Abstract
This article deals with the relationship between argumentation and persuasion. It defends the idea that these two concepts are not as opposed as all too often said. If it is important to recognize their differences (there are argumentative discourses without persuasion and persuasive discourses without argumentation), there is nevertheless an overlap, in which characteristics are taken from both. We propose to call this overlap “persuasive argumentation”. In order to bridge argumentation and persuasion, we will first distinguish the latter from manipulation. In the second part of this article, we will analyze four cases of persuasive argumentation: the enthymeme, a few rhetorical figures, narration and visual argumentation.
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Notes
Fidem facere and animos impellere; cf. Barthes (1970; 198–199).
In his contribution to this issue, Tony Blair uses the concept of “rational persuasion”, as well as that of “argumentative persuasion”, while we prefer to use “persuasive argumentation”. Are these expressions simply interchangeable? It seems to us that they are not. Blair’s starting point is Ralph Johnson’s idea that argumentation serves the purpose of rational persuasion (even though Blair considers that argumentation cannot always be identified with attempted rational persuasion). For us, however, argumentation and persuasion remain two separate domains, since we consider that not all argumentation is persuasive, and not all persuasion is argumentative. So, for us, “argumentative persuasion” is a third and mixed territory where argumentation and persuasion overlap, as we will try to explain below.
This dimension of constraint was well developed by Greimas and Courtés (1979, pp. 220–221).
Let’s also call attention to another element upon which we will return in the next section: the fact that manipulation aims to impede A’s freedom of choice.
For this question, refer to Nettel (2011), in particular concerning the difference between to threaten and to warn.
From this point of view, we are distancing ourselves from O’Keefe’s position (1990, p. 15) that persuasion only exists when it succeeds.
Though not in Aristotle.
We use here the term “persuadee” just like” “addressee”, as one to whom persuasion is addressed; it doesn’t mean that he or she has actually been persuaded.
We could note that this position was already present in Aristotle who develops it at the beginning of Rhetoric when he insists upon the importance of truth and fairness, which are naturally stronger than their contraries, and are more persuasive (Aristotle 2005 1355 a 21 and a 38).
For a more detailed development of this question, see Nettel (2011).
For a discussion on this passage, see Grimaldi (1972, pp. 87–91).
We believe that the response is that it can be, but it is not necessarily. Most arguments contain implicit elements, for various reasons, in particular the economic one already given by Aristotle, because it is impossible to make everything explicit. Note that, for example, Toulmin’s backing remains implicit most of the time (Toulmin 1958, p. 106), which does not prevent his schema from being argumentative.
We have elsewhere examined how metonymy’s role can be seen as both persuasive and argumentative; cf. Roque (2011).
It is worth noting that in this same publication, Daniel O’Keefe also calls upon the pragmatic argument as an example of an interface between argumentation and persuasion; for its use in the analysis of anti-war images, see Roque (2008, p. 186).
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In memory of Francis.
Translated from French by Christopher Renna.
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Nettel, A.L., Roque, G. Persuasive Argumentation Versus Manipulation. Argumentation 26, 55–69 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10503-011-9241-8
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10503-011-9241-8