Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Gender Barriers to the Female Mentor – Male Protégé Relationship

  • Published:
Journal of Business Ethics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper explores gender barriers to the formation of the female mentor – male protégé relationship. The authors consider both physiological as well as social gender as a way to help understand the scarcity of these relationships. A number of gender-related factors are considered, including organizational demographics, relational demography, sexual liaisons, gender stereotypes, gender behaviors, and power dynamics. The paper concludes with directions for future research that will help provide further insights into the development and success of the female mentor – male protégé relationship.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Allen, T. D., M. L. Poteet and S. M. Burroughs: 1997, ‘The Mentor's Perspective: A Qualitative Inquiry and Future Research Agenda’, Journal of Vocational Behavior 51, 70–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bardwick, J. and E. Douvan: 1971, ‘Ambivalence: The Socialization of Women', in V. Gornick and B. Moran (eds.), Women in Sexist Society (American Library, New York).

    Google Scholar 

  • Baril, G. L., N. Elbert, S. Mahar-Potter and G. C. Reavy: 1989, ‘Are Androgynous Managers Really More Effective?’, Group and Organization Studies 14(2), 234–249.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumgardner, T. L., R. G. Lord and K. J. Maher: 1991, ‘Perceptions of Women in Management', in R. G. Lord and K. J. Maher (eds.), Leadership and Information Processing: Linking Perceptions and Performance (Unwin Hyman, Boston), pp. 95–113.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bem, S. L.: 1974, ‘The Measurement of Psychological Androgyny’, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 42, 155–162.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bem, S. L.: 1979, ‘Theory and Measurement of Androgyny: A Reply to the Pedhazur-Tetenbaum and Locksley-Colten Critique’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37(6), 1047–1054.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blake, S. D.: 1998, ‘An Investigation of Cross-Gender Mentoring: Lessons from Harvard University Graduate School of Education's Urban Superintendent Program', in H. T. Frierson (ed.), Diversity in Higher Education Volume 2: Examining Mentor-protégé Experiences (JAI Press, Greenwich, CT).

    Google Scholar 

  • Blake-Beard, S. D.: 2001, ‘Taking a Hard Look at Formal Mentoring Programs: A Consideration of Potential Challenges Facing Women’, Journal of Management Development 20(4), 331–345.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brefach, S. M.: 1986, The Mentor Experience: The Influences of Female/Male Mentors on the Personal and Professional Growth of Female Psychologists. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Boston University, Boston, MA.

  • Broverman, I. K., S. R. Vogel, D. M. Broverman, F. E. Clarkson and P. S. Rosenkrantz: 1972, ‘Sex Role Stereotypes: A Current Appraisal’, Journal of Social Issues 28, 59–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burke, R. J. and C. A. McKeen: 1990, ‘Mentoring in Organizations: Implications for Women’, Journal of Business Ethics 9, 317–332.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burke, R. J., C. A. McKeen and C. S. McKenna: 1990, ‘Sex Differences and Cross-sex Effects on Mentoring: Some Preliminary Data’, Psychological Reports 67, 1011–1023.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burke, R. J., C. A. McKeen and C. S. McKenna: 1994, ‘Benefits of Mentoring in Organizations: The Mentor's Perspective’, Journal of Managerial Psychology 9, 23–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burke, R. J., C. S. McKenna and C. A. McKeen: 1991, ‘How do Mentorships Differ from Typical Supervisory Relationships?’, Psychological Reports 68, 459–466.

    Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, D. E.: 1971, The Attraction Paradigm (Academic Press, New York).

    Google Scholar 

  • Catalyst: 1996, Women in Corporate Leadership: Programs and Prospects (Author, New York).

    Google Scholar 

  • Catalyst: 1998, Census of Women Corporate Officers and Top Earners (Author, New York).

    Google Scholar 

  • Clawson, J. G. and K. E. Kram: 1984, ‘Managing Cross-Gender Mentoring’, Business Horizons 27(3), 22–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Corsun, D. L. and W. M. Costen: 2001, ‘Is the Glass Ceiling Unbreakable? Habitus, Fields and the Stalling of Women and Minorities in Management’, Journal of Management Inquiry 10(1), 16–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cox, T., Jr.: 1993, Cultural Diversity in Organizations: Theory, Research & Practice (Berrett-Koehler, San Francisco).

    Google Scholar 

  • Devine, I. and D. Markiewicz: 1990, ‘Cross-Sex Relationships at Work and the Impact of Gender Stereotypes’, Journal of Business Ethics 9, 333–338.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dreher, G. F. and R. A. Ash: 1990, ‘A Comparative Study Among Men and Women in Managerial, Professional, and Technical Positions’, Journal of Applied Psychology 75(5), 1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duff, C. S.: 1999, Learning from Other Women: How to Benefit from the Knowledge, Wisdom and Experience of Female Mentors (AMACOM, New York).

    Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A. H. and M. Crowley: 1986, ‘Gender and Helping Behavior: A Meta-analytic Review of the Social Psychology Literature’, Psychological Bulletin 100(3), 283–308.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A. H. and V. J. Steffen: 1984, ‘Gender Stereotypes Stem from the Distribution of Women and Men into Social Roles’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 46, 735–754.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A. H. and V. J. Steffen: 1986, ‘Gender and Aggressive Behavior: A Meta-analytic Review of the Social Psychology Literature’, Psychological Bulletin 100(3), 309–330.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eby, L. T., S. McManus, S. A. Simon and J. E. A. Russell: 2000, ‘The Protégé's Perspective Regarding Negative Mentoring Experiences: The Development of a Taxonomy’, Journal of Vocational Behavior 51(1), 1–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, V. J. and J. T. Spence: 1987, ‘Gender-related Traits, Stereotypes, and Schemata’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 53(1), 146–154.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ely, R. J.: 1994, ‘The Effects of Organizational Demographics and Social Identity on Relationships Among Professional Women’, Administrative Science Quarterly 39, 203–238.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erkut, S. and J. R. Mokros: 1984, ‘Professors as Models and Mentors for College Students’, American Educational Research Journal 21(2), 399–417.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fagenson, E. A.: 1988, ‘The Power of a Mentor: Proteges' and Nonproteges' Perceptions of their Own Power in Organizations’, Group and Organization Studies 13(2), 182–194.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fagenson, E. A.: 1989, ‘The Mentor Advantage: Perceived Career/Job Experiences of Proteges Versus Non-proteges’, Journal of Organizational Behavior 10(4), 309–320.

    Google Scholar 

  • Falkenberg, L.: 1990, ‘Improving the Accuracy of Stereotypes Within the Workplace’, Journal of Management 16(1) 107–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fitt, L. W. and D. A. Newton: 1981, ‘When the Mentor is a Man and the Protege a Woman’, Harvard Business Review 58(2), 56–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • French, J. R. P. and B. H. Raven: 1959, ‘The Bases of Social Power', in D. Cartwright (ed.), Studies in Social Power (University of Michigan, Research Center for Group Dynamics, Institute of Social Research, Ann Arbor, MI).

  • Gallese, L. R.: 1993, ‘Do Women Make Poor Mentors?’, Across The Board, July/August, 23–26.

  • Goktepe, J. R. and C. E. Schneier: 1989, ‘Role of Sex, Gender Roles, and Attraction in Predicting Emergent Leaders’, Journal of Applied Psychology 74(1), 165–167.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heilman, M. E., R. F. Block, R. F. Martell and M. C. Simon: 1989, ‘Has Anything Changed? Current Characterizations of Men, Women, and Managers’, Journal of Applied Psychology 74(6), 935–942.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunt, D. M. and C. Michael: 1983, ‘Mentorship: A Career Training and Development Tool’, Academy of Management Review 8(3), 475–485.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kanter, R. M.: 1977, Men and Women of the Corporation (Basic Books, New York).

    Google Scholar 

  • Koberg, C. S., R. W. Boss and E. Goodman: 1998, ‘Factors and Outcomes Associated with Mentoring Among Health Care Professionals’, Journal of Vocational Behavior 53, 58–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Korabik, K.: 1990, ‘Androgyny and Leadership Style’, Journal of Business Ethics, 283–292.

  • Korabik, K.: 1999, ‘Sex and Gender in the New Millennium', in G. N. Powell (ed.), Handbook of Gender and Work (Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA), pp. 3–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kram, K. E.: 1985, Mentoring at Work: Developmental Relationships in Organizational Life (Scott, Foresman, Glenview, IL).

    Google Scholar 

  • Levinson, D. J., C. N. Darrow, E. B. Klein, M. H. Levinson and B. McKee: 1978, Seasons of a Man's Life (Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ).

    Google Scholar 

  • Locksley, A. and M. E. Colten: 1979, ‘Psychological Androgyny: A Case of Mistaken Identity?’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37(6), 1017–1031.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCambley, E.: 1999, ‘Testing Theory by Practice', in A. J. Murrell, F. J. Crosby and R. J. Ely (eds.), Mentoring Dilemmas: Developmental Relationships Within Multicultural Organizations (Lawrence Erlbaum, New York), pp. 173–188.

    Google Scholar 

  • Messmer, M.: 1998, ‘Mentoring: Building Your Company's Intellectual Capital’, HRFocus, September, s12.

  • Morrison, A. M., R. P. White, E. Van Velsor and The Center for Creative Leadership: 1992, Breaking the Glass Ceiling: Can Women Reach the Top of America's Largest Corporations? (Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA).

    Google Scholar 

  • Noe, R.: 1988a, ‘Women and Mentoring: A Review and Research Agenda’, Academy of Management Review 13(1), 65–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Noe, R.: 1988b, ‘An Investigation of the Determinants of Successful Assigned Mentoring Relationships’, Personnel Psychology 41, 457–479.

    Google Scholar 

  • O'Neill, R. M.: forthcoming, ‘Gender and Race in Mentoring Relationships: A Review of the Literature', in D. Clutterbuck and B. R. Ragins (eds.), Diversity and Mentoring: An International Perspective.

  • O'Neill, R. M., S. Horton and F. Crosby: 1999, ‘Gender Issues in Developmental Relationships', in A. J. Murrell, F. Crosby and R. J. Ely (eds.), Mentoring Dilemmas: Developmental Relationships Within Multicultural Organizations (Lawrence Erlbaum, New York), pp. 63–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • O'Neill, R. M. and D. Sankowsky: forthcoming, ‘The Caligula Phenomenon: Mentoring Relationships and Theoretical Abuse’, Journal of Management Inquiry.

  • Parker, V. A. and K. E. Kram: 1993, ‘Women Mentoring Women: Creating Conditions for Connection’, Business Horizons 36, 42–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pedhazur, E. J. and T. J. Tetenbaum: 1979, ‘Bem Sexrole Inventory: A Theoretical and Methodological Critique’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37(6), 996–1016.

    Google Scholar 

  • Petty, M. M. and N. S. Bruning: 1980, ‘A Comparison of the Relationships between Subordinates' Perceptions of Supervisory Behavior and Measures of Subordinates' Job Satisfaction for Male and Female Leaders’, Academy of Management Journal 23(4), 717–725.

    Google Scholar 

  • Powell, G. N.: 1999, ‘Reflections on the Glass Ceiling: Recent Trends and Future Prospects', in G. N. Powell (ed.), Handbook of Gender and Work (Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA), pp. 325–345.

    Google Scholar 

  • Powell, G. N. and D. A. Butterfield: 1979, ‘The "Good" Manager: Masculine or Androgynous?’, Academy of Management Journal 22(2), 395–403.

    Google Scholar 

  • Powell, G. N. and D. A. Butterfield: 1989, ‘The "Good" Manager: Did Androgyny Fare Better in the 1980s?’, Group and Organization Studies 14(3) 216–233.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ragins, B. R.: 1989, ‘Barriers to Mentoring: The Female Manager's Dilemma’, Human Relations 42(1), 1–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ragins, B. R.: 1997, ‘Diversified Mentoring Relationships in Organizations: A Power Perspective’, Academy of Management Review 22(2), 482–581.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ragins, B. R.: 1999, ‘Gender and Mentoring Relationships: A Review and Research Agenda for the Next Decade', in G. N. Powell (ed.), Handbook of Gender and Work (Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA), pp. 347–369.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ragins, B. R. and J. L. Cotton: 1991, ‘Easier Said Than Done: Gender Differences in Perceived Barriers to Gaining a Mentor’, Academy of Management Journal 34(4), 939–951.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ragins, B. R. and J. L. Cotton: 1993, ‘Gender and Willingness to Mentor in Organizations’, Journal of Management 19(1), 97–111.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ragins, B. R. and J. L. Cotton: 1999, ‘Mentor Functions and Outcomes: A Comparison of Men and Women in Formal and Informal Mentoring Relationships’, Journal of Applied Psychology 84(4), 529–550.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ragins, B. R. and D. McFarlin: 1990, ‘Perceptions of Mentor Roles in Cross-gender Mentoring Relationships’, Journal of Vocational Behavior 37, 321–339.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ragins, B. R. and T. Scandura: 1994, ‘Gender Differences in Expected Outcomes of Mentoring Relationships’, Academy of Management Journal 37, 957–971.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ragins, B. R. and E. Sundstrom: 1989, ‘Gender and Power in Organizations: A Longitudinal Perspective’, Psychological Bulletin 105(1), 51–88.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ragins, B. R., J. L. Cotton and J. S. Miller: 2000, ‘Marginal Mentoring: The Effects of Type of Mentor, Quality of Relationship, and Program Design on Work and Career Attitudes’, Academy of Management Journal 43(6), 1177–1194.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scandura, T. A.: 1992, ‘Mentorship and Career Mobility: An Empirical Investigation’, Journal of Organizational Behavior 13, 169–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scandura, T. A.: 1998, ‘Dysfunctional Mentoring Relationships and Outcomes’, Journal of Management 24(3), 449–467.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scandura, T. A. and B. R. Ragins: 1993, ‘The Effects of Sex and Gender Role Orientation on Mentorship in Male-dominated Occupations’, Journal of Vocational Behavior 43, 251–265.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schein, V. E.: 1973, ‘The Relationship Between Sex Role Stereotypes and Requisite Management Characteristics’, Journal of Applied Psychology 57(2), 95–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schein, V. E.: 1975, ‘Relationships Between Sex Role Stereotypes and Requisite Management Characteristics Among Female Managers’, Journal of Applied Psychology 60(3), 340–344.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scott, J. W.: 1986, ‘Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis’, The American Historical Review 91(5), 1053–1074.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, E. C., F. P. Haseltine and M. P. Rowe: 1978, ‘Moving Up: Role Models, Mentors, and the "Patron System"’, Sloan Management Review 19, 51–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sosik, J. J. and V. M. Godshalk: 2000, ‘The Role of Gender in Mentoring: Implications for Diversified and Homogeneous Mentoring Relationships’, Journal of Vocational Behavior 57, 102–122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spence, J. T. and R. Helmreich: 1979, ‘The Many Faces of Androgyny: A Reply to Locksley and Colten’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37(6) 1032–1046.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spence, J. T., R. Helmreich and J. Stapp: 1975, ‘Ratings of Self and Peers on Sex Role Attribute and their Relation to Self-esteem and Conceptions of Masculinity and Femininity’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37(1), 29–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stroh, L. K. and A. H. Reilly: 1999, ‘Gender and Careers: Present Experiencs and Emerging Trends', in G. N. Powell (ed.), Handbook of Gender and Work (Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA), pp. 307–324.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, D. T.: 1990, ‘The Impact of Race on Managers' Experiences of Developmental Relationships (Mentoring and Sponsorship): An Intra-organizational Study’, Journal of Organizational Behavior 11, 479–491.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsui, A. S. and B. A. Gutek: 1999, ‘Understanding Vertical and Horizontal Pairs from a Demographic Point of View’, Demographic Differences in Organizations: Current Research and Future Directions (Lexington Books, Lanham, MD), pp. 61–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsui, A. S. and C. A. O'Reilly: 1989, ‘Beyond Simple Demographic Effects: The Importance of Relational Demography in Superior-subordinate Dyads’, Academy of Management Journal 32, 402–423.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turban, D. B. and T. W. Dougherty: 1994, ‘Role of Protégé Personality in Receipt of Mentoring and Career Success’, Academy of Management Journal 37, 688–702.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turban, D. B. and A. P. Jones: 1988, ‘Supervisorsubordinate Similarity: Types, Effects, and Mechanisms’, Journal of Applied Psychology 73, 228–234.

    Google Scholar 

  • Viator, R. E. and T. A. Scandura: 1991, ‘A Study of Mentor-protégé Relationships in Large Public Accounting Firms’, Accounting Horizons 5, 20–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitley, W., T. W. Dougherty and G. F Dreher: 1991, ‘Relationship of Career Mentoring and Socioeconomic Origin to Managers' and Professionals' Early Career Progress’, Academy of Management Journal 34(2), 331–351.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, J. A. and N. S. Elman: 1990, ‘Organizational Benefits of Mentoring’, Academy of Management Executive 4(4), 88–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zey, M. G.: 1984, The Mentor Connection (Irwin, Homewood, IL).

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Sawyer School of Management, Suffolk University, 8 Ashburton Place, Boston, MA, 02108-2770, U.S.A.

    Regina M. O'Neill

  2. Graduate School of Education, Harvard University, 452 Gutman Library, Cambridge, MA, 02138, U.S.A.

    Stacy D. Blake-Beard

Authors
  1. Regina M. O'Neill
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Stacy D. Blake-Beard
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

O'Neill, R.M., Blake-Beard, S.D. Gender Barriers to the Female Mentor – Male Protégé Relationship. Journal of Business Ethics 37, 51–63 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014778017993

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014778017993

Keywords

Search

Navigation