological Economics, 68(4), 1171–1181.
Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Blay-Palmer, A. (2005). Growing innovation policy: The case of organic agriculture in Ontario, Canada. Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy, 23(4), 557–581.
Constance, D. H., & Choi, J. Y. (2010). Overcoming the barriers to organic adoption in the United States: A look at pragmatic conventional producers in Texas. Sustainability, 2(1), 163–188.
Darnhofer, I., Schneeberger, W., & Freyer, B. (2005). Converting or not converting to organic farming in Austria: Farmer types and their rationale. Agriculture and Human Values, 22(1), 39–52.
Diederen, P., van Meijl, H., Wolters, A., & Bijak, K. (2003). Innovation adoption in agriculture: Innovators, early adopters and laggards. Cahiers d’economie et sociologie rurales, 67(1), 29–50.
Fairweather, J. (1999). Understanding how farmers choose between organic and conventional production: Results from New Zealand and policy implications. Agriculture and Human Values, 16(1), 51–63.
Ferjani, A., & Köhler, T. (2007). Welches sind die Bestimmungsfaktoren für den Arbeitsverdienst? Agrarforschung, 14(8), 288–293.
Guthman, J. (2004). Agrarian dreams: The paradox of organic farming in California. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Hanley, N., & Milne, J. (1996). Ethical beliefs and behaviour in contingent valuation surveys. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 39(2), 255–272.
Hassanein, N. (1999). Changing the way America farms. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Hess, J., & Rahmann, G. (2005). Ende der Nische–Beiträge zur 8. Wissenschaftstagung Ökologischer Landbau.. Kassel: Kassel University Press.
Kirner, L., Vogel, S., & Schneeberger, W. (2005). Ausstiegsabsichten und tatsächliche Ausstiegsgründe von Biobauern und Biobäuerinnen in Österreich—Analyse von Befragungsergebnissen. In: J. Heß & G. Rahmann (Hrsg.), Ende der Nische, Beiträge zur 8. Wissenschaftstagung Ökologischer Landbau. Kassel: kassel university press GmbH.
Kirton, M. J. (1992). Adopters and innovators: Problem solving in organizations. In S. S. Gryskiewicz & D. A. Hills (Eds.), Readings in innovation. New York: Center for Creative Leadership.
Latacz-Lohmann, U., & Foster, C. (1997). From “niche” to “mainstream”—strategies for marketing organic food in Germany and the UK. British Food Journal, 99(8), 275–282.
Lips, M., & Eggimann, H. (2007). Erreichen Biobetriebe höhere Arbeitseinkommen? Agrarforschung, 14(8), 338–343.
Mann, S. (2003). Why organic food in Germany is a merit good. Food Policy, 28(5/6), 459–469.
Mayerfeld Bell, M. (2004). Farming for us all. University Park: Pennsylvania University Press.
McCann, E., Sullivan, S., Erickson, D., & DeYoung, R. (1997). Analysis of the determinants of adoption of organic horticultural techniques in the UK. Journal of Agricultural Economics, 50(1), 47–63.
Murdoch, J., & Miele, M. (2004). The new aesthetic of food? Relational reflexivity in the ‘alternative’ food movement. In M. Harvey, A. McMeekin, & A. Warde (Eds.), Qualities of food. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Niggli, U. (1997). Eidgenossen bleiben Spitze. Ökologie und Landbau, 141(1), 22–23.
Nitzan, S., & Paroush, J. (1982). Optimal decision rules in uncertain dichotomous choice situations. International Economic Review, 23(2), 289–297.
Padel, S. (2001). Conversion to organic farming—a typical example of the diffusion of an innovation. Sociologia Ruralis, 41(1), 49–61.
Regouin, E. (2003). To convert or not to convert to organic farming. In OECD (Ed.), Organic agriculture. Paris: OECD.
Reissig, L., Ferjani, A., & Zimmermann, A. (2009). Ausstieg aus dem Biolandbau–steigende Tendenz in der Schweiz. Agrarforschung, 16(4), 124–128.
Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of innovations (5th ed.). New York: Free Press.
Rouvinen, P. (2002). Characteristics of product and process innovators: some evidence from the Finnish innovation survey. Applied Economics Letters, 9(9), 575–580.
Schmid, J. (2005). Der Ausstieg aus dem Biolandbau in Österreich—Ergebnisse einer Befragung. Universität für Bodenkultur Wien Department für Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaften. Institut für Agrar- und Forstökonomie. Wien: BOKU.
Shapiro, C. (1989). The theory of business strategy. Rand Journal of Economics, 20(1), 125–137.
Simon, H. A. (1979). Rational decision making in business organizations. American Economic Review, 69(4), 493–513.
Søgaard Jørgensen, M. (2007). Organic food in Denmark–from grass root initiative to market niche. Environmental Engineering and Management Journal, 6(5), 381–389.
Spash, C. L., & Hanley, N. (1995). Preferences, information and biodiversity preservation. Ecological Economics, 12(2), 191–208.
Steiner, R. (1924). Geisteswissenschaftliche Grundlagen zum Gedeihen der Landwirtschaft. Dornach: Rudolf Steiner Verlag.
Stevens, T. H., Echeverria, J., Glass, R. J., Hager, T., & More, T. A. (1991). Measuring the existence value of wildlife: What do CVM estimates really show? Land Economics, 67(4), 390–400.
Thompson, G. D. (1998). Consumer demand for organic food: What we know and what we need to know. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 80(5), 1113–1118.
Tregear, A., Dent, J. B., & McGregor, M. J. (1994). The demand for organically grown produce. British Food Journal, 96(4), 21–25.
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on an earlier version of this paper.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Mann, S., Gairing, M. “Loyals” and “Optimizers”: Shedding Light on the Decision for or Against Organic Agriculture Among Swiss Farmers. J Agric Environ Ethics 25, 365–376 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10806-011-9309-3
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10806-011-9309-3