Prolegomena 7 (1) 2008: 61–79 What are Millian Qualitative Superiorities? JONATHAN RILEY Tulane University – Department of Philosophy 105 Newcomb Hall, New Orleans, LA 70118 jonriley@tulane.edu ORIGINAL SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE / RECEIVED: 12–03–08 ACCEPTED: 17–03–08 aBstract: In.an.article.published.in.Prolegomena.2006,.Christoph.Schmidt-Petri. has.defended.his.interpretation.and.attacked.mine.of.Mill's.idea.that.higher.kinds. of. pleasure. are. superior. in. quality. to. lower.kinds,. regardless. of. quantity .Millian. qualitative. superiorities. as. I. understand. them. are. infinite. superiorities . In. this.paper,.I.clarify.my.interpretation.and.show.how.Schmidt-Petri.has.misrepresented. it. and. ignored. the.obvious. textual. support. for. it .As. a. result,. he. fails. to.understand.how.genuine.Millian.qualitative.superiorities.determine.the.novel. structure.of.Mill's.pluralistic.utilitarianism,.in.which.a.social.code.of.justice.that. distributes.equal.rights.and.duties.takes.absolute.priority.over.competing.considerations .Schmidt-Petri's.own.interpretation.is.a.non-starter,.because.it.does.not. even.recognize.that.Mill.is.talking.about.different.kinds.of.pleasant.feelings,.such. that.the.higher.kinds.are.intrinsically.more.valuable.than.the.lower .I.conclude.by. outlining.why.my.interpretation.is.free.of.any.metaphysical.commitment.to.the. "essence".of.pleasure keywords:. Essence,. hedonism,. higher. and. lower. pleasure,. infinite. superiority,. justice,.lexical.hierarchy,.Mill,.security,.utilitarianism 1. Introduction In.a. recent.article1.Christoph.Schmidt-Petri.has.attacked.my. interpretation.of.John.Stuart.Mill's.doctrine.that.some.pleasures,.or.kinds.of.pleasures,.are.superior.in.quality.to.others.irrespective.of.quantity .His.attack. emerges.in.the.course.of.his.clarification.of.his.own.interpretation.and.his. defense.of.it.against.my.objections.published.elsewhere 2.I.am.flattered. 1.Schmidt-Petri.(2006) 2.Riley. (2003),. commenting. critically. on. Schmidt-Petri. (2003) . I. indicated. at. that. time.that.certain.aspects.of.his.interpretation.remained.ambiguous,.in.particular,.his.understanding.of."pleasure" 62 Prolegomena 7 (1) 2008 that.he.has.seen.fit.to.discuss.critically.my.interpretation.of.Millian.qualitative.superiorities,.especially.because.he.introduces.his.discussion.with. the.rather.shocking.claim.that.he.can."show".that.the.textual.evidence.for. my.reading.is."charitably.speaking,.very.weak",.based.on.his."comprehensive".assessment.of.Mill's.writings.(2003,.p .165) .But.I.wish.that.he. had.studied.Mill's. texts.with.more.care.and.shown.some.understanding. of.my.interpretation,.rather.than.seriously.misrepresenting.it .Perhaps.he. might.then.have.come.to.a.different.conclusion.about.who.is.in.need.of. some.charity This.paper.is.a.response.to.Schmidt-Petri's.attack,.and.a.further.clarification.of.my.view.that.Millian.qualitative.superiorities.are.infinite.superiorities .I. identify.the.point.at.which.Schmidt-Petri.seriously.distorts. my.view,.and.offer.some.speculations.about.the.sources.of.his.misunderstanding .I.also.illustrate.my.interpretation.by.providing.some.textual.evidence.for.my.claim.that,.for.Mill,.the.kind.of.pleasant.feeling.(including. freedom.from.suffering).associated.with.the.moral.sentiment.of.justice.is. infinitely. superior. to. any.competing.kinds . I. conclude.by. re-examining. Schmidt-Petri's. interpretation. of. qualitative. superiorities,. which. he. has. now.clarified .I.argue.that.his.conventional.idea.of."quality".is.not.Mill's,. that. the.conventional. idea.is.properly.an.idea.of."quantity",.and.that,. if. the.conventional.idea.were.all.that.Mill.had.in.mind,.there.would.never. have.been.any. reason. for. traditional.hedonists. and. their. critics. alike. to. have.scorned.his.qualitative.hedonism.as.an.incoherent.doctrine .Henry. Sidgwick,.G E .Moore.and.all.those.in.their.train.would.simply.have.failed. to.recognize.that.Mill.was.defending.a.purely.quantitative.hedonism.like. Jeremy.Bentham's.all.along,.one.in.which.the.idea.of.qualitative.superiority.is.completely.redundant.and.only.breeds.confusion 2. Qualitative Superiorities as Infinite Superiorities Mill.tells.us.in.Utilitarianism.II.5–8.what.he.means.by.difference.of.quality. in. pleasures . He. first. indicates. that. he. does. not. mean. difference. of. quantity.or.intensity:.difference.of.quality.is.a.difference.that."makes.one. pleasure.more.valuable.than.another,.merely.as.a.pleasure,.except.[that.is,. independently.of].its.being.greater.in.amount".(X,.p .211,.my.emphasis) . In. other. words,. a. qualitatively. superior. pleasure. is. more. valuable. than. an.inferior.one."apart.from.the.question.of.intensity".(p .213) .Mill.then. spells.out.that,.for.a.hedonist,.qualitative.superiority.means.that.the.higher. pleasure.is.intrinsically.more.pleasant.than.the.lower.pleasure,.so.that.any. amount.of.the.higher,.however.small,.is.more.valuable.than.any.amount.of. the.lower,.however.large .Thus,.he.speaks.of."the.intrinsic.superiority.of. the.higher".pleasure.(p .212,.my.emphasis) .Qualitative.superiority.in.this. 63J. RILEY: What are Millian Qualitative Superiorities? sense.is.confirmed.in.the.case.of.any.two.pleasant.feelings,.if.most.people. who.are.competently.acquainted.with.both.refuse.to.give.up.the.one.feeling.for.any.amount.of.the.other: If.one.of. the. two. is,.by. those.who.are.competently.acquainted.with.both,. placed.so.far.above.the.other.that.they.prefer.it.[...].and.would not resign it for any quantity of the other pleasure which their nature is capable of,.we. are.justified.in.ascribing.to.the.preferred.enjoyment.a.superiority.in.quality,. so.far.outweighing.quantity.as.to.render.it,.in.comparison,.of.small.account. (p .211,.my.emphasis) This.test.of.qualitative.superiority.–.the.preferences.of.most.if.not.all.people.who.are.competently.acquainted.with.the.relevant.pleasures.–.should. not.be.conflated.with.the.abstract.idea.of.qualitative.superiority.or.intrinsic.superiority.per se My.claim.is.that.Millian.qualitative.superiorities.are.properly.interpreted.as.infinite.superiorities:.a.pleasant.feeling.is.superior.in.quality.to. another.if.and.only.if.the.higher.pleasure.is.infinitely.superior.in.value.to. the.lower.pleasure.as.pleasure .The.higher.pleasure's.infinite.superiority. means.that.it.is.more.valuable.in.terms.of.pleasure.than.any.finite.amount. of. the. lower. pleasure . Its. superiority. over. the. lower. pleasure. is. unlimited,.in.other.words,.because.it.continues.to.be.more.valuable.no.matter. how.large.the.finite.mass.of.lower.pleasure.is.assumed.to.become 3.This. interpretation.seems.to.be.the.only.way.to.make.sense.of.Mill's.doctrine. that.a.qualitatively.superior.pleasure.is.intrinsically.more.valuable.than.an. inferior.one. irrespective.of.quantity .The.higher.pleasure. is. intrinsically. more.valuable,.that.is,.more.valuable.in.virtue.of.its.nature.than.the.lower. pleasure .As.a.result,.the.respective.finite.amounts.of.these.different.kinds. of.pleasures.are.of.no.account,.or.of.such.small.account.that.they.may.be. ignored,. in. a. hedonistic. assessment. of. their. relative.values .The.higher. kind.of.pleasant.feeling.takes.absolute.priority.over.the.lower.in.cases.of. conflict More.formally,.my.interpretation.holds.that.for.any.finite.set.of.feasible.outcomes.X,.there.are.plural.kinds.of.pleasant.feelings.uA,.uB,.....uK. defined.over.X.such.that.any.higher.kind.is.infinitely.more.pleasant.than. any.lower.kind,.irrespective.of.quantity .Even.a.bit.of.a.higher.pleasure. uA. is. intrinsically. more. valuable. than. any. quantity. of. a. lower. pleasure. 3.It.should.be.emphasized.that.the.higher.pleasure.cannot.properly.be.said.to.be.equal. in.value.to.an.actual.infinite.quantity.of.the.lower.pleasure .Infinity.is.not.a.real.number,. magnitude.or.quantity .Human.beings.are.incapable.of.experiencing.an.actual.infinity.of. pleasure.of.any.kind .As.Mill.(following.Aristotle.and.many.others).recognizes,.we.cannot. even.conceive.of.what.an.actual.completed.infinity.would.look.like:."infinity".is.merely.a. term.that.denotes.an.unlimited.magnitude.or.an.endless.process.of."coming.into.being" 64 Prolegomena 7 (1) 2008 uB.which.human.nature.is.capable.of.experiencing,.no.matter.how.large. the.finite.mass.of.uB.is.assumed.to.become .There.is.never.any.need.to. balance.the.positive.value.contribution.of.the.higher.pleasure.against.the. contribution.of.the.lower.to.overall.pleasure:.any.finite.amount.of.uA,.no. matter.how.small,.always.outweighs.any.finite.amount.of.uB,.no.matter. how.large Millian.qualitative.superiorities.can.be.expressed.by.saying.that.a.unit. of.the.higher.pleasure.is.infinitely.larger.than.a.unit.of.the.lower.pleasure. in.terms.of.pleasure .The.infinite.difference.in.degree.is.translated.into.a. qualitative.difference,.or.difference.in.kind 4.This. is.consistent.with. the. standard.hedonistic.idea.of.quantitative.superiorities.confined.to.any.given. kind.of.pleasant.feeling .A.unit.of.any.pleasure.is.still.counted.as.equal.in. intrinsic.value.to.any.other.unit.of.pleasure.of.the.same.kind .There.are. still.the.usual.finite.differences.of.degree.with.respect.to.pleasant.feelings. that.do.not.differ.in.quality .Qualitative.superiority.thus.works.in.harmony. with.quantitative.superiority In.effect,.Mill's.hedonistic. innovation. is. to.enlarge. the.meaning.of. "intensity".so.that.it.covers.not.only.the.finite.superiority.of.a.larger.quantity. over. a. smaller. quantity. of. pleasure. of. the. same. kind,. but. also. the. infinite.superiority.of.a.higher.quality.of.pleasure.over.a.lower .A.higher. pleasure.is.infinitely.more.intense.than.a.lower.pleasure,.keeping.in.mind. that.the.feeling.of."infinitely.more.intense".(that.is,.qualitative.superiority).may.not.actually.feel.(and.is.not.required.to.feel).anything.like.the. feeling.of."finitely.more.intense".(that.is,.quantitative.superiority) .Thus,. even.a.single.unit.of.the.higher.pleasure.is.larger.than.any.finite.mass,.no. matter.how.large,.of.the.lower.pleasure .At.the.same.time,.it.remains.valid. to.say.that.a.finite.mass.of.pleasure.is.finitely.more.intense.than.a.smaller. finite.mass.of.pleasure.of.the.same.type .Intensity.can.vary.to.a.finite.degree.for.any.given.kind.or.quality.of.pleasant.feeling Millian.qualitative.superiorities.give.rise.to.a.lexical.ordering.of.different.kinds.of.pleasures.defined.over.X .In.a.lexical.ordering,.a.particular. feature,.or.type.of.feature,.of.the.feasible.outcomes.has.absolute.priority. over.other.features.for.determining.the.ordering .A.dictionary.serves.as.the. model:.the.letter."a".at.the.start.of.a.word.puts.the.word.ahead.of.all.words. that.begin.with.other.letters,.no.matter.how.many.other.letters.compose. the.words .Under.hedonism,.where.the.pleasure.associated.with.them.is. the.sole.feature.of.the.outcomes.which.has.intrinsic.value,.a.lexical.order4.Again,.to.say.that.a.unit.of.higher.pleasure.is.infinitely.larger.is.to.say.that.a.unit.of. the.higher.remains.larger.and.thus.more.valuable.than.any.finite.mass.of.the.lower,.no.matter.how.many.units.of.lower.pleasure.are.combined.to.make.the.finite.mass .This.does.not. imply.that.a.unit.of.the.higher.is.equal.in.value.to.an.actual.infinity.of.units.of.the.lower . Experience.presents.us.with.no.example.of.an.actual.completed.infinity . 65J. RILEY: What are Millian Qualitative Superiorities? ing.arises.if.there.are.higher.pleasures.which.have.absolute.priority.over. lower.pleasures.for.determining.the.ordering .This.is.the.case.in.Millian. pluralistic.hedonism,.where. the. infinite.superiority.of.a.higher.pleasure. implies.that.it.has.absolute.priority.over.lower.pleasures .The.higher.kind's. infinite.superiority.over.lower.kinds.produces.discontinuities.of.intrinsic. value:.no.finite.amount.of.lower.pleasure,.however.large,.is.equal.in.value. to.any.amount.of.higher.pleasure .As.is.well.known,.such.discontinuities. are.characteristic.of.lexical.orderings Strictly. speaking,. the. lexical. ordering. of. the. different. qualities. of. pleasures.within.pluralistic.hedonism.is.a.lexical.meta-ranking,.or.ranking. of.rankings .The.lexical.ranking.is.a.qualitative.ranking.of.plural.kinds.of. quantitative.rankings,.one.for.each.kind.of.pleasant.feeling.expected.from. the.feasible.outcomes.in.X .Each.kind.of.quantitative.ranking.is.a.ranking. of.the.outcomes.in.terms.of.quantities.or.intensities.of.the.relevant.kind.of. pleasure.or.preference.satisfaction .Each.is.defined.over.X.–.more.specifically,.some.feature,.or.type.of.feature,.of.the.outcomes.which.is.the.source. or.object.of.the.relevant.kind.of.pleasant.feeling.or.enjoyment .The.different. kinds.of.quantitative.rankings.are.arranged.into.a.hierarchy,.with.the.highest. kind.sitting.at.the.top.of.the.hierarchy,.followed.next.by.the.second-highest. kind,.and.so.forth,.down.to.the.lowest.kind.sitting.at.the.bottom.position . The.ultimate.goal.of.the.rational.agent.is.to.achieve.an.outcome.that.maximizes.his.happiness.or.satisfaction.both.in.point.of.quantity.and.quality Lexical.ranking.must.not.be.conflated.with.a.simple.ordinal.preference.ranking 5.A.lexical.ordering.is.a.very.special.ranking.because.it.captures.the.discontinuities.of.value.produced.by.the.infinite.superiorities.of. higher.pleasures.over.lower .In.contrast,.a.simple.ordinal.ranking.of.pleasures.defined.over.X.is.a.purely.quantitative.measure.that.does.not.capture. the.relevant.discontinuities .Outcomes.ranked.higher.by.a.simple.ordinal. ranking.are.judged.merely.to.bring.some.larger.finite.amount.of.pleasure. or.satisfaction.than.outcomes.ranked.lower.down.in.the.ordering .Since. the.ordering.can.be.represented.by.a.continuous.real-valued.utility.function,.there.is.an.implicit.assumption.that.the.pleasures.associated.with.the. outcomes.being.ranked.differ.only.to.some.finite.degree .Even.if.that.assumption.proved.false,.it.would.not.matter.for.the.purposes.of.the.simple. ordering:.the.nature.of.the.alternatives.is.ignored .Thus,.even.if.higher.and. lower.pleasures.in.Mill's.sense.were.expected.from.the.outcomes.being. 5. In. his. excellent. discussion. of. pluralistic. or. qualitative. hedonism,. Rem. Edwards. (1979,.68–72,.111–119).suggests.that.Millian.qualitative.superiorities.might.be.captured. by.a.simple.ordinal.ranking.of.the.different.kinds.or.qualities.of.pleasant.feelings .Like. Edwards,.Fred.Wilson.(1990,.220–223,.253,.275–293).also.interprets.Mill.as.groping.for. an.ordinal.utility.scale.that.orders.different.qualities.of.utility.from.higher.to.lower.without. trying.to.quantify.how.much.a.higher.quality.differs.from.a.lower 66 Prolegomena 7 (1) 2008 ranked,.a.simple.ordinal.preference.ranking.would.not.register.the.infinite. superiorities.involved I.have.discussed.my.interpretation.of.Millian.qualitative.superiorities. as. infinite. superiorities. at. some. length.because.Schmidt-Petri. evidently. misunderstands.it 6.For.some.reason,.he.seriously.misleads.the.reader.into. thinking. that. I. endorse. his. view. that. "if. some. pleasure. will. be. chosen. over.another.available.in.[finitely].larger.quantities,.then.we.are.justified. in.saying.that.the.pleasure.so.chosen.is.of.higher.quality.than.the.other". (2006,.p .166) .But.I.certainly.reject.that.view.as.incoherent.for.a.hedonist. to.adopt,.given.that.we.are.talking.about.pleasant.feelings.or.satisfactions. that.are.not.otherwise.different.in.kind;.a.rational.hedonist.cannot.consistently.choose.a.smaller.finite.quantity.of.pleasant.feeling.if.a.larger.quantity.of.the.same.kind.of.feeling.is.available.at.some.feasible.outcome 7 What.accounts.for.Schmidt-Petri's.misunderstanding?.One.possibility,.I.guess,.is.that.he.treats.infinity.as.a.real.number,.so.that.higher.pleasure. might.be.considered.equal.in.value.to.an.actual.infinity.of.lower.pleasure . Perhaps.he.is.alluding.to.this.treatment.of.infinity.when.he.suggests.that. I.endorse.his.view,."niceties.aside".(2006,.p .168) .In.that.case,.a.rational. agent.might.choose.to.give.up.some.finite.amount.of.higher.pleasure.for. an.actual.infinite.amount.of.lower.pleasure .But.that.usage.of."infinity". is.a.fiction.of.transcendental.idealism.insofar.as.it.refers.to.something.–.a. completed.infinity.–.with.which.experience.presents.us.no.example .Mill. uses. "infinity". to. mean. magnitude. or. space. without. limit,. connoting. a. never-ending.and.thus.ever-incomplete.series.of.steps.that.might.converge. on.some.limit,.but.never.actually.reaches.it .For.him,.as.for.Aristotle,."infinity".is.not.a.completed.magnitude.or.finite.quantity 8 Another.possible.source.of.misunderstanding.lies.in.Schmidt-Petri's. failure.to.distinguish.between,.on.the.one.hand,.different.kinds.of.pleasant.feelings.which.have.different.qualities.or.intrinsic.values.apart.from. 6.For.a.more.detailed.discussion.of.my.interpretation.of.Millian.qualitative.superiorities,.see.Riley.(2008a) 7.Schmidt-Petri.labels.his.view.as.PME.and.claims.that,."niceties.aside",.I.adopt.it. (2006,.pp .166,.168) .Not.only.do.I. reject.PME,.but. I.would.also.modify.his.condition. PSV.to.PSV*.as.follows:.If.and only if some.pleasure.is.of.higher.quality,.then.it.ought.to. be.chosen.over.a.pleasure.of.lower.quality.regardless.of.their.respective.quantities .As.I. understand.it,.the.so-called."standard.view".does.not.maintain.that.if.a.pleasure.is.not.of. higher.quality,.then.it.ought.to.be.chosen.over.another.pleasure.regardless.of.their.respective.quantities .Indeed,.it.cannot.do.so.consistently.with.hedonism:.larger.finite.amounts. of.pleasant.feeling.must.be.chosen.in.preference.to.smaller.amounts.of.the.same.kind.of. feeling,.whatever.the.sources.or.objects.of.the.feeling 8.See.notes.3.&.4.above .For.an.indication.of.Mill's.idea.of."infinity",.see.Mill,."Editorial.Notes".to.the.second.edition.of.his.father.James.Mill's.Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind,.XXXI,.pp .202–203;.and.Mill,."Bain's.Psychology",.XI,.pp .346–347 67J. RILEY: What are Millian Qualitative Superiorities? quantity.and,.on. the.other.hand,.different.sources.or.objects.of.a.single. kind.of.pleasant.feeling .But.I.shall.for.the.moment.postpone.discussion. of.this.point Whatever. accounts. for. his. misunderstanding,. Schmidt-Petri. seems. unusually.confident.that.there.is.no.textual.evidence.for.my.interpretation. of.Millian.qualitative.superiorities .But,.from.my.perspective,.he.simply. refuses.to.accept.the.obvious.meaning.of.Utilitarianism.II.5,.and.apparently.shuts.his.eyes.whenever.he.comes.across.other.passages.from.Mill's. writings.that.provide.support.for.my.view .It.is.also.worth.remarking.that. he.offers.no.textual.support.for.his.own.view.that,.for.Mill,.pleasant.feelings.of.higher.quality.may.reasonably.be.sacrificed.for.pleasures.of.lower. quality .Even.the.contested.passage.in.Utilitarianism.II.5.never.so.much. as.hints.that.such.sacrifices.ought.to.be.chosen.at.times.by.rational.agents . Before.investigating.further.why.Schmidt-Petri.apparently.thinks.he.can. ignore.this.objection,.however,.I.shall.provide.some.additional.textual.evidence.for.my.interpretation 3. Justice as Higher Pleasure I.have.already.pointed.out.that.Mill.is.explicit.about.the."intrinsic.superiority.of.the.higher".pleasures,.such.that.these.pleasures.are.in.virtue.of.their. nature.always.more.valuable.than.inferior.pleasures,.irrespective.of.quantity . He.also.tells.us.that."the.pleasures.of.the.intellect,.of.the.feelings.and.imagination,.and.of.the.moral.sentiments".have."a.much.higher.value.as.pleasures. than.[...].those.of.mere.sensation".(X,.p .211) .In.particular,.he.suggests.in. Utilitarianism.V.that.the.kind.of.pleasant.feeling.(including.freedom.from. suffering).associated.with.the.moral.sentiment.of.justice,.as.he.understands. it,.is.higher.in.quality.than.any.competing.kinds.of.pleasures 9 This.higher.pleasure.of. justice,.he.explains,. is.an.enjoyable.feeling. of. "security". that. can.only.be. fully.experienced.under.an.effective.and. enduring.social.code.that.impartially.distributes.equal.rights.and.correlative.duties.to.all.(p .251) .The.rights.which.are.distributed.and.enforced.by. society.are.the.source.of.the.individual's.security: When.we.call.anything.a.person's.right,.we.mean.that.he.has.a.valid.claim.on. society.to.protect.him.in.the.possession.of.it,.either.by.the.force.of.law,.or.by. that.of.education.and.opinion .If.he.has.what.we.consider.a.sufficient.claim,. on.whatever.account,.to.have.something.guaranteed.to.him.by.society,.we. say.that.he.has.a.right.to.it .(p .250,.my.emphasis) 9.For.a.more.complete.discussion.than.I.can.give.here.of.my.Millian.interpretation.of. justice.as.higher.pleasure,.see.Riley.(2006),.(2008a),.(2009) 68 Prolegomena 7 (1) 2008 After.making.clear.that.everyone.feels.the.immense.importance.of.enjoying.security.from.grievous.injuries.at.the.hands.of.others,.because."on.it. we.depend.for.all.our.immunity.from.evil,.and.for.the.whole.value.of.all. and.every.good,.beyond.the.passing.moment,".he.goes.on.to.say.that.this. "extraordinarily.important.and.impressive.kind.of.utility.[...].cannot.be. had,.unless.the.machinery.for.providing.it.is.kept.unintermittedly.in.active.play".(p .251) .Among.other.things,.a.legal.code.of.justice.must.be. enacted,.and.the.rights.and.duties.distributed.under.it.must.be.continually. enforced.through.the.cooperative.efforts.of.various.government.officials . Everyone.must.be.taught.the.importance.of.the.rule.of.law.and.of.respecting.others'.rights.even.on.those.occasions.where.legal.sanctions.against. violating.these.rights.may.be.inexpedient Our.notion,.therefore,.of.the.claim.we.have.on.our.fellow.creatures.to.join. in.making.safe.for.us. the.very.groundwork.of.our.existence,.gathers.feelings.round.it.so.much.more.intense.than.those.concerned.in.any.of.the.more. common.cases.of.utility,.that.the.difference.of.degree.(as.is.often.the.case. in.psychology).becomes.a.real.difference.in.kind .The.claim.assumes. that character of absoluteness, that apparent infinity, and incommensurability with all other considerations,.which.constitute.the.distinction.between.the. feeling.of. right.and.wrong.and. that.of.ordinary.expediency.and. inexpediency .(ibid,.my.emphasis) Given. that. the. security. afforded.by.equal. rights. and.duties. is. infinitely. more.valuable.than.any.competing.enjoyments,.the.social.code.of.justice. has.lexical.priority.over.any.competing.considerations.of.expediency .An. individual's.equal.rights.can.never.be.legitimately.overridden.without.his. consent. to.promote.other.people's.happiness,.because.even.a.bit.of. the. higher.pleasure.of.security.–.no.matter.who.feels.it.–.is.intrinsically.more. valuable.than.any.finite.amount.of.lower.pleasures,.no.matter.how.many. different.persons.are.assumed.to.experience.them The.qualitative.superiority.of.the.pleasure.of.justice.over.competing. kinds.of.pleasures.implies.that.any.rational.agent.ought.to.give.absolute. priority.to.considerations.of.justice.over.competing.considerations,.in.order.to.maximize.his.own.pleasure."both.in.point.of.quality.and.quantity". (X,.p .214) .Moreover,.his.maximization.of.his.own.happiness.is.logically. compatible. with. his. fellows'. maximization. of. their. personal. happiness. and.thus.with.maximization.of.the.general.happiness,.regarded.as.nothing.but.the.simultaneous.maximization.of.everyone's.personal.happiness . His.own.security.is.maximized.if.and.only.if.everyone.else's.security.is. also.maximized,.because.equal rights are distributed to all .Codes. that. distribute.equal.rights.are.the.sole.source.of.the.higher.pleasure.of.security. associated. with. the. moral. sentiment. of. justice . No. competing. kinds. of. pleasures.should.ever.override.this.enjoyable.feeling.of.security.according. 69J. RILEY: What are Millian Qualitative Superiorities? to.most.people.competently.acquainted.with.the.different.kinds .Thus,.a. rational.individual's.own.happiness.necessarily.coheres.with.other.rational. individuals'.personal.happiness.to.the.extent.of.their.equal.rights .Neither. personal.utility.nor.general.utility.can.be.promoted.by.violating.rights To.even.form.a.moral.sentiment.of.justice,.an.individual.must.be.able. to.identify.the.social.rules.of.justice.with.which.to.comply .Until.he.knows. the.particular.code.which.ought. to.be.accepted,.he.cannot.know.the.particular.equal.rights.and.correlative.duties.which.ought.to.be.recognized.by. everyone.within.his.community.as.belonging.to.him.and.anyone.else.in.like. circumstances .But.to.establish.rules.and.rights.that.are.publicly.endorsed.by. his.society.in.its.laws.and.conventions,.the.individual.must.participate.with. his.fellows.in.a.political.process,.given.that.an.ideal.observer.is.not.available.to.determine.the.best.moral.and.legal.code .An.open.process.of.free. discussion.and.debate.is.essential.for.fallible.beings.to.assess.proposals.and. converge.on.an.optimal.code,.that.is,.a.code.that.impartially.distributes.those. particular.equal.rights.and.duties.which,.at.least.so.far.as.fallible.people.can. tell,.maximize.the.amount.of.security.enjoyed.by.anyone.and.everyone.who. possesses.them .In.short,.the.individual's.sentiment.of.justice.presupposes.a. utilitarian.political.procedure.to.select.an.optimal.security-maximizing.code. upon.which.any.just.individual.must.rely.to.guide.his.conduct A.considerable.virtue.of.my.interpretation,.then,.is.that.it.allows.us. to. see. why,. for. Mill,. a. rational. agent. who. seeks. to. maximize. his. own. pleasure.is.motivated.to.become.a.qualitative.utilitarian.along.Mill's.lines:. justice.demands.it,.and.the.pleasure.of.justice.is.infinitely.more.valuable. than.any.competing.kinds.of.pleasures .The.qualitative.superiority.of.the. pleasure.of.justice.also.provides.an.important.clue.as.to.why.such.infinite. superiorities.may.be.reasonable,.even.though.at.first.glance.it.seems.so. counterintuitive.to.argue.that.a.rational.agent.ought.not.to.sacrifice.even.a. bit.of.higher.pleasure.for.any.finite.amount.of.lower.pleasure Given.that.his.pleasure.of.justice.is.infinitely.more.valuable.than.any. competing.enjoyments,.it.follows.that.an.individual.can.never.reasonably. be.forced.to.give.up.his.own.feeling.of.security.associated.with.his.own. rights .He.can. reasonably. refuse. to.waive.his. rights. even. if. that.would. promote.others'.happiness,.including.their.own.feelings.of.security.(made. possible.by.their.rights),.as.well.as.their.other.kinds.of.pleasant.feelings . Given. that.each.person's. security. is.maximized.only. if.equal. rights.are. distributed. to.all,.nobody.can.have.a.moral.claim.that.others.must.give. up.their.equal.rights.to.promote.his.own.security 10.Each.individual.can. 10.This.does.not.imply.that.any.person's.equal.rights.can.guarantee.perfect.security. for. his. vital. concerns .The. uncertainty. of. human. affairs. renders. such. absolute. security. impossible 70 Prolegomena 7 (1) 2008 reasonably.consider.his.feeling.of.security.as.a.permanent.kind.of.pleasure. that.can.always.be.fully.enjoyed.in.harmony.with.the.similar.feelings.of. security. enjoyed.by.his. fellows. in.possession.of. their. recognized.equal. rights .There.is.no.moral.duty.to.sacrifice.even.a.bit.of.one's.security.to. promote.others'.enjoyments,.and.nobody.is.ever.deserving.of.punishment. for.his.failure.to.do.so Despite.the.high.quality.of.the.feeling.of.security.enjoyed.by.an.individual.in.possession.of.equal.rights,.this.moral.kind.of.pleasure.is.not. necessarily.the.highest.kind .Some.purely.aesthetic.and.spiritual.pleasures. that.can.never.conflict.with.justice.may.be.of.even.higher.quality .A.noble. individual.in.pursuit.of.these.aesthetic.pleasures.may,.for.example,.reasonably.choose.to.waive.his.own.rights.so.as.to.perform.beautiful.supererogatory.actions.that.provide.great.benefits.for.others,.even.though.by.waiving. his.rights.he.sacrifices.his.own.vital.interests.and.perhaps.even.his.life . Nevertheless,.the.noble.person.remains.fallible,.and.so.cannot.legitimately. presume.to.decide.this.issue.for.others .In.other.words,.he.cannot.insist.on. his.own.infallibility.by.claiming.that.waiver.of.rights.as.the.only.reasonable.course.of.action.for.every.person.who.finds.himself.in.circumstances. like.his 11.He.does.not.maintain,.therefore,.that.others.must.also.choose.to. waive.their.rights,.or.that.society.can.legitimately.compel.such.a.waiver. by.threatening.to.punish.those.who.fail.to.do.so .Rather,.he.recognizes.that. others.may.reasonably.refuse.to.waive.their.rights.because.(unlike.noble. people.like.him).they.consider.their.own.feelings.of.security.as.the.highest. kind.of.pleasure.for.themselves It.remains.the.case.that.the.moral.pleasure.of.security.always.trumps. any.other.kinds.of.pleasant.feelings.that.can.possibly.come.into.conflict. with.it .Even.a.bit.of.the.moral.pleasure.is.intrinsically.more.valuable.than. any. finite. amount. of. a. competing. lower. kind. of. enjoyment .The. lower. pleasures. include. intellectual.pleasures.associated.with."merely.expedient".ideas.of.objects.that.we.use.to.satisfy.our.own.everyday.wants.and. purposes,.as.well.as.inchoate.physical.sensations.(or."bodily".feelings).of. pleasure.that.are.experienced.independently.of.our.intellectual.and.imaginative.capacities.to.form.ideas.of.objects,.reason.about.them,.and.so.forth . But.I.cannot.discuss.any.further.the.content.of.the.Millian.lexical.hierarchy,.or.the.important.related.issue.of.why.higher.kinds.of.enjoyments.may. reasonably.be.considered.as.infinitely.more.valuable.than.lower.kinds 12 With.suitable.caveats,.I.think.it.is.fair.to.say.that.my.interpretation.of. Millian.qualitative.superiorities.has.considerable.textual.support,.and.also. 11.Mill.explains.in.On Liberty.what.he.means.when.he.says.that.an.individual.assumes. infallibility.(XVIII,.p .234) 12.For.a.more.complete.discussion.of.these.matters,.see.Riley.(2008b) 71J. RILEY: What are Millian Qualitative Superiorities? provides.significant.insights.into.the.peculiar.structure.of.Mill's.qualitative.hedonistic.utilitarianism 13.However. that.may.be,. it. is. striking. that. Schmidt-Petri. never. provides. any. textual. support. for. his. contrary. view. that.Mill.prescribes.the.sacrifice.of.higher.pleasure.for.lower.pleasure.in. some.situations .He.also.neglects.to.trace.out.the.implications.of.his.reading.of.qualitative.superiorities.for.the.structure.of.Mill's.utilitarianism .I. now.turn.to.consider.Schmidt-Petri's.interpretation.of.qualitative.superiorities,.with.a.view.to.discovering,.if.possible,.why.he.apparently.thinks. he.has.answered,.or.can.otherwise.ignore,.the.objection.that.his.interpretation.has.no.textual.support .As.far.as.I.am.aware,.Mill.never.says.that. higher.pleasure.can.reasonably.be.traded.off.for.lower.pleasure.in.some. situations .Moreover,.to.save.his.contrary.reading,.Schmidt-Petri.cannot. plausibly.claim.that.Mill.prescribes.giving.up.more.to.get.less.of.the.same. kind.of.pleasant.feeling:.a.rational.agent.who.seeks.to.achieve.the.most. happiness.cannot.be.expected.to.choose.a.smaller.quantity.of.pleasure.in. preference.to.a.larger.quantity.of.the.same.kind.of.feeling 4. Schmidt-Petri's Reduction of Quality to Quantity One.way.to.defuse.the.objection.that.Mill.never.says.(and.seems.clearly. to.reject).that.higher.pleasure.should.ever.be.sacrificed.for.lower.pleasure. is. to. define. the. objection. away . If. I. am. not. mistaken,. this. is. SchmidtPetri's.strategy .He.effectively.redefines."quality".of.pleasure.so.that.it.is. subsumed.within."quantity".of.pleasure .As.a.result,.a.rational.agent.who. 13.Schmidt-Petri.(2006,.pp .170–172).denies.that.there.is.any.solid.textual.evidence.for. my.view.that,.for.Mill,.the.kind.of.pleasant.feelings.associated.with.the.aesthetic.emotions. of.beauty.or.sublimity.may.be.qualitatively.supreme,.that.is,.infinitely.more.valuable.than. any.other.kinds.of.pleasures.(with.the.important.caveat.that.genuine.aesthetic.pleasures. do.not.conflict.with.the.pleasures.of.the.moral.sentiments) .I.continue.to.think.that.Mill's. "Editorial.Notes".are.especially.useful.for.the.insight.they.provide.into.his.conception.of. infinity,.which.is.central,.of.course,.to.my.interpretation.of.Millian.qualitative.superiorities . Moreover,.even.if.his."Editorial.Notes".do.not.provide.much.support.for.my.suggestion. that.aesthetic.pleasures.may.be.qualitatively.supreme,.there.is.plenty.of.other.textual.support.for.the.suggestion .Supererogatory.acts.of.self-sacrifice.for.the.benefit.of.others.may. bring.a.qualitatively.supreme.kind.of.aesthetic.pleasure.to.agents.capable.of.experiencing. it.(Utilitarianism,.X,.pp .217–8;.Auguste Comte and Positivism,.X,.pp .337–340) .The.pursuit.of.a.certain.Periclean.ideal.of.self-development.may.also.bring.such.aesthetic.pleasure. (On Liberty,.XVIII,.p .266) .Such.aesthetic.pleasures.do.not.conflict.with.the.pleasures.of. the.moral.sentiments .But.further.clarification.requires.a.more.detailed.discussion.of.the. structure.of.Mill's.hedonistic.utilitarianism.than.I.can.provide.here;.see.Riley.(2009) .I.will. only.add.that.Schmidt-Petri.makes.surprisingly.little.effort.to.understand.Mill's.doctrine.as. I.understand.it .Indeed,.he.apparently.does.not.realize.that.Mill.intends.his.utilitarianism. to.extend.to.every.aspect.of.human.life.and.conduct,.which.he.divides.into.the.three.great. departments.of.prudence,.morality.and.aesthetics.(System of Logic,.VIII,.pp .949–952) .It. is.not.merely.a.doctrine.of.morality.inapplicable.to.aesthetics 72 Prolegomena 7 (1) 2008 chooses.to.maximize.the.finite.amount.of.his.pleasant.feeling.or.satisfaction.with.respect.to.any.set.of.feasible.outcomes.(sources.of.pleasant.feeling).reveals.qualitative.superiorities.thus.redefined.as.a.matter.of.course. in.his.choices How,. then,. does. Schmidt-Petri. interpret. "quality". of. pleasure. and. propose. to. distinguish. it. from. "quantity"?. In. his. view,. "'quantity'. [...]. measures.the.number.of.pleasures.(how.many.there.are)",.where."pleasures".are.understood.as.the.objects.or.activities.which.are.the.sources.of. pleasant. feeling. (2006,. p . 174) .The. greater. the. variety. of. sources,. the. larger.the.quantity.of.such."pleasures",.keeping.in.mind.that.these.various."pleasures".are.all.sources.of.a.single.kind.of.pleasant.feeling.that.is. homogeneous.in.quality .In.contrast,."'quality'.measures.the.pleasurableness.of.any.one.'pleasure'.(how much.pleasure.[in.the.sense.of.pleasant. feeling].each.of.them.[the.sources].yields)".(ibid,.emphasis.added) .Thus,. "quality".now.refers. to. the.quantity.of. the.one.kind.of.pleasant. feeling. yielded.by.any.source .A."pleasure".of.high.quality.is.merely.a.source.that. yields.a.large.amount.of.the.pleasant.feeling,.whereas.a."pleasure".of.low. quality.is.a.source.that.yields.a.small.quantity.of.the.same.kind.of.pleasant. feeling Schmidt-Petri's.idea.of."quality".is.obviously.an.idea.of."quantity" . Moreover,.it.is.easy.to.see.that.we.are.left.with.a.purely.quantitative.hedonism,. in.which.pleasant. feelings.may.differ. in.quantity.but.display.a. common. quality. across. their. various. sources . Pleasant. feelings. are. assumed.to.be.homogeneous.in.nature .Given.that.there.are.not.any.intrinsic. differences.in.pleasant.feelings,.it.now.makes.no.sense.to.speak.(as.Mill. does).of."the.intrinsic.superiority.of.the.higher".kinds.of.pleasant.feelings . We.cannot.speak.at.all.of.higher.kinds.of.pleasant.feelings.that.are.always. more.valuable.than.lower.kinds.regardless.of.quantity Rather,.we.can.now.say.everything.that.needs.to.be.said.about.quality. and.quantity.of.pleasure.in.terms.of.a.single.preference.ranking;.there.is. no.need.for.a.lexical.hierarchy.of.preference.rankings,.one.for.each.of.the. plural,. intrinsically.different.kinds.of.pleasant. feelings .By.defining. the. single.ranking.over.the.various.feasible."pleasures".(sources.of.pleasant. feeling),.we.can.accommodate.Schmidt-Petri's."quantity".aspect;.and.by. ranking.the.sources.such.that.the.source.that.gives.the.largest.quantity.of. pleasant.feeling.sits.at.the.top.of.the.ranking,.followed.next.by.the.source. that.gives. the.second-largest.quantity,.and.so. forth.down. to.source. that. yields.the.smallest.amount.of.pleasant.feeling,.we.can.capture.SchmidtPetri's."quality".aspect .A. rational.agent.who.chooses. the.object.or.activity. (or. outcome). that. sits. at. the. top. of. his. single. preference. ranking. maximizes.his.pleasant.feeling.or.satisfaction.both.in.terms.of."quantity". and."quality".thus.understood 73J. RILEY: What are Millian Qualitative Superiorities? This.rational.agent's.choices.reveal."qualitative.superiorities".in.the. trivial.sense.that.he.chooses.higher-quality.sources.of.the.one.kind.of.pleasant.feeling.(that.is,.objects.and.activities.that.yield.him.a.greater.quantity. of.pleasant.feeling).in.preference.to.lower-quality.sources .Schmidt-Petri. emphasizes. that. this. is."the.way.we.use. the.word. 'quality'.most.of. the. time".(2006,.p .166) .He. illustrates. this."entirely.natural.way.of.understanding".quality.by.saying.that.Toyotas.might.be.thought.higher.in.quality.than.Hyundais:."The.same.point.could.be.made.by.saying.that.Toyotas. are.better than.Hyundais,.given.the.standards.used.to.evaluate.cars".(ibid,. original.emphasis) .Given.that.a.Toyota.is.reasonably.expected.to.yield.a. larger.quantity.of.the.same.kind.of.pleasant.feeling.than.a.Hyundai.does,. a.rational.agent.prefers.the.Toyota.as.a.means.to.maximizing.his.happiness If. we. fiddle. with. the. definition. of. the. sources. by. comparing,. say,. one.Toyota.against.two.Hyundais,.we.can.even.show.that.a.rational.agent. will.sacrifice.a.higher-quality.source.or."pleasure".to.get.a.lower-quality. "pleasure".because such a sacrifice yields him a larger quantity of the one kind of pleasant feeling .This.is.the.case.if.it.is.reasonable.to.suppose.that. the.use.of.two.Hyundais.yields.him.more.pleasant.feeling.in.total.than.does. the.use.of.one.Toyota .But,.of.course,.such.sacrifices.are.not.sacrifices.of. pleasant feeling. On.the.contrary,.he.gets.more.pleasant.feeling.by.making. such.choices .The.outcome.defined.as."two.Hyundais".sits.higher.than.the. outcome.defined.as."one.Toyota".in.his.single.preference.ranking 14 I.do.not.dispute.that.Mill.could.accept.this.entirely.conventional.picture.of.rational.choice.in the context of any given kind of pleasant feeling . The.lexical.hierarchy.which.is.central.to.my.interpretation.of.Millian.qualitative. superiorities.consists.of.plural.kinds.of.preference. rankings,.one. for.each.of.the.intrinsically.different.kinds.of.pleasant.feelings .Indeed,.I. have.argued.elsewhere.that.Mill.seems.to.work.with.purely.ordinal.preferences.in.the.context.of.any.given.kind.of.pleasant.feeling 15.There.is.no. reason.to.think.that.different.qualities.of.pleasant.feelings.are.implicated. in.the.case.of.a.choice.between.Toyotas.and.Hyundais .A.rational.person. can.say.that.the.Toyota.is.better.than.the.Hyundai,.and.choose.the.Toyota. merely.because.he.expects.to.get.more.of.the.same.kind.of.pleasant.feeling. from.using.it .An.ordinal.preference.that.ranks.Toyotas.above.Hyundais. contains.the.relevant.information.about.his.expected.feelings.of.pleasure . 14.Similarly,. if. the. sources. of. pleasant. feeling. are. defined. as. bundles. of. different. objects.and.activities,.then.it.is.still.the.case.that.an.optimal.bundle.sits.at.the.top.of.the. rational. agent's. preference. ranking . He. chooses. the. bundle. or. mixture. of. things. which. yields.him.the.most.happiness 15.See.e g .Riley.(2009) 74 Prolegomena 7 (1) 2008 Ordinal. rankings. are. sometimes. even. referred. to. as. "qualitative". rankings,.in.contrast.to.cardinal.rankings,.whose.greater.precision.about.how. much.a.person.prefers.Toyotas.over.Hyundais.is.thought.to.entitle.them. to. the."quantitative". label .But. this.usage.of."quality". to.refer. to.rough. and.imprecise.estimates.of."quantity".of.pleasant.feeling.or.satisfaction. embodied.in.a.preference.ordering.defined.over.the.sources.of.pleasure,. however.common.it.may.be,.has.nothing.to.do.with.intrinsically.different. kinds.of.pleasant.feelings Schmidt-Petri's. deployment. of. this. conventional. framework. of. rational.choice.to.analyze.genuine.Millian.qualitative.superiorities.is.wrongheaded .His.approach.defines.them.away .Millian.qualitative.superiorities. are.evidently.about.intrinsically.different.kinds.of.pleasant.feelings,.such. that.higher.kinds.are.superior.in.quality.to.lower.kinds,.regardless.of.quantity .Schmidt-Petri.ignores.Mill's.references.to.intrinsic.differences.of.feeling,.and.instead.imposes.a.narrow.and.parched.framework.which.takes.for. granted.that.all.pleasant.feelings.or.satisfactions.are.homogeneous.in.quality,.however.various.their.sources.or.objects .As.a.result,.the.pleasant.feelings.of.the.moral.sentiment.of.justice,.whose.sole.source,.Mill.suggests,. is.codes.of.equal.rights.and.duties,.must.be.treated.by.Schmidt-Petri.and. choice.theorists.of.his.ilk.as.similar.in.quality.to.the.pleasures.of.eating.ice. cream.or.driving.a.car .Moral.preference.rankings.(or.judgments).are.not. intrinsically.different.than.merely.expedient.preference.rankings.(tastes);. both.sorts.of.preferences.must.be.fed.into.a.single.utilitarian.calculus.to. determine.the.general.good .But.this.simply.misses.what.is,.in.my.view,.so. distinctive.about.Mill's.qualitative.version.of.utilitarianism,.and.precludes. any.understanding.of.the.ways.in.which.it.escapes.from.the.well-known. difficulties.that.plague.the.more.familiar,.purely.quantitative.versions.of. utilitarianism 16 In. response. to. my. complaint. that. his. interpretation. cannot. capture. genuine. Millian. qualitative. superiorities. because. it. reduces. quality. to. quantity,.Schmidt-Petri.(2006,.p .176).in.effect.shrugs.off.and.even.disparages.Mill's. talk.of. "quality". in.Utilitarianism. as.unimportant. for. an. adequate.understanding.of.Mill's.utilitarianism!. In.contrast,. from.about. 1833.Mill.himself.repeatedly.emphasized.that.he.subscribed.to.a.version. of.utilitarianism.which.was.significantly.different.than.Bentham's.official,. 16.For. further. discussion. of. genuine. Millian. qualitative. superiorities. and. assorted. impostors,.see.Riley.(2008a) .Riley.(2009).discusses.some.of. the.ways. in.which.Mill's. utilitarianism.as.I.understand.it.escapes.from.influential.objections.to.the.more.familiar. versions.of.utilitarianism .As.far.as.I.can.tell,.these.more.familiar.versions.have.no.convincing.way.to.explain.why.a.rational.individual.who.pursues.his.own.happiness.can.be. motivated.to.pursue.the.general.happiness 75J. RILEY: What are Millian Qualitative Superiorities? purely.quantitative.version . In. January.1834,. for. example,. he.writes. to. Thomas.Carlyle: I.am.still,.&.am.likely.to.remain,.a.utilitarian;.though.not.one.of."the.people. called.utilitarians";.indeed,.having.scarcely.one.of.my.secondary.premisses. in.common.with.them;.nor.a.utilitarian.at.all,.unless.in.quite.another.sense. from.what.perhaps.any.one.except.myself.understands.by.the.word.(Earlier Letters,.XII,.p .207) As.his.Autobiography,.published.in.1873,.confirms.(I,.pp .145,.185,.221),. he.did.remain.a.utilitarian,.although.a.highly.unusual.one .His.utilitarianism.enlarges.upon.Bentham's.by.admitting.differences.of.quality.among. pleasant. feelings,. such. that. higher. kinds. of. pleasant. feelings. are. more. valuable.than.lower.kinds,.regardless.of.quantity 17.Unless.this.is.appreciated,.Mill's.extraordinary.version.of.the.utilitarian.doctrine.remains.hidden.from.view In.fact,.Schmidt-Petri's.approach.merely.delivers.Mill.into.the.arms. of.his. enemies .When.Sidgwick,.Moore. and.others. in. their. train. attack. Mill,.one.of.their.key.objections.is.that.hedonism.(and.hedonistic.utilitarianism).cannot.consistently.accommodate.Millian.qualitative.distinctions . Some.basic.value.other.than.pleasant.feeling.must.be.used,.they.argue,.to. draw.these.distinctions,.such.that.some.kinds.of.pleasant.feelings.are.held. to.be.intrinsically.more.valuable.than.others 18.As.Moore.puts.it,."'pleasant'.must,.if.words.are.to.have.any.meaning.at.all,.denote.some.one.quality. common.to.all.the.things.that.are.pleasant" 19.My.interpretation.rebuts.this. objection.by.suggesting.that.the.higher.kinds.of.pleasant.feelings.are.infinitely.more.valuable.as pleasures.than.the.lower.kinds .If.Schmidt-Petri. is.right,.however,.Moore.and.the.others.have.been.deluding.themselves.all. along .These.critics.have.repeatedly.failed.to.recognize.that.Mill.is.really. in.their.camp,.because.they.have.all.failed.to.see.that.he.is.speaking.of. "quality".in.what.Schmidt-Petri.calls."the.'usual'.way",.namely,.to.refer. to.objects.and.activities.that.give.us.more.of.a.single.kind.of.pleasant.feeling.than.others.do .The."usual".qualitative.differences.among.the.various. sources.of.pleasant.feeling.are.entirely.consistent.with.Moore's.view.that. 17.In.his.Autobiography,.Mill.describes.in.some.detail.his.progress.through.three.main. stages,.to.wit,.a.period.in.youth.when.he.received.a.remarkable.education,.orchestrated.by. his.father,.James.Mill,.in.Bentham's.utilitarianism,.followed.by.a.period.in.his.twenties. when.he.rebelled.against.the.Benthamic.school.and.immersed.himself.in.the.works.of.its. philosophical.opponents,.and.then.the.remainder.of.his.life.when.(with.the.help.of.Harriet. Taylor,.his.wife.as.of.1851).he.developed.his.novel.version.of.utilitarianism.that."enlarges". upon.Bentham's.version .Riley.(1998,.pp .3–27).provides.a.summary 18.This. sort. of. objection. is. not. restricted. to. a. hedonistic. conception. of. utility .An. analogous.objection.can.be.stated.in.terms.of.any.conception.of.utility 19.Moore.(1959),.p .78 76 Prolegomena 7 (1) 2008 hedonism.requires.a.single.kind.of.pleasant.feeling.that.displays.a.common.quality.across.its.sources I.think.it.unlikely.that.Moore.and.the.others.have.failed.to.recognize. their.target .Rather.than.selling.Mill.out.to.his.critics,.Schmidt-Petri.should. seriously.reconsider.my.version.of.the.so-called."standard".interpretation. of.Millian.qualitative.superiorities .Perhaps.he.will.discover.that.there.is. something. to.my. interpretation. if.he.abandons. the.strategic. response. to. it.which.he.has.pursued.to.date,.to.wit,.a.strategy.of.misrepresenting.it,. ignoring.the.textual.support.for.it,.and.pretending.that.he.can.legitimately. dismiss.it.based.on.a."comprehensive".assessment.of.Mill's.writings . 5. Metaphysical Essences I.shall.conclude.with.a.brief.discussion.of.metaphysical.essences,.because. Schmidt-Petri.also.seeks.to.link.my.interpretation.of.Millian.qualitative. superiorities.to.what.he.calls.the."essentialist.reading".of.quality.(2006,. p .166) .According.to.the.essentialist.reading,.he.says,.two.things.are.different.in.quality.when.they.are.different.in."essence",.that.is,.in.their.fundamental.substance .After.distinguishing.between.the.essentialist.reading. and.his.own."entirely.natural".and.commonly.accepted.understanding.of. quality,.he.announces.that."Mill.[...].is.not.talking.[in.Utilitarianism.II.5]. about.the.essences.of.pleasures,.he.is.talking.about.how.we.can.conclusively.determine.when.one.pleasure.is.qualitatively.superior.to.another". (p . 167,. original. emphasis) . In. his. view,. the. relevant. passage. "is. about. epistemology,.and.not.about.the.metaphysics,.of.pleasures".(ibid) But.this.accusation.that.my.interpretation.presupposes.metaphysical. essences. is. a. red.herring .Rejection.of. the.essentialist. reading.does.not. require.adoption.of.Schmidt-Petri's."usual".reading.of.quality;.there.are. other.ways.to.read.quality .Mill.clearly.rejects.all.talk.of."essences",.understood. as. fundamental. "substances",. "quiddities",. or. "noumena". that. lie.behind.the.phenomena.we.perceive,.including.feelings.of.pleasure .He. argues.that.there.is.no.need.to.assume.such."fictitious.entities".(the.phrase. is.Bentham's).in.order.to.construct.valid.ideas.of.phenomena,.that.is,.ideas. warranted. by. the. available. scientific. evidence 20. By. implication,. when. he. refers. to. "the. intrinsic. superiority. of. the. higher". pleasures,. he. does. not.make.any.metaphysical.commitment.to."essences" .Rather,.a.pleasant. feeling's."intrinsic.nature".must.be.understood. in.some.non-essentialist. way .As.I.understand.it,.the.intrinsic.nature.of.a.pleasant.feeling.is.equivalent.to.a.warranted.general.conception.or.idea.of.the.feeling.constructed. 20.See,.especially,.Mill,.Auguste Comte and Positivism,.X,.pp .267–298 .Mill.generally.remains.agnostic.about.the.possibility.of.a.fundamental.ontology 77J. RILEY: What are Millian Qualitative Superiorities? by.those.who.have.competently.experienced.the.feeling .It.is.how.rational. people.(or,.if.they.disagree,.most.of.them).implicitly.conceive.of.the.pleasant.feeling.and.confirm.its.existence.on.the.basis.of.a.social.process.of. inquiry .In.the.case.of.something.so.elementary.as."pleasant.feeling",.the. social.process.of.inquiry.–.the.method.of.proposing.ideas.as.hypotheses. and.testing.them.using.the.available.evidence,.including.the.evidence.of. introspection.–.involves.critical.discussion.and.testing.hypotheses.about. human.psychology .This.in.turn.involves.analysis.of.the.ways.in.which.the. term."pleasant.feeling".is.being.used.in.ordinary.language 21 As.a.matter.of.logic,.a.rational.hedonist.–.a.rational.individual.who. affirms.that.happiness.understood.as.pleasant.feeling.does/should.by.itself.ultimately.motivate.human.conduct.–.implicitly.affirms.some.general. abstract. idea. of. what. pleasant. feeling. is . But. which. idea. is. warranted?. The.hedonist.might,. for. instance,.assert. that.pleasant. feelings.are.all.of. the.same.kind,.all.of. them.displaying.a.common.quality.whatever. their. sources.or.objects .In.that.case,.he.must.also.say.that.equal.quantities.of. pleasure.are.always.equal.in.value .As.Mill.notes,.this.is.simply.a."truth.of. arithmetic".(X,.p .258,.note) .After.all,.the.hedonist.believes.that.pleasure. alone. is.valuable. in. itself. and,.by.assumption,.pleasant. feelings.always. feel.similar.in.nature .To.assert.propositions.about.quantities,.the.rational. agent.needs. a. concept.of. "quantity",. of. course,. so. that. anyone.can.understand.what.it.means.to.say.that.there.is."more".rather.than."less".of.a. thing.such.as.pleasant.feeling .Moreover,.the.sole.test.for.determining.how. much.pleasure.can.be.expected.from.one.source.or.another.is,.as.Mill.tells. us,.the.general.suffrage.of.those.who.have.competently.experienced.the. pleasures:."What.means.are.there.of.determining.which.is.the.acutest.of. two.pains,.or.the.intensest.of.two.pleasurable.sensations,.except.the.general.suffrage.of.those.who.are.familiar.with.both?".(X,.p .213) Hedonists. and. their. critics. usually. take. it. for. granted. that. pleasant. feelings.invariably.do.display.a.common.quality .But.Mill.is.no.ordinary. hedonist .He.thinks.that.an.extraordinary.idea.of."pleasant.feeling".is.warranted.by.the.available.evidence .He.affirms.that.pleasant.feelings.are.of. 21.I.recognize.that.much.more.needs.to.be.said.to.clarify.these.remarks .Perhaps.it. will.help.the.reader.if.I.state.my.opinion.that.the.American.pragmatists,.despite.their.rejection.of.hedonism,.were.strongly.influenced.by.Mill.in.their.views.of.epistemology.and. metaphysics .William.James.dedicated.his.Pragmatism.to.Mill .John.Dewey.in.particular. made.clear.in.various.works.that.the.theory.of.knowledge.cannot.be.neatly.separated.from. our.ideas.of.what.the.subjects.of.knowledge.are;.see,.for.example,.Dewey.(1984) .Warranted. ideas.of.phenomena,. including.pleasant. feelings,. do.not.depend.on.metaphysics. understood.in.terms.of."essences" .The.ideas.of.phenomena.that.emerge.from.a.process. of.rational.inquiry.may.be.said.to.constitute.knowledge.of.the."intrinsic.natures".of.the. phenomena .But.I.must.leave.these.matters.for.another.occasion 78 Prolegomena 7 (1) 2008 different. kinds,. such. that. higher. kinds. are. superior. in. quality. to. lower. kinds,.regardless.of.quantity .He.must.continue.to.say,.with.the.more.conventional.hedonist,.that.equal.quantities.of.pleasant.feelings.of.the.same. quality.are.equal.in.value .But.now.he.adds.that,.consistently.with.this,.a. higher.kind.of.pleasure.is.more.pleasant.in.quality.than.a.lower.kind,.irrespective.of.quantity .To.assert.propositions.about.qualities,.he.needs.a. concept.of."quality".so.that.anyone.can.understand.what.it.means.to.say. that.there.is.a.pleasant.feeling.of.higher.quality.than.another,.regardless.of. the.quantities.of.each .In.my.view,."quality".in.this.context.must.be.understood.as.an.infinite.difference.–.a.difference.of.kind,.not.merely.a.difference.of.finite.degree .A.higher.pleasure.feels.infinitely.more.valuable. as.pleasure,.so.that.no.finite.quantity.of.lower.pleasure.can.ever.feel.equal. in.value.to.the.higher.pleasure .Again,.as.Mill.tells.us,.the.test.of.quality. is.no.different.than.the.test.for.determining.quantity .Those.competently. acquainted.with.both.pleasures.confirm.a.difference.of.quality.if.and.only. if.they.generally.refuse.to.sacrifice.the.one.pleasure.for.any.finite.amount. of.the.other References Dewey,.J .1984 .The Quest for Certainty,.in.The Later Works, 1925–1953,.Volume. 4:.1929,.edited.by.Jo.Ann.Boydston. (Carbondale:.Southern. Illinois.University. Press) Edwards,. R . 1979 . Pleasures and Pains: A Theory of Qualitative Hedonism. (Ithaca:.Cornell.University.Press) Mill,.J S .1963–1991 .Collected Works,.I–XXXIII,.edited.by.John.Robson.(London.and.Toronto:.Routledge.and.University.of.Toronto.Press) Moore,.G E .1959 .Principia Ethica.(Cambridge:.Cambridge.University.Press) Riley,.J .1998 .Mill on Liberty.(London:.Routledge) ––––. 2003 . "Interpreting. Qualitative. Hedonism",. The Philosophical Quarterly. 53:.410–418 ––––. 2006 . "Justice. as. Higher. Pleasure,". keynote. lecture. presented. at. the. Bicentennial.Conference.on.John.Stuart.Mill's.Thought,.held.in.April.2006.at.University. College. London,. forthcoming. in. a. volume. edited. by. P J . Kelly. and. G . Varouxakis ––––.2008a ."Millian.Qualitative.Superiorities.and.Utilitarianism,.Parts.1.&.2",. forthcoming.in.Utilitas.20.(September.&.December) ––––.2008b ."Millian.Qualitative.Superiorities.and.Rational.Agency",.working. paper. to. be. presented. at. the. Tenth. Conference. of. the. International. Society. of. 79J. RILEY: What are Millian Qualitative Superiorities? Utilitarian. Studies,. scheduled. for. September. 2008. at. University. of. California,. Berkeley ––––.2009 . "The. Interpretation.of.Maximizing.Utilitarianism,". forthcoming. in. Social Philosophy and Policy.26.(Winter) Schmidt-Petri,.C .2003 ."Mill.on.Quality.and.Quantity",.The Philosophical Quarterly.53:.102–104 ––––.2006 ."On.an.Interpretation.of.Mill's.Qualitative.Utilitarianism",.Prolegomena.5.(2):.165–177 Wilson,.F .1990 .Psychological Analysis and the Philosophy of J.S. Mill.(Toronto:. University.of.Toronto.Press)