Abstract
Despite the growing interest in female expatriates, few empirical studies have focussed on corporate career development activities available to women. Given the faltering corporate support for female business expatriates in general, one may presume that such organizational activities are less available to women than to men. To test this proposition, a large number of Western female and male business expatriates assigned to Hong Kong responded to a mail survey. Controlling for differences between the two gender groups, three significant gender differences were found, all indicating a lower availability of these corporate activities to women than to men, partially supporting expectations. These corporate career development activities were fast track programs, individual career counseling and career planning workshops. Implications of these findings for globalizing firms as well as for their female employees are discussed in detail.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adler, N.: 1984, ‘Women in International Management: Where are They?’, California Management Review 26(4), 78–89.
Adler, N.: 1993, ‘An International Perspective On the Barriers To the Advancement of Women Managers’, Applied Psychology: An International Review 42(4), 289–300.
Adler, N.: 1995, ‘Expatriate Women Managers’, in J. Selmer (ed.), Expatriate Management: New Ideas for International Business (Quorum Books, Westport, CT), pp. 255–275.
Adler, N.: 1997, ‘Global Leadership: Women Leaders’, Management International Review 37, 171–196.
Aryee, S. and Y. A. Debrah: 1993, ‘A Cross-cultural Application of a Career Planning Model’, Journal of Organizational Behavior 14, 119–127.
Baba, M., C. S. Granrose and A. Bird: 1995, ‘Career Planning and Career Development of Managers Employed in Japanese Firms and in U.S. Subsidiaries in Japan’, Journal of Asian Business 11(3), 71–96.
Bird, A. and R. Dunbar: 1991, ‘Getting the Job Done Over There: Improving Expatriate Productivity’, National Productivity Review (Spring), 145–156.
Birdseye, M. G. and J. S. Hill: 1995, ‘Individual, Organizational/Work and Environmental Influences on Expatriate Turnover Tendencies: An Empirical Study’, Journal of International Business Studies 26(4), 787–813.
Black, J. S. and H. B. Gregersen: 2000, ‘High Impact Training: Forging Leaders for the Global Frontier’, Human Resource Management 39(2&3), 173–184.
Boyacigiller, N.: 1990, ‘The Role of Expatriates in the Management of Interdependence, Complexity, and Risk in Multinational Corporations’, Journal of International Business Studies 21(3), 357–381.
Boyacigiller, N.: 2000, ‘The International Assignment Reconsidered’, in M. E. Mendenhall and G. R. Oddou (eds.), International Human Resource Management, 3rd edition (PWS-Kent, Boston, MA), pp.125–132.
Brousseau, K. R., M. J. Driver, K. Eneroth and R. Larsson: 1996, ‘Career Pandemonium: Realigning Organizations and Individuals’, Academy of Management Executive 10(4), 52–66.
Brown, D.: 1990, ‘Summary, Comparison, and Critique of Major Theories’, in S. D. Brown, L. Brooks and Associates (eds.), Career Choice and Development, 2nd ed. (Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA), pp. 338–363.
Caligiuri, P. M., A. Joshi and M. Lazarova: 1999, ‘Factors Influencing the Adjustment of Women on Global Assignments’, International Journal of Human Resource Management 10(2), 163–179.
Caligiuri, P. M. and R. L. Tung: 1999, ‘Comparing the Success of Male and Female Expatriates From a U.S.-Based Multinational Company’, International Journal of Human Resource Management 10(5), 763–782.
Carpenter, M. A., W. G. Sanders and H. B. Gregersen: 2000, ‘International Assignment Experience at the Top can make a Bottom-Line Difference’, Human Resource Management 39(2&3), 277–285.
Caudron, S: 1994, ‘HR Revamps Career Itineraries’, Personnel Journal (April), 64C-64P.
Chênevert, D. and M. Tremblay: 2002, ‘Managerial Career Success in Canadian Organizationa: Is Gender a Determinant?’, International Journal of Human Resource Management 13(6), 920–941.
Chusmir, L. H. and N. T. Frontczak: 1990, ‘International Management Opportunities For Women: Women and Men Paint Different Pictures’, International Journal of Management 7(3), 295–301.
Cook, E. P.: 1993, ‘The Gendered Context of Life: Implications for Women's and Men's Career-Life Plans’, Career Development Quarterly 41, 105–114.
Crampton, S. M. and J. A. III Wagner: 1994, ‘Percept-Percept Inflation in Microorganizational Research: An Investigation of Prevalence and Effect’, Journal of Applied Psychology 79(1), 67–76.
Daily, C. M., S. T. Certo and D. R. Dalton: 2000, ‘International Experience in the Executive Suite: The Path to Prosperity?’, Strategic Management Journal 21, 515–523.
Desatnick, R. L. and M. L. Bennett: 1978, Human Resource Management in the Multinational Company (Nichols, New York).
Dowling, P. J., R. S. Schuler and D. E. Welch: 1994, International Dimensions of Human Resource Management, 2nd. ed. (Wadsworth, Belmont, CA).
Epperheime, J.: 1997, ‘Benchmarking Career Management’, HR Focus 74(11), 9–10.
Feldman, D. C. and D. C. Thomas: 1992, ‘Career Management Issues Facing Expatriates’, Journal of International Business Studies 23(2), 271–293.
Global Relocation Trends 1996 Survey Report: 1997, (Windham International and the National Foreign Trade Council (NFTC), New York, NY).
Granrose, C. S. and J. D. Portwood: 1987, ‘Matching Individual Career Plans and Organizational Career Management’, Academy of Management Journal 30(4), 699–720.
Gregersen, H. and J. S. Black: 1990, ‘A Multifaceted Approach to Expatriate Retention in International Assignments’, Group & Organization Studies 15(4), 461–485.
Gregersen, H., J. S. Black and J. M. Hite: 1995, ‘Expatriate Performance Appraisal: Principles, Practices, and Challenges’, in J. Selmer (ed.), Expatriate Management: New Ideas for International Business (Quorum Books, Westport, CT), pp. 173–195.
Hackett, G. and R. W. Lent: 1992, ‘Theoretical Advances in Career Psychology’, in S. D. Brown and R. W. Lent (eds.), Handbook of Counseling Psychology, 2nd ed. (Wiley, New York, NY), pp. 419–452.
Haines, V. Y. III, and T. Saba: 1999, ‘International Mobility Policies and Practices: Are There Gender Differences in Importance Ratings?’, Career Development International 4(4), 206–211.
Hall, D. T.: 1986, ‘An Overview of Current Career Development Theory and Practice’, in D. T. Hall (ed.), Career Development in Organizations (Jossey Bass, San Francisco, CA), pp. 1–20.
Hall, D. T.: 1990, Careers in Organizations (Goodyear, Santa Monica, CA).
Harris, H.: 1998, ‘Women's Role in (International) Management’, in A. W. Harzing and J. V. Ruysseveldt (eds.), International Human Resource Management (Sage, London), pp. 229–251.
Harvey, M.: 1997, ‘The Impact of the Dual-Career Expatriate on International Human Resource Management’, Journal of International Management 3(4), 251–289.
Harzing, A. W. K.: 1997, ‘Response Rates in International Mail Surveys: Results of a 22-Country Study’, International Business Review 6(6), 641–665.
Jelinek, M. and N. Adler: 1988, ‘Women: World-Class Managers for Global Competition’, Academy of Management Executive 2(1), 11–19.
Kanter, R. M.: 1977, Work and Family in the United States: A Critical Review and Agenda of Research Policy (Russel Sage Foundation, New York, NY).
Klenke, K.: 1996, Women and Leadership: A Contextual Perspective (Springer, New York, NY).
Leung, A., V. Luk and S. Lo: 2000, ‘Mid-career Managerial Employees in Hong Kong’, International Journal of Employment Studies 8, 95–119.
Leung, A. and L. Chang: 2002, ‘Organizational Downsizing: Psychological Impact on Surviving Managers in Hong Kong’, Asia Pacific Business Review 8(3), 76–94.
Naumann, E.: 1993, ‘Antecedents and Consequences of Satisfaction and Commitment Among Expatriate Managers’, Group and Organization Management 18, 153–187.
Ohlott, P. J., M. N. Ruderman and C. D. McCauley: 1994, ‘Gender Differences in Managers' Developmental Job Experiences’, Academy of Management Journal 37, 46–67.
Ornstein, S. and L. A. Isabella: 1990, ‘Age vs. Stage Models of Career Attitudes of Women: A Partial Replication and Extension’, Journal of Vocational Behavior 36, 1–19.
Orpen, C.: 1994, ‘The Effects of Organizational and Individual Career Management on Career Success’, International Journal of Manpower 15(1), 27–37.
Paik, Y. and C. M. Vance (2001), ‘Evidence of Back-Home Selection Bias Against American Female Expatriates: Comparing the Perceptions of U.S., German, Mexican, and Korean Managers’, Women in Management Review 17(2), 179–193.
Pazy, A.: 1987, ‘Sex Differences in Responsiveness to Organizational Career Management’, Human Resource Management 26(2), 243–256.
Podsakoff, P. M., and D. W. Organ: 1986, ‘Self-Reports in Organizational Research: Problems and Prospects’, Journal of Management 12, 531–544.
Portwood, J. D. and C. S. Granrose: 1986, ‘Organizational Career Management Programs: What's Available? What's Effective?’, Human Resource Planning 9(3), 107–119.
Ragins, B. R. and E. Sundstrom: 1989, ‘Gender and Power in Organizations’, Psychological Bulletin 105, 51–88.
Rosenzweig, P. M.: 1994, ‘The New ‘American Challenge’: Foreign Multinationals in the United States’, California Management Review (Spring), 107–123.
Selmer, J. and A. Leung: 2002, ‘Adjustment of Female vs. Male Business Expatriates in the Same Host Location’, Proceedings of Academy of Management, Denver, Colorado.
Shaffer, M. A. and D. A. Harrison: 2001, ‘Forgotten Partners of International Assignments: Development and Test of a Model of Spouse Adjustment’, Journal of Applied Psychology 86(2), 238–254.
Steinberg, C.: 1996, ‘Working Women Have Their Work Cut for Them Overseas’, World Trade 9(2), 22–25.
Stevens, P.: 1993, Career Development Support in Organizations (The Center for Worklife Counseling, Sydney).
Stroh, L. K., A. Varma and S. J. Valy-Durbin: 2000, ‘Why Are Women Left at Home: Are They Unwilling to go on International Assignments?’, Journal of World Business 35(3), 241–255.
Taylor, S. and N. Napier: 1996, ‘Working in Japan: Lessons From Women Expatriates’, Sloan Management Review (Spring), 76–84.
Tharenou, P., S. Latimer and D. Conroy: 1994, ‘How Do You Make it to the Top? An Examination of Influences on Women's and Men's Managerial Advancement’, Academy of Management Journal 37, 899–931.
Tung, R. L.: 1997, ‘Canadian Expatriates in Asia-Pacific: An Analysis of Their Attitude Toward and Experience in International Assignments’, paper presented at the meeting of the Society of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, St. Louis, MO.
Van Maanen, J. and E. H. Schein: 1987, ‘Career Development’, in J. R. Hackman and J. L. Suttle (eds.), Improving Life at Work (Goodyear, Santa Monica, CA), pp. 30–95.
Vaughn, R. H. and M. C. Wilson: 1993, ‘Career Management Using Job Trees: Charting a Path Through the Changing Organization’, Human Resource Planning 17(4), 43–55.
Walker, J. W.: 1973, ‘Individual Career Planning: Managerial Help for Subordinates’, Business Horizons (February), 65–72.
Walker, J. W and T. G. Gutteridge: 1989, Career Planning Practices (AMACOM, New York, NY).
Westwood, R. I. and S. M. Leung: 1994, ‘The Female Expatriate Manager Experience’, International Studies of Management and Organization 24(3), 64–85.
Westwood, R., P. Sparrow and A. Leung: 2001, ‘Challenges to the Psychological Contract in Hong Kong’, International Journal of Human Resource Management 12(4), 621–651.
Wright, E. O., J. Baxter and G. E. Birkelund: 1995, ‘The Gender Gap in Workplace Authority: A Cross-National Study’, American Sociological Review 60, 407–435.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Selmer, J., Leung, A.S.M. Are Corporate Career Development Activities Les Available to Female Than to Male Expatriates?. Journal of Business Ethics 43, 125–136 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022979619747
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022979619747