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The Manipulated History of Manipulations of Spines and Joints? Rethinking Orthopaedic Medicine Through the 19th Century Discourse of European Mechanical Medicine

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Medicine Studies

Abstract

More than one single professional group deals with therapeutic manipulations of the spine and the joints. Osteopaths, Chiropractors, Naprapaths, Physical Therapists (and a contingent Physicians) all share this interest. Each profession is also very clear about where its bulk of knowledge stems from. The disciplines that are reckoned as the oldest are from the USA. A number of “inventors” are to be found, all without a formal university degree in Medicine. Andrew Taylor Still (1828–1917) came up with his system of Osteopathy in 1874. Daniel D. Palmer (1845–1913), the man behind Chiropractic, founded his system in 1894, and Palmer’s colleague and former student, Oakley Smith (1880–1967), developed Naprapathy in 1906/1907. Physical Therapists working with what is called Orthopaedic Manual Physical Therapy are on the other hand not claiming American ancestry, nor do their body of knowledge and clinical skills originate from outside the medical profession. It is an offspring of Orthopaedic Medicine (OM) which was an invention by Physicians. Date and place of birth is said to be 1929 in England. This article turns the above-mentioned chronology on its head. It will show that Orthopaedic Medicine likely is the oldest system. It will also unearth OM’s sturdy roots in a strong but forgotten, and even hidden, discourse of Mechanical Medicine found in 19th century Europe, which was ruled by Physical Therapists. Why “we” do not know about this “history” is analysed and explained from a variety of perspectives.

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Notes

  1. See e.g. articles in: Kathryn and Servando (2004).

  2. One could also include Naturopaths in this description since they, in some parts of North America, are officially sanctioned as having the right to perform manipulations of the spine. The ‘father of Naturopathy’ is the German Benidict Lust (1872–1945). Lust immigrated to the USA as a young man and in 1901 he graduated from New York Homeopathic College. Most of Lust’s ‘drug free’ therapy was inspired by the hydropath Sebastian Kneipp’s ideas. There is more to say about Naturopathy in connection with the topic addressed this article, but that will have to wait until further research has been completed.

  3. http://www.ifompt.com/About+IFOMPT/History.html (2010-05-10). These historical facts have recently been removed from IFOMPT’s web page which now only contains a historical survey from the 1960s and onwards. The part on St. Thomas’ Hospital, now “lost”, was however mainly taken from: Paris (2000).

  4. Cyriax (1982/1947). See also: Mennell (1945/1917).

  5. See e.g.: Schiller (1971), Gevitz (1982), Whorton (2002), Wardwell (1992), Baer (2004), Keating (2003).

  6. The first article was written by Dr. Eilert Shiötz, a Norwegian colleague of Dr. James Cyriax. See: Shiötz (1958). Shiötz’s work was later reprinted in English jointly with James Cyriax. See: Shiötz and Cyriax (1974). The other articles are: Paris (2000, pp. 66–77), Pettman (2007) and Hoke (2007). All of them are dependent upon what Shiötz and Cyriax put forward.

  7. Cyriax James, Textbook of Orthopaedic Medicine, vol. 1, p. iX. Today OM is defined as “a specialty [in medicine] devoted to the evaluation, diagnosis and non-operative treatment of painful musculoskeletal diseases”. http://www.aaomed.org/Orthopaedic-Medicine.php (2011-02-20).

  8. Here is not the right time and place to elaborate on professionalization theory. For a thorough overview see: Abbott (1988). Classical works regarding the medical profession per se are e.g. Freidsson (1970), Sarfatti-Larson (1977).

  9. James (2002, p. 165), Walter (1988).

  10. For references see: Huijbregts (2007).

  11. For an elaboration on this topic see: Huisman and Warner (2004).

  12. In an Anglophone context of historiography this “progressive narrative” is referred to as “Whiggish history” or “Doctor’s history”. See: Jordanova (1995), Pickstone (2005). The earlier customary tradition, that a thesis in Medicine had to hold an introductory historic exposé ranging from Hippocrates and Galen to the time of the author’s discoveries, has for instance been interpreted in this way. The same can also be said regarding the fact that it was Physicians who were the founders of the scholarly field History of Medicine. See: Johannisson (1990).

  13. Bynum and Porter (1987).

  14. Cyriax (1948). See also: Cyriax (1982/1947, pp. ix–xi).

  15. Shiötz and Cyriax (1974, pp. 32, 72), Cooter (1987).

  16. Cooter (1987, pp. 158–173), Schiller (1971, p. 251), Shiötz, Eilert, pp. 60–61, Lomax (1975, pp. 12–15).

  17. Cyriax (1916); Cyriax, Edgar, “Minor displacements of the cervical vertebrae (translation of an article that appeared in French in the Journal de Chirurgie, 1919, xv, pp. 457–485)”, Cyriax (1917, 1918a, 1920c, 1923). These articles and many more are easily accessible in: Cyriax (1924).

  18. Schiller (1971, p. 261), Gevitz (1982, pp. 31–32, n 46, p. 160), Whorton (2002, p. 144), Wardwell (1992, pp. 33, 37).

  19. See e.g. Parks (1979), Lindroth (2004), Fletcher (1984).

  20. Söderberg (1995, 1996), Ottosson (2010a).

  21. Westerblad (1913).

  22. Francis Fuller was the first. His work Medicina Gymnastica: or, a treatise concerning the power of exercise with respect to the animal economy and the great necessity of it in cure of several distempers (London 1705) was published in nine editions. The first came 1705, the ninth 1777, 70 years after his death (Tissot 1780; Londe 1821).

  23. E.g. Professor Branting's speeches, 1837–1857, GCI's enskilda arkiv, vol. 6, RA (National Archives). All Branting’s speeches during exams (1837–1858) are preserved. They are rarely paginated. From now referred to as “Branting’s speeches”; Georgii (1850, pp. 17–26, 1854, p. 64): Indebetou (1851/1842, p. 9).

  24. Quotes taken from Blundell (1852, pp. viii–x).

  25. Quote taken from: Dally (1857, p. 155). The Educationalist Dally was probably the first to emphasize Ling’s Chinese connections. With the “Chinese connection” he tried to break the influence of Ling by questioning his patriarchal role as “The father”. This fighting over originality can be studied in a number of sources concerned with Physical Therapy/Mechanical Medicine. See also: Renson (2000).

  26. The decision to permit women vocational training at the RCIG was a very early one however. See: Ottosson (2005, pp. 303–310).

  27. Moss (1996), Ljunggren (1999), Passim; Ljungren (2000), Meinander (1994, pp. 122–125).

  28. Lindroth (1974, pp. 23–25), Ljunggren (1999, pp. 41–42).

  29. Lindroth (1974, pp. 31–32), Ottosson (2010a, pp. 1900–1913).

  30. Ottosson (2005, pp. 61–72).

  31. Ling Pehr Henrik, Gymnastiken allmänna grunder, Uppsala, 1834/1840, s. 78. Author's translation.

  32. Ling (1834/1840, p. 138). Author's translation.

  33. Ling (1834/1840, p. 79).

  34. Quote taken from Branting's speeches 1840, GCI:s enskilda arkiv, vol. 6, RA (National Archives). Author’s translation.

  35. Lindroth (2004, pp. 38–76), Ottosson (2005, pp. 61–184).

  36. Lindroth (2004, pp. 40–46), Ottosson (2005, pp. 64–67).

  37. Lindroth (2004, pp. 77–82), Ottosson (2010a, pp. 1902–1906), Park (1992).

  38. Branting's speeches 1842, vol. 6, GCI:s Enskilda arkiv, RA (National Archives). Author's translation.

  39. Branting's speeches 1837–1858, vol. 6, GCI:s Enskilda arkiv, Riksarkivet (National Archives): Ottosson (2005, pp. 78–100), Park (1992, pp. 154–155). See also: Shiöler (2005, pp. 116–142).

  40. Hartelius (1884), Clason (1879, pp. 13–14). The followers of Ling said that Metzger's massage was just another word for Ling's scientific passive movements. Soon both traditions were blended. In North America particularly Metzger and Ling were amalgamated under the name of “Swedish Massage”. What was/is “Ling” (Swedish) respectively “Metzger” (massage) found under this generic term is still an open question. See: Walkley (2004), Calvert (2002).

  41. There are for instance thousands of journals kept at the National Archives, Sweden, see: GCI:s Enskilda arkiv, vol. 10–22. RA (National Archives).

  42. On Iatro-mechanics see: Brown (1970), Finney (1971). Other labels were iatro-physics or iatro-mathematics.

  43. This essay can be found in: Ling (1866, pp. 747–748). Author's translation.

  44. Ottosson (2005, pp. 130–142).

  45. Porter (1990), passim; Rütte et al. (1998), passim.

  46. Ling (1834/1840, p. 47, 1866, pp. 451–463).

  47. Ottosson (2005, pp. 130–134).

  48. Symbol Nr. II will not be found in Ling's works on gymnastics. It is a graphic interpretation of Ling's elaborations on disharmony made by the author.

  49. Ling (1866, pp. 747–752).

  50. Ottosson (2005, p. 271).

  51. Ottosson (2005, pp. 267–281, 2010b, pp. 15–18).

  52. Branting's speeches, 1842, GCI's enskilda arkiv, vol. 6, RA (National Archives). Author's translation.

  53. Liedman (1966, pp. 21–68), Jonsson (1987, pp. 7–32).

  54. Though all Physical Therapists could agree on the fact that Ling’s Physical Therapy was a practical science based on empirical research, their view on natural philosophy could differ. The RCIG's Principal teacher—Professor Lieutenant C. A. Georgii—was for instance more open-minded (or talkative) towards natural philosophy than Branting was. See: Georgii (1850, pp. 16–25).

  55. See, e.g.: Friedrich (1855, pp. 3–15). Branting published nothing that addressed this topic. When reading Branting's old lecture notes from the early 1840s, it becomes clear that he still had not lost all his tendencies towards natural philosophy. Judged by the standards of his time however, he appears rather mainstream. The lectures seem to be very up to date with the latest "news", for instance on the newly discovered proteins. See: "Den Physiologiska coursen vid KGCI vintern 1844–45 under ledning af Herr Professor G. Branting", Lunds universitetsbiblioteks handskriftssamling, Westerblads arkiv, Kapsel 23.

  56. Rudolph Virchow was also very engaged in this fight, even holding a lecture in the Prussian Parliament on the advantages of Jahn's Gymnastics compared to Ling's. See: Virchow (1865, pp. 196–206). For criticism directed towards Professor Branting, see: Friedrich (1855, pp. 4–12). See also: Ueberhorts (1979), Shöler (2005, pp. 116–132).

  57. Duboise-Reymond (1865). Author’s translation.

  58. This is a contrast to what is produced in the texts of Ling's disciples. There one will always find litanies on how Physicians ridiculed Ling's ideas. But initially this was only a strategy for PT's to reach higher moral grounds.

  59. Ottosson (2005, pp. 120–127).

  60. Correspondence between Magnus Huss and L. G. Branting 1841–1851 (10 letters), GCI:s enskilda arkiv, vol. 9, RA (National Archives); Brantings receptböcker, vol. 22, GCI:s enskilda arkiv, RA (National Archives). Magnus Retzius’ Physical Therapy prescription is dated 14/1 1841 and Anders Retzius’ is dated 31/8 1842.

  61. Karolinska institutets skrifvelse till universitetskanslern 27/2 1886, Eckl. dep. konseljakter, 18920326, no. 18, RA (National Archives). Compare: Holme (1996, p. 183).

  62. Holme (1996, pp. 186–190).

  63. Dahrle (1977–1978).

  64. A1b: 5, 1/5 1829, Svenska Läkaresällskapets huvudarkiv, RA (National Archives).

  65. Schreber (1850, 1852, 1855), Busch (1886). See also: Shiöler (2005, pp. 31–124).

  66. Ottosson (2010c).

  67. Around 1850 German Physicians started to criticize the “Schwedishe Heilgymnastik”. See: Shiöler (2005, pp. 116–133). There were also German Physicians who became loyal to Ling. The most known were Dr. A. C. Neumann and Dr. M. M. Eulenburg who both wrote books and articles on the topic, see e.g.: Eulenburg (1853, 1856), Neumann (1852a, b).

  68. Ottosson (2005, pp. 207–217, 2010b, pp. 16–18).

  69. Branting’s speeches, 1844, GCI:s enskilda arkiv, vol. 6, RA (National Archives). Author’s translation.

  70. Branting’s speeches, 1840, GCI:s enskilda arkiv, vol. 6, RA (National Archives). Author’s translation.

  71. Why these Physical Therapists were so keen to travel abroad is analysed in: Ottosson (2010a, pp. 1902–1913).

  72. The first thesis for the medical degree featuring Ling's gymnastics was probably: Angerstein (1854).

  73. See e.g. Correspondence between Carl August Georgii and Lars Gabriel Branting, 17/4 1847, vol. 12: LVII, Törngrens arkiv, RA (National Archives). Author’s translation.

  74. Ottosson (2005, pp. 91–113).

  75. Ecklesiastikdepartementets konseljakter 1872, no 20, RA (National Archives); Moberg (1920, pp. 206–210), Ulrich (1857, 1860, 1874).

  76. Ecklesiastikdepartementets konseljakter 1872, no 20, RA (National Archives).

  77. See references in: Peltier (1895). Brandt himself published the following titles: Om uterinlidanden och prolapser, behandlade med medical gymnastik, Stockholm, 1864; Nouvelle Méthode Gymnastique et Magnétique pur le Traitement des Maladies des Organs du Bassin et Principalements des Affections Utérins, Stockholm and Paris, 1868; Die Bewegungscur als Heilmittel gegen Weibliche sog. Unterliebsleiden und Prolapsen: Anzeichnungen seit dem Jahre 1861, Stockholm, 1877; Gymnastiken såsom botemedel mot qvinliga underlifssjukdomar jemte strödda anteckningar i allmän sjukgymnastik, Stockholm, 1884; Behandlung weiblicher Geschlechtskrankheit, Berlin, 1884.

  78. Mark Twain's corresponence with Henry Huttlestone Rogers (Ed. Walter Blair, Donald Coney and Henry Nash Smith), University of California Press, Berkley, 1969, p. 414. Brackets in original. See also: Ober (2004).

  79. Comparing old textbooks on Osteopathy and e.g. Cyriax (1903) the diagnoses are almost identical. Especially the shared focus on acute diseases is interesting.

  80. Cyriax (1907). Reprinted in Cyriax (1924, pp. 390–399). Cyriax admits however that previous attempts were made by others e.g. Professor Branting and “various doctors and gymnasts”. See: Cyriax (1924, p. 397, footnote 1). The extensive case files from the RGIG’s polyclinic reveals that this was the case. Another pioneer in this field seem to have been the educationalist Nicholas Dally. In 1855 he wrote Prophylaxie et Curation du Choléra par le Mouvement, Paris, 1855.

  81. Ober (2004, pp. 155–160), Shryock (1967).

  82. Mark Twain's correspondence, 1964, p. 506.

  83. Carlsson (2002), Ober (2004, pp. 154–169), Trowbridge (2007), Sollman and Blaurock-Busch (1987).

  84. On criticism of Osteopathy and Chiropractics, see: Wardwell (1992), Whorton (2002), Gevitz (1982, pp. 39–41).

  85. Floyer (1888a, b), Ottosson (2005, pp. 168–170).

  86. Ottosson (2005, pp. 168–170).

  87. Some of Kellgren’s case journals are located in the archives of Welcome Library, London. According to Magnus Carlsson, however, Kellgren did publish one pamphlet 1876 entitled Cure of inflammation of the lungs by the manual treatment. It is yet to be found. Carlsson (2002, p. 88).

  88. Quotes taken from: Tagesson Möller (1925, pp. 185–187). Author's translation. For illustration and cases treated with Kellgren’s methods see: Kellgren (1889, pp. 5–47, 1890, pp. 111–162, 1894, pp. 113–165, 1895, pp. 145–221), Cyriax (1903, pp. 246–477).

  89. The atlanto-occipital joint was of course also of interest for Orthopaedists, though for different reasons. They were focused on pathology of the joint itself e.g. ankylosis and bone loss. Professor Friedrich Busch writes regarding inflammation of the joint in question: “The question of systematic movements can naturally only be discussed when the inflammation has finally ceased, and then we must restore the greatest extent of movement to the head; yet it must never be forgotten that here we tread on very dangerous ground, and that any excess in movement may renew the inflammation. Naturally, forced correction of position is out of question after cure in this dangerous situation.” Busch (1886, p. 244).

  90. See e.g. Bonde (1887, pp. 54–55), Tagesson-Möller (1924, p. 185).

  91. Wretling, E. W. “Bref från Dr. E. W. Wretlind”, Hygiea. Medicinsk och Farmacevtiska Månadsskrift, 1873, no .3, pp. 141–142. Author's translation. When Wretling came to Kellgen his main goal was to study him treating acute diseases. That did not happen. No such patient turned up during Wretlind's visit. Instead he studied many cures and treatments of chronic diseases, e.g. hemiplegia, rheumatism, muscle atrophy, neuralgia, contractures, etc.

  92. Wretlind, “Bref från Dr. Wretlind”, Hygiea, November 1872; February 1873, pp. 139–144; Glatter (1875).

  93. Cornelius (1902, 1909). Devoted German Physicians also established “Verein der Aertze für Nerven-Massage”. See: Svenska gymnastiken i in-och utlandet, 1913, p. 153. Today Cornelius’ work is sometimes claimed to be an inspiration behind so-called Reflexology: http://www.pilates4fitness.co.uk/history_of_reflexology.htm (2011-02-06).

  94. See: Prescriptions and patient’s histories in: Branting’s efterlemnade handskrifter (Ed. Hjalmar Ling), Stockholm, 1882, p. 85 (case no. 130), 143 (case no. 213).

  95. Cyriax (1924, p. 393). A reprint from: Cyriax (1907).

  96. Cyriax (1924, p. 393). Originally from this article: Cyriax (1907). Dr. Truls Johan Hartelius was a prolific author of textbooks on Ling’s Physical Therapy. He was a disciple of Branting and became head of the Physical Therapy Department after Professor Branting had retired in 1862. For illustrations of Kellgrens “nerve manipulations” see: Kellgren (1890), passim; Cyriax (1903), passim; Cyriax (1912). Cyrax (1924, pp. 1–19).

  97. For an overview, see: Cyriax (1924, pp. 1–468).

  98. Cyriax and Cyriax (1910). Reprinted in Cyraix (1924, pp. 406–407).

  99. Pettman (2007).

  100. Mennell (1945/1917).

  101. Mennell (1945/1917, p. 306).

  102. “Gymnastidirektörer och Medlemmar i SSSL i utlandet”, Svenska Gymnastiken i in- och Utlandet, 1925, p. 57. It was not uncommon that Physical Therapists from RCIG also took a Medical Degree. When they did so, they often graduated from a university abroad.

  103. Cyriax (1915, 1918b, 1920a). At the same time Dr. Anajuta Kellgren-Cyriax served at a “massage-department” in a war hospital in Fulham, London. Cyriax-Kellgren (1920).

  104. Indebetou (1842); Erenhoff, C. C., Medical gymnastics or the Movement cure: a short treatise on the science, as practiced at the Royal Institution at Stockholm, London, 1845; Georgii (1850, 1853). Compare: Ottosson (2010a, pp. 1910–1913).

  105. E.g. on Roth's work: Roth (1851, 1856, 1860). Other descriptions made by early “Londoners” are: Doherty (1851), Chapman (1853), Blundell (1852).

  106. For an overview see e.g. Murphy (1988), Sarfatt-Larson (1979), Witz (1992), Toby (1975).

  107. Rothstein (1972, pp. 14–15), Ottosson (2010a, pp. 1906–1913).

  108. Wide (1889, pp. 101–102). Author's translation. European Mechanical Medicine did not, unlike e.g. Osteopathy and Chiropractic, identify luxated vertebras (and bones) as the sole cause of illness.

  109. Hughes (1896, p. 26).

  110. A 1:5 26/3 1886, GCI:s arkiv, RA (National Archives). Author's translation. The next time Unman applied he did become Professor, see: Eckl. Dep. konseljakter, 18900502, nr. 16, RA (National Archives).

  111. Ottosson (2005, pp. 264–276).

  112. Zabludowski (1900), Lucas-Champonnière (1895), Norström (1892), Kellogg (1895), Graham (1890), Hoffa (1893). Dr. James Mennell was for instance, besides “Swedish exercises” very fond of Champonnière’s work. See: Mennell (1911).

  113. Kleen (1910, p. 22). Author’s translation. Kleen’s most celebrated work was Handbok i Massage (Stockholm, 1888–1890) that came in many editions and was reworked and translated to at least German and English.

  114. Ottosson, pp. 269–273.

  115. Schott (1914).

  116. Åkerhielm (1907).

  117. Correspondence between Gustaf Unman and Hjalmar Ling, 29/9, 1879, GCI:s Enskilda arkiv, Vol. 66, RA (National Archives). Author's translation.

  118. Brown (1986).

  119. Holme (1996, p. 190), Ottosson (2005, pp. 298–299). For an overall view of the Orthopaedist transformation into a specialized surgeon, see: Cooter (1993).

  120. Ottosson goes as far as calling these attempts of demasculinization a prerequisite for the feminization process. As long as the men were preoccupied with fighting over dominance with Physicians, the male Physical Therapists had no time to worry about the increasing number of females entering the profession. Ottosson (2005, pp. 31–50).

  121. Ottosson (2005, pp. 346–381, 2010c, pp. 79–84).

  122. Betänkande med förslag angående ordnandet av sjukgymnastutbildningen i riket avgivet av sakkunniga inom Ecklesiastikdepartementet, Ecklesiastikdepartementets konseljakter, 19310220, no. 64 (3), National Archives [Eng. Report with suggestion concerning the education of Physical Therapists in the Kingdom, given by call in experts within the Ministry of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs], pp. 34–35.

  123. First quote is taken from correspondence between Patrik Haglund and Israel Holmgren, 26/7 1932, Patrik Haglunds arkiv, vol. 4, RA (National Archives). The second and third quote are taken from Tidskrift i Gymnastik, vol. VI, pp. 545–546. Author's translations.

  124. Betänkande med förslag…, Ecklesiastikdepartementets konseljakter, 19310220, no. 64 (3), RA (National Archives), pp. 19–20.

  125. Correspondence between Patrik Haglund and Gunnar Friesing, 5/9 1930, Patrik Haglunds arkiv, vol. 1, RA (National Archives). Author's translation.

  126. Tidskrift i Gymnastik, vol. 4, pp. 596–597. Author's translation.

  127. Correspondence between Patrik Haglund and Murk Hansen, 1931 (exact date missing), Patrik Haglunds arkiv, vol. 2, RA (National Archive). Author's translation.

  128. Haglund (1904).

  129. Tidskrift i Gymnastik, XXXII (3), 1905, p. 507. Author's translation.

  130. Correspondence between Patrik Haglund and Claes Lindskog, 16/3 1932, Patrik Haglunds arkiv, RA (National Archives.); Haglund (1932). Author's translation.

  131. Compare: Linker (2005), Terlouw (2007).

  132. Ottosson (2005, pp. 357–371).

  133. Ottosson (2005, pp. 7–21, 2010b, pp. 14–21, 2010c, pp. 76–84).

  134. Hughes (1896, p. 245).

  135. Dahle Rannveig, Arbeidsdelning-makt-identitet. Betydning av kjönn i fysioterapiyrket, Trondheim, 1990, pp. 80–82; Barkley (1994), Ottosson (2005, pp. 313–329).

  136. Box 190, P1.3, Archive of Chartered Society of Physiotherapy, Wellcome Library; Barclay, 1994, passim.

  137. See: Dr. Richard Timberg’s announcment in: Svenska Gymnastiken i in- och Utlandet, 1925, p. 75.

  138. Larkin (1992, p. 115).

  139. On the frontpage of Menell, 1945/17, Mennell is titled “consulting Physiotherapist”, which, in turn, indicated that the term “physiotherapist” has an interesting genealogy.

  140. Cooter (1987, pp. 1–11), Larkin (1992, pp. 114–115).

  141. Correspondence Gustaf Unman to Truls Johan Hartelius, 27/2 1883, Törngrens arkiv, vol. 1:III, RA (National Archives). Author's translation. Emphasis' in original. Compare: Kleen (1906, p. 14).

  142. All quotations are taken from: Floyer (1888b, pp. 3, 4, 7).

  143. Larkin (1992, pp. 112–123).

  144. See especially: Cyriax (1948).

  145. Schiller (1971, p. 261, n. 50), Gevitz (1982, p. 32, 1988). Compare: Lomax (1975, pp. 11–17). Regarding Chiropractic, see: Wardwell (1992, pp. 31–35), Baer (2006).

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Acknowledgments

I would like to thank Lennart K. Persson, Lasse Nyström, Emil Dickson, Thomas Terlouw and especially late Peter Huijbregts. The content of this article benefited alot from their support and constructive criticism.

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Ottosson, A. The Manipulated History of Manipulations of Spines and Joints? Rethinking Orthopaedic Medicine Through the 19th Century Discourse of European Mechanical Medicine. Medicine Studies 3, 83–116 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12376-011-0067-3

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