Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Third Eye: Exploring Guanxi and Relational Morality in the Workplace

  • Published:
Journal of Business Ethics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

We examine the use of Confucian relational morality as an alternative reference point to that of modernist morality in judging workplace ethical conduct. A semi-structured interview based study involving 46 ethnic Chinese managers and 30 non-Chinese expatriate managers in Singapore, provided evidence of the use of traditional guanxi-linked morality as a moral resource by some of the former group in judging workplace ethical dilemmas. While such morality played only a minor role in moral reasoning, and was largely overshadowed by modernist morality, the research nonetheless demonstrates that moral reasoning reflects wider cultural heritage, and is not merely a function of corporate culture and individual moral development.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ames, R. T. and H. Rosemont Jr.: 1998, The Analects of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation (Ballantine Books, New York).

    Google Scholar 

  • Beutel, A. M. and M. M. Marini: 1995, ‘Gender and Values’, American Sociological Review 60, 434–448.

    Google Scholar 

  • Browning, J. and N. B. Zabriskie: 1983, ‘How Ethical are Industrial Buyers?’, Industrial Marketing Management 12, 219–224.

    Google Scholar 

  • Callen, V. J.: 1992, ‘Predicting Ethical Values and Training Needs in Ethics’, Journal of Business Ethics 11, 761–769.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlin, W. B. and K. C. Strong: 1995, ‘A Critique of Western Philosophical Ethics: Multidisciplinary Alternatives for Framing Ethical Dilemmas’, Journal of Business Ethics 14, 387–396.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen, T.: 2001, ‘Ethics Control Mechanisms: A Comparative Observation of Hong Kong Companies’, Journal of Business Ethics 30, 391–400.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chun, A.: 1996, ‘Discourses of Identity in the Changing Spaces of Public Culture in Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore’, Theory, Culture and Society 13(1), 51–75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Derry, R. and R. M. Green: 1989, ‘Ethical Theory in Business Ethics: A Critical Assessment’, Journal of Business Ethics 8, 521–533.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunfee, T. W. and D. E. Warren: 2001, ‘Is Guanxi Ethical? A Normative Analysis of Doing Business in China’, Journal of Business Ethics 32, 191–201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fei, X. T.: 1947/1992, From the Soil, the Foundations of Chinese Society: A Translation of Fei Xiaotong's Xiangtu Zhongguo with an Introduction and Epilogue by Gary G.Hamilton and Wang Zheng (University of California Press, Berkeley).

    Google Scholar 

  • Firestone, W. A.: 1987, ‘Meaning in Method: The Rhetoric of Quantitative and Qualitative Research’, Educational Researcher 16(7), 16–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferrell, O. C. and S. J. Skinner: 1988, ‘Ethical Behaviour and Bureaucratic Structure in Marketing Research Organisations’, Journal of Marketing Research 25, 103–109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, M.: 1970, ‘The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase its Profits’, New York Times Magazine (Sept. 13).

  • Fox, A.: 1971, A Sociology of Work in Industry (Collier-Macmillan, London).

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilligan, C.: 1977, ‘In a Different Voice: Women's Conception of the Self and of Morality’, Harvard Educational Review 47, 481–517.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilligan, C.: 1982, In a Different Voice (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA).

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilligan, C., J. Ward and J. Taylor (eds.): 1988, Mapping the Moral Domain: A Contribution of Women's Thinking to Psychological Theory and Education (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA).

    Google Scholar 

  • Greene, J. C., V. J. Caracelli and W. F. Graham: 1989, ‘Toward a Conceptual Framework for Mixed-Method Evaluation Designs’, Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 11, 255–274.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guthrie, D.: 1998, ‘The Declining Significance of Guanxi in China's Economic Transition’, The China Quarterly 154, 254–282.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guthrie, D.: 2001, Dragon in a Three-Piece Suit: The Emergence of Capitalism in China (Princeton University Press, NJ).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, G. G.: 1996, Asian Business Networks (Walter de Gruyter, New York).

    Google Scholar 

  • Harvey, B. (1999), "'Graceful Merchants': A Contemporary View of Chinese Business Ethics", Journal of Business Ethics 20(1), 85–92.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofstede, G.: 1980, Culture's Consequences: International Differences In Work Related Values (Sage Publications, London).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ip. P.K.: 2002, ‘The Weizhi Group of Xian: A Chinese Virtuous Corporation’, Journal of Business Ethics 35(1), 15–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Izraeli, D.: 1988, ‘Ethical Beliefs and Behavior Among Managers: A Cross-Cultural Perspective’, Journal of Business Ethics 7, 263–271.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackall, R.: 1988, Moral Mazes: The World of Corporate Managers (Oxford University Press, Oxford).

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, T. M., and L. V. Ryan: 1998, ‘The Effect of Organizational Forces on Individual Morality: Judgment, Moral Approbation, and Behaviour’, Business Ethics Quarterly 8, 431–445.

    Google Scholar 

  • King, A. Y. C.: 1994, ‘Kuan-hsi and Network Building: A Sociological Interpretation’, in W. M. Tu (ed.), The Living Tree: The Changing Meaning of Being Chinese Today (Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA), pp. 109–126.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lau, D. C.: 1979, The Analects (Penguin, England).

  • Le Claire, K. A.: 1992, ‘Ethnic Attitudes and Hong Kong Chinese Consumption Values’, Journal of International Consumer Marketing 4, 73–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lei, T.: 1994, ‘Being and Becoming Moral in a Chinese Culture: Unique or Universal?’, Cross-Cultural Research 28, 58–91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leung, T. K. P., Y. H. Wong and Syson Wong: 1996, ‘A Study of Hong Kong Businessmen's Perception of the Role of Guanxi in the People's Republic of China’, Journal of Business Ethics 15, 749–758.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leys, S.: 1997, The Analects of Confucius: Translation and Notes (Norton and Company, NY).

    Google Scholar 

  • Lim, G. S.: 2000, ‘Effects of Self and Organizational Interest Considerations on Ethical Judgement: A Cross-cultural Study’, Working paper RPS #2000–023, Department of Organisational Behaviour, National University of Singapore.

  • Luo, Yadong: 1997, ‘Guanxi and Performance of Foreign-Invested Enterprises in China’, Management International Review 37(1), 51–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacIntyre, A.: 1981, After Virtue (Duckworth, London).

  • Matthews, B. M.: 2000, ‘The Chinese Value Survey: an Interpretation of Value Scales and Consideration of Some Preliminary Results’, International Education Journal 1(2), 117–126. [Available on the Internet at the following URL <wwwed.sturt. flinders.edu.au/iej/ARTICLES/v1n2/MATTHEWS /MATTHEWS.pdf>]

    Google Scholar 

  • McCullough, J., C. T. Tan and J. Wong: 1986, ‘Effects of Stereotyping in Cross-Cultural Research: Are the Chinese Really Chinese?’ in Richard J. Lutz (ed.), Advances in Consumer Research, vol. 13, (Association for Consumer Research, Ann Arbor, MI), pp. 576–578.

  • McDonald, G. M. and R. A. Zepp: 1988, ‘Ethical Perceptions of Hong Kong Chinese Business Managers’, Journal of Business Ethics 7, 835–845.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miles, M. B. and A. M. Huberman: 1994, Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook, 2nd ed., (Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA).

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, J. G.: 1994, ‘Cultural Diversity in the Morality of Caring: Individually Oriented Versus Dutybased Interpersonal Moral Codes’, Cross-cultural Research 28(1), 3–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, J. G. and S. Luthar: 1989, ‘Issues of Interpersonal Responsibility and Accountability: A Comparison of Indians' and Americans' Moral Judgments’, Social Cognition 7(3), 237–261.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, J. G. and D. M. Bersoff: 1992, ‘Culture and Moral Judgment: How are Conflicts Between Justice and Interpersonal Responsibilities Resolved?’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 62, 541–554.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, J. G., D. M. Bersoff and R. L. Harwood: 1990, ‘Perceptions of Social Responsibilities in India and in the United States: Moral Imperatives or Personal Decisions?’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58, 33–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nylen, U.: 1995, ‘Humanitarian Versus Organizational Morality-A Survey of Attitudes Concerning Business Ethics Among Managing Directors’, Journal of Business Ethics 14, 977–986.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pirie, I.: 1999, ‘The Social Politics of Business Ethics’, in J. Barry et al. (eds.), Organization and Management: A Critical Text (Thomson Learning, U.K.), pp. 197–213.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ralston, D. A, C. P. Egri, S. Stewart, R.H Terpstra and K. Yu: 1999, ‘Doing Business in the 21st Century with the New Generation of Chinese Managers: A Study of Generational Shifts in Work Values in China’, Journal of International Business Studies 30(2), 415–428.

    Google Scholar 

  • Razzaque, M. A. and P. H. Tan: 2002, ‘Ethics and Purchasing Dilemma: A Singaporean View’, Journal of Business Ethics 35(4), 307–326.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rest, J. R.: 1979. Development in Judging Moral Issues (University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruegger, D. M. and E. W. King: 1992, ‘A Study of the Effect of Age and Gender Upon Student Business Ethics’, Journal of Business Ethics 11, 179–186.

    Google Scholar 

  • Serwinek, P. J.: 1992, ‘Demographic and Related Differences in Ethical Views Among Small Businesses’, Journal of Business Ethics 11, 555–566.

    Google Scholar 

  • Si, Steven X. and John B. Cullen: 1998, ‘Response Categories and Potential Cultural Bias: Effects on an Explicit Middle Point in Cross-cultural Surveys’, International Journal of Organizational Analysis 6, 218–230.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smart, A.: 1993, ‘Gifts, Bribes and Guanxi: A Reconsideration of Bourdieu's Social Capital’, Cultural Anthropology 8, 388–408.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snell, R. S. and C. S. Tseng: 2001, ‘Ethical Dilemmas of Relationship Building in China Business’, Thunderbird International Business Review 43(2), 169–198.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snell, R. S. and C. S. Tseng: 2002, ‘Moral Atmosphere and Moral Influence under China's Network Capitalism’, Organization Studies 23(3), 449–478.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strauss, A.: 1987, Qualitative Analysis for Social Scientists (Cambridge University Press, New York).

    Google Scholar 

  • Swinyard, W. R., T. J. Delong and P. S. Cheng: 1989, ‘The Relationship between Moral Decisions and their Consequences: A Tradeoff Analysis Approach’, Journal of Business Ethics 8, 289–297.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swinyard, W. R., H. Rinne and A. K. Kau: 1989, ‘The Morality of Software Piracy: A Cross-Cultural Analysis’, Journal of Business Ethics 9, 655–664.

    Google Scholar 

  • Su, C. and J. E. Littlefield: 2001, ‘Entering Guanxi: A Business Ethical Dilemma in Mainland China?’, Journal of Business Ethics 33(3), 199–210.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tamney, J.: 1996, The Struggle over Singapore's Soul: Western Modernization and Asian Culture (Walter de Grutyer, New York).

    Google Scholar 

  • Tao, J.: 1996, ‘The Moral Foundation of Welfare in Chinese Society: Between Virtues and Rights’, in G. K. Becker (ed.), Ethics in Business and Society: Chinese and Western Perspectives (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg).

    Google Scholar 

  • The Chinese Culture Connection: 1988, ‘Chinese Values and the Search for Culture-Free Dimensions of Culture’, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 18(2), 143–164.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tong, C. K. and P. K. Yong: 1998, ‘Guanxi Bases, Xinyong and Chinese Business Networks’, British Journal of Sociology 49(1), 75–96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsang, E.: 1998, ‘Can Guanxi be a Source of Sustained Competitive Advantage for Doing Business in China?’, Academy of Management Executive 12(2), 64–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsui, A. S. and J. L. Farh: 1997, ‘Where Guanxi Matters’, Work and Occupations 24(1), 56–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsui, J. and C. Windsor: 2001, ‘Some Cross-Cultural Evidence on Ethical Reasoning’, Journal of Business Ethics 31, 143–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tu, W. M.: 1998, ‘Probing the "Three Bonds" and 'Five Relationships' in Confucian Humanism’, in W. H. Slote, and G. A. DeVos (eds.), Confucianism and the Family (State University of New York Press, Albany, NY), pp. 121–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Victor, B. and J. B. Cullen: 1987, ‘A Theory and Measure of Ethical Climate in Organizations’, in W. C. Frederick (ed.), Research in Corporate Social Performance and Policy, vol. 9 (JAI Press, Greenwich, CT), pp. 51–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vitell, S. J., S. L. Nwachukwu and J. H. Barnes: 1993, ‘The Effects of Culture on Ethical Decision-Making: An Application of Hofstede's Typology’, Journal of Business Ethics 12, 753–760.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weaver, G. R.: 2001, ‘Ethics Programs in Global Businesses: Culture's Role in Managing Ethics’, Journal of Business Ethics 30, 3–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitcomb, L. L., C. B. Erdener and C. Li: 1997, ‘Business Ethical Values in China and the U.S.’, Journal of Business Ethics 17(8), 839–852.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, C. B.: 1986, ‘Moral Reasoning in Bahamian and United States Adults and Children: A Cross-Cultural Examination of Kohlberg's Stages’, Behaviour Science Research 20, 47–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whyte, W. H.: 1958, The Organization Man (Simon and Schuster, NY).

    Google Scholar 

  • Wong, Y. H. and R Y. K. Chan: 1999, ‘Relationship Marketing in China: Guanxi, Favouritism and Adaptation’, Journal of Business Ethics 22(2), 107–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xin, K. R. and J. L. Pearce: 1996, ‘Guanxi: Connections as Substitutes for Formal Institutional Support’, Academy of Management Journal 39, 1641–1658.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang, M. M.: 1994, Gifts, Favors, and Banquets: The Art of Social Relationships in China (Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY).

    Google Scholar 

  • Yeung, I. and R. L. Tung: 1996, ‘Achieving Business Success in Confucian Societies: The Importance of Guanxi (Connections)’, Organizational Dynamics 25(2), 54–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Human Resource Management Unit, School of Business, National University of Singapore, 17 Law Link, Singapore, 117592

    Doreen Tan

  2. Department of Management, Lingnan University, 8, Castle Peak Road, Tuen Mun, New Territories, Hong Kong

    Robin Stanley Snell

Authors
  1. Doreen Tan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Robin Stanley Snell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Tan, D., Snell, R.S. The Third Eye: Exploring Guanxi and Relational Morality in the Workplace. Journal of Business Ethics 41, 361–384 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021217027814

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021217027814

Search

Navigation