Skip to main content
Log in

Yoga, Eugenics, and Spiritual Darwinism in the Early Twentieth Century

  • Published:
International Journal of Hindu Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Put briefly: perhaps the entire evolution of the spirit is a question of the body; it is the history of the development of a higher body that emerges into our sensibility. The organic is rising to yet higher levels. Our lust for knowledge of nature is a means through which the body desires to perfect itself. Or rather: hundreds of thousands of experiments are made to change the nourishment, the mode of living and of dwelling in the body; consciousness and evaluations in the body, all kinds of pleasure and displeasure, are signs of these changes and experiments. In the long run, it is not a question of man at all: he is to be overcome (Nietzsche 1967: 358).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References Cited

  • Alter Joseph S. (2004a). “Body, Text, Nation: Writing the Physically Fit Body in Post-Colonial India”. In: James H. Mills, Satadru Sen (eds). Confronting the Body: The Politics of Physicality in Colonial and Post-Colonial India. London, Anthem, pp. 16-39

    Google Scholar 

  • Alter Joseph S. (2004b). Yoga in Modern India: The Body Between Science and Philosophy. Princeton, Princeton University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • (Śrī) Aurobindo. 1973. Sri Aurobindo Birth Centenary Library. 30 volumes. Pondicherry: Sri Aurobindo Ashram.

  • Bayly Susan (1995). “Caste and Race in the Colonial Ethnography of India”. In: Peter Robb (ed). The Concept of Race in South Asia. Delhi, Oxford University Press, pp. 165-218

    Google Scholar 

  • Bayly Susan (1998) “Hindu Modernizers and the Public Arena: Indigenous Critiques of Caste in Colonial India”. In: William Radice (ed). Swami Vivekananda and the Modernization of Hinduism. Delhi, Oxford University Press, pp. 93-137

    Google Scholar 

  • Bayly Susan (1999). Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Besant Annie (1877). The Law of Population: Its Consequences, and Its Bearing upon Human Conduct and Morals. London, Freethought Publishing Company

    Google Scholar 

  • Besant Annie (1927). The New Civilisation: Four Lectures Delivered at the Queen’s Hall, London, in June 1927. London, Theosophical Publishing House

    Google Scholar 

  • Besant Annie (1959) [1908]. An Introduction to Yoga. Adyar, Theosophical Publishing House

    Google Scholar 

  • Besant Annie (1970). A Selection of the Social and Political Pamphlets of Annie Besant (ed. John Saville). New York, Augustus Kelley

    Google Scholar 

  • Bharati Agehananda (1976). The Light at the Center: Context and Pretext of Modern Mysticism. Santa Barbara, Ross-Erikson

    Google Scholar 

  • Blavatsky H.P. (1982). Collected Writings 1881–1882. Wheaton, Theosophical Publishing House

    Google Scholar 

  • Bose, Kartrick Chandra. 1915. Sex Hygiene. Calcutta: Health and Hygiene Office.

  • Budd Michael Anton (1997). The Sculpture Machine: Physical Culture and Body Politics in the Age of Empire. New York, New York University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Carr William (1978). Hitler: A Study in Personality and Politics. London, Edward Arnold

    Google Scholar 

  • Claeys Gregory (2000). “The ‘Survival of the Fittest’ and the Origins of Social Darwinism”. Journal of the History of Ideas 61, 2: 223–40

    Google Scholar 

  • Das Bhagavan (1930). Eugenics, Ethics and Metaphysics. Adyar, Theosophical Publishing House

    Google Scholar 

  • De Michelis Elizabeth (2004). A History of Modern Yoga: Patañjali and Western Esotericism. London, Continuum

    Google Scholar 

  • Deleuze Gilles (1983) [1962]. Nietzsche and Philosophy. London, Athlone Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Dronamraju Krishna R. (1985). Haldane: The Life and Work of J. B. S. Haldane with Special Reference to India. Aberdeen, Aberdeen University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Dutton Kenneth R. (1995). The Perfectible Body: The Western Ideal of Physical Development. London, Continuum

    Google Scholar 

  • Eeman L.E. (1929). Self and Superman: The Technique of Conscious Evolution. London, Christophers

    Google Scholar 

  • Galton Francis (1869). Hereditary Genius: An Inquiry into Its Laws and Consequences. London, Friedmann

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodrick-Clarke Nicholas (1992). [1985]. The Occult Roots of Nazism: Secret Aryan Cults and Their Influence on Nazi Ideology. London, Tauris

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodrick-Clarke Nicholas (1998). Hitler’s Priestess: Savitri Devi, the Hindu-Aryan Myth, and Neo-Nazism. New York, New York University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Gould Stephen Jay (1989). Wonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History. New York, W. W. Norton

    Google Scholar 

  • Haldane, J. B. S. 1924. Daedalus, or Science and the Future. A Paper Read to the Heretics, Cambridge, on February 4th, 1923. London: K. Paul Trench Trubner.

  • Haldane J.B.S. (1935). Science and the Supernatural: A Correspondence Between Arnold Lunn and J. B. S. Haldane. London, Eyre and Spottiswoode

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanegraaff Wouter J. (1998). New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought. Albany, State University of New York Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Hauer J.W. (1922). Die Anfänge der Yogapraxis im alten Indien: eine untersuchung über die Wurzeln der Indischen Mystik nach Rigveda und Atharvaveda. Berlin, W. Kohlhammer

    Google Scholar 

  • Hauer J.W. (1932). Der Yoga als Heilweg: nach den indischen Quellen dargestellt. Stuttgart, W. Kohlhammer

    Google Scholar 

  • Hauer J.W. (1958). Der Yoga: ein indischer Weg zum Selbst: kritisch-positive Darstellung nach den indischen Quellen. Stuttgart, W. Kohlhammer

    Google Scholar 

  • Havell E.B. (1918). The History of Aryan Rule in India: From the Earliest Times to the Death of Akbar. London, George G. Harrap

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodges Sarah (2006). “Indian Eugenics in an Age of Reform”. In: Sarah Hodges (ed). Reproductive Health in India: History, Politics, Controversies. Delhi, Orient Longman, pp. 115-38

    Google Scholar 

  • Hopkins Edward Washburn (1970). [1895] The Religions of India. New Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunter W.W.S. (1897). [1868] Annals of Rural Bengal. London, Smith, Elder & Co

    Google Scholar 

  • Huxley Julian (1941). Man in the Modern World. London, The Scientific Book Club

    Google Scholar 

  • Ihering, Rudolph von. 1897 [1894]. The Evolution of the Aryan (trans. Adolphus Drucker). London: Swan Sonnenschein.

  • Iyer K.V. (1927). “A Message to the Youth of My Country”. Vyāyam: Body Builder 1 11: 235–37

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacques D.H. (1861). [1859] Hints Towards Physical Perfection: Or, the Philosophy of Human Beauty; Showing How to Acquire and Retain Bodily Symmetry, Health and Vigor, Secure Long Life, and Avoid the Infirmities of Age. New York, Fowler and Wells

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones Kenneth W. (1998). “The Negative Component of Hindu Consciousness”. In: Geoffrey A. Oddie, (ed). Religious Traditions in South Asia: Interaction and Change. Richmond, Curzon, pp. 65-80

    Google Scholar 

  • Jung, Carl. 1996. The Psychology of Kundalini Yoga: Notes of the Seminar Given in 1932 (eds. Sonu Shamdasani and Mary Foote). Princeton: Princeton University Press.

  • Kaul Shiv Kishan (1937). Wake up Hindus: A Plea for Mass Religion, Aryanism. Lahore, Kaul

    Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy J.M. (1910). The Religions and Philosophies of the East. London, T. Werner Laurie

    Google Scholar 

  • Kevles Daniel J. (1995). In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Use of Human Heredity. Cambridge, Harvard University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Killingley Dermot H. (1990). “Yoga-sūtra IV, 2–3 and Vivekānanda’s Interpretation of Evolution”. Journal of Indian Philosophy 18, 2: 151–79

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Killingley Dermot H. (1995). “Hinduism, Darwinism and Evolution in Late Nineteenth Century India”. In: David Amigoni, Jeff Wallace (eds). Charles Darwin’s The Origin of Species: New Interdisciplinary Essays. Manchester, Manchester University Press, pp. 174-202

    Google Scholar 

  • Krishna, Gopi. 1972. The Biological Basis of Religion and Genius: Religious Perspectives (ed. Ruth Nanda Anshen). New York: Harper & Row.

  • Krishna Rao M.V. (1928). Hindu Ideals of Health and Eugenics. Coimbatore, The Physical Culture Publishing Company

    Google Scholar 

  • Leopold Joan (1974). “British Applications of the Aryan Theory of Race to India, 1850–1870”. The English Historical Review 89 352: 578–603

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maranto Gina (1996). Quest for Perfection: The Drive to Breed Better Human Beings. New York, Scribner

    Google Scholar 

  • Mehta, N. D. 1919. Hindu Eugenics. Bandra: Published by Author.

  • Mügge, M. A. 1907. Eugenics and the Superman: A Racial Science, and a Racial Religion. London: Eugenics Education Society.

  • Müller J.P. (1905). My System; 15 Minutes’ Work a Day for Health’s Sake. London, Anglo-Danish Publishing

    Google Scholar 

  • Mujumdar D.C. (1950). Encyclopedia of Indian Physical Culture. Baroda, Sree Ram Vijaya Printing Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Nethercot Arthur H. (1961). [1960] The First Five Lives of Annie Besant. London, R. Hart-Davis

    Google Scholar 

  • Nethercot Arthur H. (1963). The Last Four Lives of Annie Besant. London, R. Hart-Davis

    Google Scholar 

  • Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm. 1891 [1883–85]. Thus Spake Zarathustra: A Book For All and None (trans. Thomas Common). London: H. Henry

  • Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm. 1909–13. The Complete Works of Friedrich Nietzsche (ed. Oscar Levy). 18 volumes. Edinburgh: T. N. Foulis.

  • Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm. 1967 [1901]. The Will to Power (ed. and trans. Walter Kaufmann). New York: Random House.

  • Noll Richard (1996). [1994] The Jung Cult: Origins of a Charismatic Movement. London, Fontana Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Park Roberta J. (1992). “Physiologists, Physicians, and Physical Educators: Nineteenth-Century Biology and Exercise”. In: Jack W. Berryman, Roberta J. Park (eds). Sport and Exercise Science: Essays in the History of Sports Medicine. Urbana, University of Illinois Press, pp. 81-138

    Google Scholar 

  • Phadke Narayan Sitaram (1927). Sex Problem in India: Being a Plea for a Eugenic Movement in India and a Study of all Theoretical and Practical Questions Pertaining to Eugenics. Bombay, D.B. Taraporevala Sons & Co

    Google Scholar 

  • Pick, Daniel. 1989. Faces of Degeneration: A European Disorder, c. 1848–1918. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  • Pollock, Sheldon. 1993. “Deep Orientalism? Notes on Sanskrit and Power Beyond the Raj.” In Carol A. Breckenridge and Peter van der Veer, eds., Orientalism and the Postcolonial Predicament: Perspectives on South Asia, 76–133. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

  • Prasāda, Rāma. 1907. Self-Culture, or, The Yoga of Patanjali. Madras: Theosophist Office.

  • Raina Dhruv, S. Irfan Habib (1996). “The Moral Legitimation of Modern Science: Bhadralok Reflections on Theories of Evolution”. Social Studies of Science 26, 1: 9–42

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rajan Iyengar Tirumangalum Chrishna (1908). The Hindu-Aryan Theory on Evolution and Involution; or, the Science of Raja-Yoga. New York, Funk & Wagnalls

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosselli John (1980). “The Self-Image of Effeteness: Physical Education and Nationalism in Nineteenth-Century Bengal”. Past and Present 86: 121–48

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sarkar, Ranjit. 2002. Beyond Good and Evil: A Comparative Study of the Moral Philosophies of Nietzsche and Sri Aurobindo. Pondicherry: Sri Aurobindo International Centre of Education.

  • Singleton Mark (2005). “Salvation Through Relaxation: Proprioceptive Therapy and Its Relationship to Yoga”. Journal of Contemporary Religion 20, 3: 289–304

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singleton, Mark. 2007. “The Body at the Centre: Contexts of Postural Yoga in the Modern Age.” Ph.D. dissertation. Cambridge: University of Cambridge Library.

  • Sinha Mrinalini (1995). Colonial Masculinity: The “Manly Englishman” and the “Effeminate Bengali” in the Late Nineteenth Century. Manchester, Manchester University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • (Svāmī) Sivananda. 1934. Yoga Asanas. Madras: P. K. Vinayagam.

  • Stocker Richard Dimsdale (1913). The Time Spirit: A Survey of Contemporary Spiritual Tendencies. London, Erskine Macdonald

    Google Scholar 

  • Stone Dan (2002). Breeding Superman: Nietzsche, Race and Eugenics in Edwardian and Interwar Britain. Liverpool, Liverpool University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor Kathleen (2001). Sir John Woodroffe, Tantra and Bengal: “An Indian Soul in a European Body”? Richmond, Curzon

    Google Scholar 

  • Todd Jan (1998). Physical Culture and the Body Beautiful: Purposive Exercise in the Lives of American Women, 1800–1870. Macon, Mercer University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Trautmann Thomas R. (1997). Aryans and British India. Berkeley, University of California Press

    Google Scholar 

  • (Svāmī) Vivekananda. 1992. The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda. 9 volumes. Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama.

  • Wassan, Yogi. 1925. Soroda System of Yoga Philosophy: Applied by Yogi Wassan Through Individual Analysis of Body and Mind. Published by Author.

  • Watt Carey A. (1997). “Education for National Efficiency: Constructive Nationalism in North India, 1909–1916”. Modern Asian Studies 31, 2: 339–74

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White David Gordon (1996). The Alchemical Body: Siddha Traditions in Medieval India. Chicago, University of Chicago Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodroffe, John George. 1918. Is India Civilized? [S.l.]: [s.n.].

  • Woodroffe John George (1919). The Seed of Race: An Essay on Indian Education. Madras, Ganesh & Co

    Google Scholar 

  • (Svāmī) Yogendra. 1978. Yoga Essays. Bombay, The Yoga Institute.

  • (Svāmī) Yogendra. 1989 [1928]. Yoga Asanas Simplified. Bombay: The Yoga Institute.

  • Zaehner Robert Charles (1971). Evolution in Religion: A Study in Sri Aurobindo and Pierre Teilhard de Chardin. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mark Singleton.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Singleton, M. Yoga, Eugenics, and Spiritual Darwinism in the Early Twentieth Century. Hindu Studies 11, 125–146 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11407-007-9043-7

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11407-007-9043-7

Keywords

Navigation