2 Contemporary Indian Philosophy Edited by Desh Raj Sirswal Centre for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies (CPPIS), Milestone Education Society (Regd.), Pehowa (Kurukshetra)-136128 (HARYANA) 3 Contemporary Indian Philosophy Print ISBN: 978-81-922377-4-9 (First Edition: February, 2013) E-ISBN: 978-81-922377-7-0 (First Online Edition: January 2016) © Centre for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies (CPPIS), Pehowa (Kurukshetra) All rights reserved. no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise), without the prior written permission of both the copyright owner and the above mentioned publisher of this book. Editor: Dr. Desh Raj Sirswal, Assistant Professor (Philosophy), P. G. Govt. College for Girls, Sector-11, Chandigarh Publisher: Centre for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies (CPPIS), Milestone Education Society (Regd.), Balmiki Dharmashala, Ward No.06, Pehowa (Kurukshetra)-136128 (Haryana) Website: http://positivephilosophy.webs.com , Email: cppiskkr@gmail.com Online Version made at Milestone Education Society (Regd.) Pehowa (Kurukshetra) Disclaimer: The opinions expressed in the articles of this book are those of the individual authors, and not necessary of those of the Editor. Authors are responsible for any violation of copyright as they produced a certificate of original authorship while submitting the full paper. (Editor). Note: The printed version of this book has a difference of ISBN and page nos. 4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS A great number of people made suggestions of topics, authors, etc. as the volume took shape. I am grateful for their (sometimes anonymous) help. I am also grateful to all participants of the session, the authors for their excellent contributions and for their patience while the book was completed. I am grateful to Dr. Shivani Sharma (Associate Professor & Chairperson, Department of Philosophy, Panjab University, Chandigarh) who took the trouble to write foreword for present book and motivate us with positive and insightful words. I am thankful to Prof. K.K. Sharma for his continuous blessings and encouragement for our work. I must acknowledge Acharya Shilak Ram (Assistant Professor, Department of Philosophy, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra) for his suggestions for improving the book and I hope that the resulting changes have resulted in a better all-round book. I would also like to thank the extremely helpful crew of CPPIS including Dr. Merina Islam , Dr. Vijay Pal Bhatnagar, Ms. Poonama Verma, Mr. Vikram Lohat and Vipin Sangar and the members of Milestone Education Society (Regd.) Pehowa (Kurukshetra) for their valuable suggestions and positive assistance towards CPPIS works. Dr. Desh Raj Sirswal 5 FOREWORD It is indeed a matter of pleasure to write a foreword to Dr. Desh Raj Sirswal's endeavor of collaborating and editing the views on Contemporary Indian Philosophy. The roots of Contemporary Indian thought lies deep in the Classical philosophical tradition of the same. It would not be out of place to mention that any new idea must have its own identity and must be appreciated for its unique existence but at the same time its context and historical connotations must be taken into consideration before the idea is put to the different interpretations. Any book is of course a journey and a venture into the world of idea and its extension as understood by different thinkers. Sri Aurobindo, Swami Vivekananda, Tagore and many others of our Contemporary Thinkers have tried to interpret the Classical Philosophical tradition by unfolding its most practical aspects. Be it then the Neo-Vedanta of Swami Vivekananda or Humanism of Tagore or the concept of Evolution in Aurobindo's thought. Precisely, the attempt by these Contemporary thinkers has been to provide us with the best of tradition by shedding the worst as done by Ambedkar. We are passing through the eye-opening scientific discoveries and industrial developments leading us to be materialistically better placed than ever. But, this development has another side to itself when humanity is encountered by terrorism, massacre and outrageous undignified acts leaving us no space to call ourselves as humans enough. The present social situation just leaves our hearts throbbing with pain and anxiety to ponder and rethink about the direction where we are leading ourselves as individuals and as society. Even though we have accepted the cliché of 'world as a flat', yet the hearts have not melted and accepted enough the existence and relevance of the other to make this world a better place to live. Humanity is missing and humans are at loss of their identity. In such a scenario we must attend to the ideals of our past by reading them in the present context. It is a common saying that a man who holds a pen is at war. The statement actually reflects the very idea and worth of writing and putting forth views. I am very hopeful that this is just a beginning of Dr. Desh Raj Sirswal's voyage to the universe of philosophical ideas. I also congratulate his co-fellows who could contribute and join him in his ideas and thoughts to give a formal shape to what is the need of the time. I have known the editor as a person of great enthusiasm in learning and knowing newer dimensions of life and disciplines of knowledge. I wish him all success and congratulate him for providing the readers with the issues worth taken note of. Dr. Shivani Sharma Associate Professor & Chairperson, Department of Philosophy Panjab University, Chandigarh. 6 PREFACE The 150th Birth Anniversary of Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) will be celebrated all over the world during this year. The year long world-wide celebration of 150th birth anniversary of Swami Vivekananda was formally inaugurated by the President of India at Swamiji's Ancestral House on 18th January, 2013. His short speech was very inspiring, he made a significant remark after quoting the great historian A.L.Basham , "Swami Vivekananda was very relevant during his times, is more relevant now and will remain relevant as long as the human civilization will last." It's true that in the 19th century Mother India gave the birth to some bright stars, of course, not in the sky, but on her soil. They were luminaries in their respective fields. Rabindranath Tagore, Keshab Chandra Sen, Acharya Prafulla Chandra Roy, Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose, Raja Rammohan Roy, Iswarchandra Vidyasagar, Ramakrishna Paramhansa, Mahatma Gandhi, Lokmanya Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Swami Vivekananda and Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose are some of the most revered personalities of that century. In this regard the Centre for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies (CSPPIS), Pehowa (Kurukshetra) organized the First Session of Society for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies (SPPIS) Haryana and devoted it to contemporary Indian philosophers with the following objectives:   To create awareness for philosophical and literary ideas of Contemporary Indian Philosophers among teachers and students.   Make the people aware about importance of contemporary Indian philosophy and philosophers.   To critically evaluate contemporary Indian philosophy with its popular trends.   To promote study and research related to modern Indian philosophy and philosophers.   To evaluate the basic trends of contemporary philosophy with reference to world philosophy. We did a survey and made a list of important thinkers for evaluation and discussion. These are Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833), Devendernath Tagore (1817-1905), Dayananda Saraswati (1824-1883) , Ramakrishna Paramhansa (1836-1886), Annie Besant (1847-1933), Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856-1920), Narayana Guru (1857-1928), Rabindernath Tagore (1861-1941) , Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902), Brajendra Nath Seal (1864-1938), Mahatma Gandhi (18691949), Bhagwan Das (1869-1958), Sri Aurobindo (1872-1950), Swami Rama Tirth (1873-1906), Muhammad Iqbal (1873-1938), Krishna Chandra Bhattacharya (1875-1949), D.D.Kosambi (1876-1947), Raman Mahrishi (1879-1950), R.D.Ranade (1886-1957), Manabendra Nath Roy (1887-1954), Surendranath Dasgupta (1887-1952), Sarvepalli Radhakrishanan (1888-1975), Bhim Rao Ambedkar (1891-1956), Jiddu Krishnamurti (1895-1986), Vinova Bhave (18951982), N.V.Banarjee (1897-1982), Bhagat Singh (1907-1931), Rahul Sankrityayan (1893-1963), T.R.V.Murti (b.1902), Kalidas Bhattacharya (1911-1984), T.M.P. Mahadevan (1911-1983), Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya (1918-1993) , Ajit Kumar Sinha(1923-1988), Osho (Acharya Rajneesh) (1931-1990),Daya Krishana (1924-2007), Jitendra Nath Mohanty, K.Sachichidananda Murti, P.T.Raju (b.1903), Yashdev Shalya, N.K.Devaraja, J.N.Sinha, R.Balasubramaniam and so many other thinkers who are developing this tradition. In the last decays, a number of monographs on the history of Indian philosophy have been published. Of the books by Indian authors, the following are worthy of notice, first and foremost: 7 the two volume Indian Philosophy by Dr .Sarvepalli Radhakrishanan, the former President of the Republic of Indian, A History of Indian Philosophy by Surendrantha Dasgupta; Suryanarayana Sastry's Short History of Indian Materialism in Sanskrit; Hiriyanna's Outlines of Indian Philosophy; An Introduction to Indian Philosophy by S.Chatterjee and D. Datta; A History of Indian Philosophy by Ram Mohan Roy and many more treatises on contemporary Indian philosophy too. The common feature of these works is that they are all written form the positions of idealist interpretation of history and are limited to the ancient, medieval and modern periods of the history of Indian philosophy. The situation is the same in the works of the Western historians of philosophy, where the whole of the history of Indian philosophy is essentially reduced to the history of the three unorthodox and six orthodox systems. Our attempt was to make a critical evaluation of all philosophers with their main issues or trends of philosophical speculations in contemporary times whether they are academicians or non-academicians. It is neither easy nor impossible to translate into action all noble goals set forth by the eminent thinkers and scholars, but we might try to discuss and propagate their ideas. In this session all papers submitted electronically and selected abstracts have been published on a website especially develop for this session. In this volume we included some papers from this session and also from open sources and contributors include teachers, research scholars and students etc. This volume is divided into two parts. First part contains papers on Swami Vivekananda and second part contains papers of B. G. Tilak, Sri Aurobindo, Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Saheed Bhagat Singh and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar etc. It is the general intention of the Centre to produce informative as well as positive literature to inspire and motivate the students and the general readers. 12th January 2016 Dr. Desh Raj Sirswal 8 Table of Contents Foreword (05) Preface (06) Part-I The Ethics of Work: A Study of the Karma-Yoga of Swami Vivekananda -Rita Roy Chowdhury (09-12) Four Yogas and the Uniqueness of Swami Vivekananda's Philosophy -Reni Pal (13-18) Swami Vivekananda's Response Towards Religious Fanaticism Mane Pradeepkumar Pandurang (19-22) Swami Vivekananda philosophises Easts in the West -Pradyumna Anil Purohit & Harshal Gupta (23-29) Part-II Karma as the main way in Gītā : Revisiting Tilak's contribution to World Philosophy -Shubhra Jyoti Das (30-33) Matter and Spirit: A True Reconciliation of Sri Aurobindo Nishikant Patoa (34-37) A Study of Economic Ideas of Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru Merina Islam (38-45) Social Philosophy of Saheed Bhagat Singh -Manju Chauhan (46-50) Bhagat Singh as a Surefooted Revolutionary and His Verdure: A Fosterson of Colonialism-Dr. Sheena Krishnan Ulamparambath (51-56) MkWvEcsM+dj dk lkekftd&fpUru ,oa ekuokf/kdkj ns'kjkt fljloky (57-61) xka/kh jfpr ^fgan LojkT;* iqLrd dk vkykspukRed v/;;uvkpk;Z 'khyd jke (62-69) Contributors (70) 9 1. THE ETHICS OF WORK: A STUDY OF THE KARMA-YOGA OF SWAMI VIVEKANANDA Rita Roy Chowdhury A man becomes good by good deeds and bad by bad deeds...1 The doctrine of karma is of great significance in Indian philosophy and may be considered as the basis of its practical ethics relating work or karma with liberation (cessation of suffering). The word 'karma' can be defined in common parlance as action or activity. Etymologically derived from the Sanskrit word 'kri' 'to do' all action is 'karma'. Yoga has been defined in the Patanjali Yoga Sutra2 as 'chitta vritti nirodha', where 'chittam' means mind, 'vritts'changability or fluctuation of thoughts and 'nirodha' is the act of restraining or withdrawing its extrovert tendency. It is an exercise through which the ever-drifting mind can be contained and its attention fixed on the duties (dharma) it requires to perform. The 'nirodha' of the 'chittavritti' cannot be forcibly executed through external sanctions like law, coercion or fear; on the contrary it must evolve from within. The process through which this is done is 'yoga' and a person thus attaining control over his thoughts is a yogi. Swami Vivekananda intended every individual become a yogi by taking cognizance of the three qualitiesSvatta, rajas, tamas or the three 'gunas' that make up the human personality. 'Svatta , rajas and tamas, these gunas born of Prakriti, bind in the body , O mighty –armed , the imperishable dweller in the body'3 Whatsoever an individual seeks or desires to achieve, the goal towards which his activities are directed is related to the guna which predominates in him. Of these 'Svatta' is the essence; it is always there and by the purity of its nature illuminates. '...it binds by attachment to happiness and attachment to knowledge' (tatra sattvaṃ nirmalatvāt prakāśakam anāmayam sukhasaṅgena badhnāti jñānasaṅgena cānagha).4 Rajas has passion as its nature; it is the child of desirous longing and attachment. 'Know that passion consists in being enamoured, and is produced from craving and attachment. That, O son of Kuntî! binds down the embodied (self) with the bond of action' (rajo rāgātmakaṃ viddhi tṛṣṇāsaṅgasamudbhavam tan nibadhnāti kaunteya karmasaṅgena dehinam)5. Tamas born of ignorance is the deluder of all embodied beings. It binds by negligence, indolence, and sleep (tamas tv ajñānajaṃ viddhi mohanaṃ sarvadehinām pramādālasyanidrābhis tan nibadhnāti bhārata).6 The dominance of Svatta leads to knowledge of right and wrong, good and bad. The dominance of rajas inclines the mind towards power and objects of the sense. It creates the vibration that manifests into dynamic work force or karmic energy. The characteristic of the tamasic is selfcontained, withdrawn, a state of inertia dominated by ignorance it is forever coveting, never decisive about the means or the end. When inertia occupies the mind and overpowers rajas or the energy then the mind becomes incapable of removing the veil of darkness or tamas from the mind and is rendered lazy and inactive.7 This state of the mind said Swamiji can be overcome by means of the tremendous willpower which is latent in every individual, through deliberation and right knowledge. 'The goal of mankind is knowledge because knowledge alone can guide the choice of our actions. An ignorant person is unable to take the proper decision or exert proper volition. 10 Ignorance leads to inaction, lack of self-confidence and courage to do what he thinks is the right action or karma. It creates a state of confusion resulting in a stagnation of thought and action. 'As a fire is covered by smoke , a mirror by dust and the embryo by the amnion , so is this enveloped by that'.8 Swamiji believed that knowledge is inherent in man, because he is a part of the indestructible Brahman. Knowledge is a renewal, a rediscovery, a restoration; it is not made, but is at this present, as it hath ever been and as shall ever be. Ignorance has two powers, viz the power of concealment and the power of projection9. Consequently it throws a canopy over the mind concealing the real nature of the pleasures of this world constantly alluring it towards them. The mind desires and thirsts for them, unable to realize their transitory status. This leads to pain, as Gautama the Buddha pointed out in explaining the cause of sorrow. We cling to the objects of the world, the Upādāna, and crave to enjoy the objects of this world Tṛṣṇa. This is due to ignorance. Hence ignorance is the root cause of all suffering. Only knowledge can help man to remove this craving and the act of acquiring knowledge is karma because it requires tremendous will-power to remove the veil of wrong impressions. Only through concentration upon one's inner self, through the continuous and deliberate introspection, an individual can discover the immense potentialities with which he is endowed. Its importance in this present century cannot be overlooked. On the contrary, positive ideas as this can assist the modern society to realize how superstition, prejudice and self-interest are immersing it towards destruction. For a nation to prosper and progress scientific and technological skill is necessary but not sufficient; it requires the knowledge of right and wrong. The individual who has been able to overcome his tamasic tendency (here I use it to mean mental and physical weakness, inertia), from whom it has been entirely removed is all-knowing, because he can relate himself with the infinite self.10 Swamiji's call to all responsible citizens was to uplift the downtrodden, the backward the weak by gifting them knowledge. Helping man spiritually is the highest help that can be given to him and knowledge is the only thing that can destroy the ills of poverty from this society forever. If a society is not disciplined by correct knowledge, by value education, if it lacks the inner power to create its own path towards its goal, then it will remain forever in sorrow. Swami Vivekananda was not any ordinary religious leader but a social reformer with a vision far ahead of his time. Analyzing the nature of the work done he was convinced that all work is by nature composed of good and evil. Our activities if they are positive or good will create a positive vibration or effect on society; correspondingly, any negative act will generate damaging effects. It is however important for appreciating the relevance of karma –yoga ,that karma be understood in a wide sense as including the intention, the means and end of action. Thus when Swamiji referred to karma he indicated those actions which an individual thinks are best under a given circumstance. It does not include actions that are carried out under compulsion. He made it plain that there is in every individual a tremendous motivating force or will power that influences our deliberations. It is the energy through which the mind determines its course of action. Good and bad, misery and happiness are all running towards the individual and clinging around him remarked Swamiji. However, as he has the power of drawing in anything, so he has the power of throwing it out.11 This power when it enables the mind to disentangle the web of external attractions, keeping them restrained, may be termed 'positive karma'. It results from knowledge which determines the will to choose that which is the right path. On the contrary, when the mind is unable to overcome the desire for the trifles of this world is the karma of attachment that projects the image of a distorted world and stems from ignorance. 11 Swamiji believed that only when an individual directly experiences the pleasures of this world by participating in them he can realize their transitory nature. The application of effort, of will power, of the ability to judge, will help him to overcome the desire for such objects which result in sorrow and subsequently lead him to search for inner calm and renunciation. The poverty and pollution which is threatening the present civilization is the effect of negative karma arising from ignorance. "The majority of us cannot see beyond a few stepsjust a little narrow circlethat is our world. We have not the patience to look beyond ... that is our weakness, our powerlessness"12 This limitation may be regarded as one of the most important cause of environmental pollution –both social and natural. The nation has to rise above this depressing situation and this can be done when the will is strong, powered by knowledge and able to discern the right from the wrong. Then only will the nation be able to hold its head high, the mind will be without fear, knowledge will be free and the world will not be broken into into fragments by narrow domestic walls; Where words will come out from the depth of truth; Where tireless striving will stretch its arms towards perfection; Where the clear stream of reason has not lost its way into the dreary desert sand of dead habit; but emerge as a part of the Universal Being.13 The only way to reach this end is through karma which Swamiji accepted as the universal law. He emphasised that work or karma brings out the power of the mind which is already there, to wake up the soul14 from its slumber. The underlying philosophy is that activity is inherent in nature and consequently as members of the natural world we must partake in the huge karmayoga. This will maintain the harmony of nature in accordance with the cosmic law or 'Rta'. Karma –yoga is the basis of Swamiji's practical ethics, as it is of Indian philosophy in general. The message is that no one can get anything unless he earns it and we are responsible for what we are and what we want to be. Thus this paper concludes with the intention of furthering global peace, harmony, prosperity and this can be done if each and every member of the global community thinks positively about oneself and others. When every member realise that he is a store house of energy which can be directed by his will power, that whatever we wish ourselves to be we have the power to make ourselves then only will we sustain. Swamiji therefore very clearly stated that that it is a sign of weakness to rely on fate, on destiny; if you are to rely on anything or anybody he must do so on his own conviction to achieve. If any individual has the knowledge to pursue his end systematically, logically with cleverness and as a science, he will be able to do it. Thus work, positive selfless work, can take us from darkness to light, from delusion to bliss. 'asato ma sadgamaya tamaso ma jyotirgamaya mrtyorma amrtam gamaya'15 References: 1. Müller Max (1879) The Upanishads, Part 2 (SBE15), cited from sacred-texts.com, 16.5.2012. 5.50pm 2. Prasad Rama (1978) (Trans.) Patanjali's Yoga Sutra, 2nd edition Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation , Sutra 2,p.5 12 3. Telang Trimbak Kâshinâth( Trans.) The Bhagvad Gita with the sanatsugâtîya and the anugîtâ Volume 8, The Sacred Books of the East. www.sacred-texts.com chapter 14 , Verse 5, 24.5.2012, 3.23pm 4. Ibid 3, Verse-6. 5. Ibid 3,Verse-7 6. Ibid 3, Verse-8 7. Ibid 2, p.7 8. Ibid 3, Chapter 3, Verse-38. 9. Swami Nikhilananda (1931) (Trans.) Vedantasara of Sadananda. Almora : Advaita Ashrama Mayavati, Verse 51.p. 38 10. Swami Vivekananda (1965) Complete Works, Mayavati memorial Edition, Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama. 12th edition Vol. 1, p.29 11. Ibid 8, pg.30 12. Ibid 8, p. 33 13. This is a shadow of Rabindra Nath Tagore's poem 'where the mind is without fear' 14. Ibid 8, p. 31 15. Brhadaranyaka Upanishad - I.iii.28 13 2. FOUR YOGAS AND THE UNIQUENESS OF SWAMI VIVEKANANDA'S PHILOSOPHY Reni Pal Contemporary Indian philosophy has arisen in awareness of the need to blend the forces of tradition with those of modernity. The contemporary Indian philosophers are of the opinion that philosophy is to be treated like an attitude – an attitude towards life. Humanism has always been the most emphatic point for contemporary Indian philosophers. One of the trend-setters on this particular point of humanism is Swami Vivekananda, a stalwart of 19th and 20th century Indian philosophy. In the philosophy of Swami Vivekananda the concept of yoga plays a dominant role. In Yoga Philosophy, 'yoga' means the cessation of mental functions or modifications (Cittavrttinirodha). The word 'yoga' itself is highly ambiguous. In the narrower sense it means 'union' while in the wider sense it means 'marga' or 'discipline'. Vivekananda incorporated both these meanings in the word 'yoga' with a comprehensive outlook. Yoga philosophy prescribes four spiritual paths to attain knowledge of the self: karma-yoga, the path of selfless action; jnana-yoga, the path of knowledge and discrimination; bhakti-yoga, the path of devotion; and raja-yoga, the path of concentration and meditation. In classical philosophy it has been said that all the four kinds of yogas are incompatible with each other. But according to Vivekananda, they are all consistent with and complementary to each other. He sought to establish Jnana-Karma-Bhakti Samuccaya. Each seeker is called upon to decide which yoga best corresponds to his or her natural disposition. Vivekananda gives perfect liberty to the individual for choosing and pursuing the course that he likes best. Karma-yoga is advised for the active, jnana-yoga for the rational, bhakti-yoga for the devotional, and raja-yoga for the strong-willed. The goal of all four yogas is freedom from the assumed bondage of the soul and realization of our true identity. Karma Yoga: In Indian philosophy 'karma' means performance of sacrifices or particular kind of actions leading to salvation. Swami Vivekananda refers 'karma' in wider sense, not in technical or philosophical sense. According to him, karma means actions which lead to formation of character, which lead to the rise of a 'Real Man'. Karma marga is entirely based on performing our duties. All duties lead to selflessness. Karma Yoga is the way or path by which human will power is expressed through actions for the attainment of spiritual development. A Karma Yogin performs his actions being motivated by pure love. In performing his actions he remains completely unattached and seeks no personal rewards. Attachment comes only when we expect a return after performing an action.Vivekananda adopted the principle of "work for work's sake" from Buddha who, after attaining Nirvana, kept on working throughout his life.Vivekananda was very much inspired by the concept of Niskama Karma as told by Gita. Niskama Karma refers to the actions done not motivated by the thought of enjoying the fruits of the work. We have to do good for its own sake, not for the sake of its good results. Either we have to give up all fruits of work by our will power (in case of a person who does not believe in 14 the existence of God) or we have to give up the fruits of work unto God (in case of a person who believes in the existence of God). Thus the non-attachment emerges. "Attachment is the sense of identification with anything as 'mine'. With the idea of possession comes selfishness, and selfishness brings misery"1. Actually whatever we do possess, we always tend to label it as 'mine'. This type of narrow mentality causes selfishness, bondage and misery. Non-attachment which consists in being unselfish leads to self-abnegation. Self-abnegation makes a man ready to sacrifice himself for others. Vivekananda said that we should not avoid or abandon work. According to karma yoga man has to keep on working as well as he can. Man should be like a lotus leaf in the water. This type of non-attached attitude is called Vairagya. Vairagya is possible due to 'Nivritti' which means going away from the thought of 'I and mine'. Nivritti produces unselfishness, non-attachment and freedom or liberation. But 'Pravritti' which means revolving towards the thought of 'I and mine' produces selfishness, attachment and bondage. A karma yogin should follow the path of 'Nivritti' to attain liberation. A karma-yogin remains calm in the midst of activity and finds solitude in the midst of intense activity. By practising good actions constantly and repeatedly one will reach a state where he becomes indifferent of his own good and incapable of doing harm to others. This is the basic theme of karma yoga. Jnana Yoga: Jnana Yoga is the path of knowledge. The darkness of ignorance can only be dispelled by the light of knowledge. Our bondage is due to this ignorance. According to Vivekananda, ignorance occurs due to our inability to distinguish between the real and the unreal. Vivekananda's entire sympathy was with 'Jnana'. He says that all our actions are necessary to produce the spark of knowledge. According to Jnana Yoga, knowledge has two aspects – fire and light. The fire burns all the impurities of our mind, and knowledge enlightens our inner consciousness simultaneously. Self-knowledge does not come by itself, it requires renunciation of all desires – both earthly and heavenly. Ignorance can only be eradicated by attaining this selfknowledge. The method of jnana yoga is to persuade the seeker that his or her sole identity is the self. Selfknowledge can not be gained merely through study or listening lectures by wise teachers. We have to meditate upon the truths that we have learnt. This requires the constant practice of concentration. By hearing about the Self, reading about the Self, thinking about the Self, and meditating on the Self , the mind gradually realizes that the Self is the only reality in this universe and that all else is unreal. Self-knowledge, according to jnana-yoga, is true liberation. The jnana yoga requires two methods – renunciation and concentration. First we have to renounce all selfishness in that we can have control over our body, mind and senses. It is 'Vairagya'. It directs the seeker completely to the longing to know the Brahman being impelled by nothing else. Renunciation paves the way for concentration. The entire energy of the seeker should be accumulated and concentrated in the direction of knowledge. When the concentration becomes 15 more intense, the seeker begins to attain the state of samadhi where there remains no distinction between the self and the Brahman. At this stage the self can realize its oneness with Brahman and can realize the perfect unity. Real Man is one – the infinite, omnipresent Spirit and the apparent man which we experience is only a limitation of the Real Man. The body is not the Real Man, neither is the mind, for the body and mind are continuously changing. It is the spirit beyond, which alone can live for ever. On the one hand, there is the Absolute which is beyond time, space and causation; without any trace of plurality. On the other hand, there is the world of plurality which includes everything that exists – the material world as well as the mental and spiritual world. This plurality is the expression or manifestation of the Absolute. Knowing is a kind of becoming. Knowing an object i.e., Brahman means being identical with the object, i.e., Brahman. It is the essence of jnana yoga. Bhakti Yoga: Bhakti Yoga is the way of realizing God through intense love. Karma marga and Bhakti marga are not opposed to each other. We can have unselfishness only by love which can make our duties pleasant. "Bhakti Yoga is a real, genuine search after the Lord, a search beginning, continuing and ending in love."2 According to Swami Vivekananda, devotion or love is natural to man. So bhakti marga is the easiest way to realize God. This marga does not require any special capacity or aptitude like other three margas. Generally the object of our love is mere worldly things or persons which are transitory, perishable and finally unreal. In this sense, love is not pure love but attachment. In stead of finite and limited love we should extend our love to the extent of infinitude. This love is the universal love, love for all. Universal love becomes possible only through love of God. God is the generalized universal whole and all things in the Universe are parts of Him. If we love that sum total, we love everything. Thus the power to love all comes only to one who loves God first. Vivekananda mentioned some steps through which a seeker of bhakti marga can realize the Supreme. Because only the Brahman as Absolute is too much of an abstraction for a common person to be loved and worshipped. So the Bhakta, the seeker of bhakti marga, chooses the relative aspect of Brahman, that is Iswara or God as his object of love and worship. In the first stage, we worship certain images or idols of Gods and Goddesses or prophets. In the second stage, prayers of God, chanting hymns, repeating God's name for several times, singing the songs glorifying God take prominent place. In the third stage, the prayer of God becomes transcendental. In the place of chanting hymns a silent meditation takes place. At this stage, the devotee starts to think God as the only existent being in his or her world. The fourth stage is the final stage where the distinction between the lover and the beloved, between the worshipper and the worshipped, between the devotee and the God vanishes. At this stage, the devotee becomes almost one with the Supreme. It is a divine and unique feeling of essential oneness. Bhakti Yoga is divided into two parts – Gauni or Apara bhakti or preparatory stage and Para Bhakti or the Supreme stage. Gauni bhakti is the devotion of the devotee based on external aids, i.e., symbolical or mythological aids. Rituals, mantras, images, God-men, natural powers like the Sun, the Air, the Sky etc. – all these are the various symbols or Pratikas which man worship as 16 the contemplation of the Universal Being, Iswara. This stage purifies the soul of an individual and prepares the mind of an individual for renunciation without which attaining Para Bhakti is impossible. Para Bhakti or Supreme Devotion means spontaneous loving devotion of a devotee. When all our lower worldly desires drop off and we start to worship God in a real sense, for the sake of God Himself the stage of Para Bhakti begins. In Para Bhakti man continues to love God irrespective of any response from Him. Devotion takes on its higher forms of expression at this supreme stage. No one can attain the stage of Para Bhakti without renunciation. Renunciation is that Vairagya or non-attachment for all things that are not God. The person endowed with Para Bhakti rises above all forms, rituals and symbols. Between such higher love (Para Bhakti) and higher knowledge (Jnana), there is no difference. In the highest state of Para Bhakti the lover loses himself in the Beloved and attains to the state of Non-duality. According to Vivekananda, Para Bhakti has three important features which may be termed as the three angles of the triangle of love. Firstly, love knows no bargaining. The true Bhakta loves God without expecting or seeking any return. Secondly, love knows no fear. When the devotee completely surrenders himself to God there is no place for fear. Thirdly, love knows no rival, for the devotee learns to love the highest Ideal in itself. Raja Yoga: Swami Vivekananda regarded Raja yoga or Patanjali's yoga as a science. The practice of this yoga enables us to realize God and have direct religious experience. Here the main emphasis is on concentration and meditation. "Raja Yoga is the way to the realisation of immortality by controlling the mind and the body."3. It involves certain yogic exercises of the psycho-physical nature. Concentration or meditation which directs us to direct spiritual devotion is the final stage of Raja Yoga. But this concentration is not possible for an individual without he has complete control over his mind and body. To control the body and the mind, a direct and forceful method is to be adopted. Raja yoga indicates this method of physical and mental discipline. According to Vivekananda, Raja yoga is the surest and quickest method of attaining salvation. So it is called Raja yoga, i.e., the king of all yogas. But he was aware that this method is not for the weak people. Raja yoga requires immense faith in oneself as well as huge physical and mental strength. It is the monism alone which gives us immeasurable strength, according to Vivekananda. Raja yoga is divided into eight steps – Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi. The first five steps are the external aids to yoga (bahiranga sadhana) while the last three disciplines are said to be internal to yoga (antaranga sadhana). The first discipline Yama or absolute restraint consists in (a) ahimsa (non-killing) or abstention from all kinds of injury to any life, (b) satya or truthfulness in thought and speech, (c) asteya or 17 non-stealing, (d) brahmacarya or continence or control of the carnal desires and passions, and (e) aparigraha or non-acceptance of unnecessary gifts from other people. These are to be practised by all aspirants irrespective of time, place or status. So they are called absolute. The second discipline is Niyama or culture or relative restraints. It consists in the cultivation of the following good habits: (a) sauca or purification of the body by washing and taking pure food (bahya or external purification), and purification of the mind by cultivating good sentiments and emotions (abhyantara or internal purification); (b) santosa or the habit of being content with what comes of itself without undue exertion; (c) tapas or austerity or penance which consists in the habit of enduring cold and heat etc. and observing austere vows; (d) svadhyaya or the regular habit of scriptural study and (e) Isvarapranidhana or meditation of and resignation to God. They are called relative in the sense that according to time, place and circumstance there can be variations in the practices. Asana is a discipline of the body and consists in the adoption of firm, steady and comfortable postures that is conductive to meditation. If the body is not completely free from diseases and other disturbing influences, it is very difficult to attain concentration. The next step is Pranayama which is the regulation of breath. It consists in inhalation or filling (Puraka), exhalation or emptying (Rechaka) and retention of the vital breath (Kumbhaka), i.e., suspension of breath without taking in or throwing out air. Hence by practising the control of breath, the yogin can suspend breathing for a long time and thereby prolong the state of concentration. Pratyahara consists in withdrawing the senses from their respective external objects and keeping them under the control of the mind. When all our organs – five organs of knowledge and give organs of action are under perfect control, one will experience a sense of blessedness. Dharana or attention is a mental discipline which consists in holding or fixing the mind (citta) on the desired object. It is the state where the abstracted mind is kept steadily on an object within the body or outside. Dhyana or meditation is the next step. When Dharana becomes steady and the mind does not go to any other object, that state of mind is called Dhyana. It is the steadfast contemplation of the object without any break or disturbance. Samadhi or concentration is the final step in the practice of yoga. In it the mind is so deeply absorbed in the object of contemplation that it loses itself in the object and has no awareness of itself. In this connection, it is worth mentioning that Swamiji's contribution in contemporary philosophy claims to have a uniqueness. He was not an academic philosopher. His philosophy started as a reaction to contemporary socio-religious and economic conditions prevalent among the masses of Indian society. The greatest contribution made by Swamiji to the modern philosophy was his religious explanations. He tried to define religion with the aid of scientific awareness. He included religion 18 in the realm of science by holding the view that the religion is also a science – science of consciousness. According to him, religion is the spiritual enlightenment or upliftment in human society. The great conception of "Universal Religion of Swamiji frees religion from the hold of superstition, dogmatism, intolerance and makes religion the pursuit of Supreme Freedom, Supreme Knowledge and Supreme Happiness. Secondly, Vivekananda's concept of 'potential divinity of the soul' gives a new ennobling concept of man. Such a concept of him prevents the degradation of man from violence and crime of modern society, divinizes human relationships and makes life meaningful as well as worth living. He has laid the foundation of "spiritual humanism" which is now manifesting itself all over the world. He combined humanism with humanitarianism with great ease. He strongly believed that without the spiritual reform of the individual there can not be any social or political or economic reform of our society. Thirdly, Swamiji has given a new theory of ethics and new principle of morality based on the intrinsic purity and oneness of the Atman. The prevalent morality was based on fear – fear of the police, fear of God's punishment, fear of karma, and so on. But Vivekananda has given a new idea that we should be pure because purity is our real nature. We should love and serve our neighbours and all fellow men because we are all one in the Supreme Spirit known as Paramatman or Brahman. Swami Vivekananda's philosophy has a unique relevance for the modern world. The practical aspects of his teachings reflect in renunciation and service. His philosophy enhances the spiritual evolution of mankind as well as guides humanity along diverse paths to the attainment of freedom, peace and love. Notes: 1. Tapasyananda, S. (2003). The Four Yogas of Swami Vivekananda. Mayavati: Advaita Ashrama,p. 23 2. Bodhasarananda, S. (1971). Teachings of Swami Vivekananda. Mayavati: Advaita Ashrama,p.7 3. Lal, B. K. (1999). Contemporary Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd., p.35 19 3. SWAMI VIVEKANANDA'S RESPONSE TOWARDS RELIGIOUS FANATICISM Pradeepkumar Mane Present paper deals with Swami Vivekananda's conception of fanaticism and his reaction towards it. As a commentator on various religious traditions he has presented his views on the origin, causes and effects of fanaticism on human world. I through this paper want to examine his views critically in the light of contemporary situation. Fanaticism is a very general concept. It is an activity in which particular person or agent holds particular viewpoint/s and very strictly and passionately follows that view. He in this process rejects others views and very unsympathetic towards them. Even he is not ready to acknowledge others views. He is filled with excessive and misguided enthusiasm. Though fanaticism is of many kinds I am strictly focusing myself to religious fanaticism around which my topic revolves. Religious fanaticism is an ideology and way of religious practice in which person following that practice proposes one religion or religious practice strictly and rejects the other kinds of religions and practices. He is very orthodox, rigid and conservative in his ideas and ideologies and gives no scope for others to enter in his area. In all, religious fanaticism is an ideology which proposes that one's own version of religion is the only truth. This fanaticism is involved at two levels i.e. at intellectual and practical level. In intellectual level fanatic doesn't recognize other's intellectual views and at practical level he is unsympathetic towards other's religious practices. In a philosophical sense it is a closed system. Swami Vivekananda on fanaticism: As a religious preacher Vivekananda has commented on fanaticism, its nature and its influence on human world. Vivekananda as a proponent of universal religion not only commented on but also harshly criticized it as one of the worst evils. For him religion was not theoretical analysis of truth, reality and the world but it is a way of realization of the truth. It is the way of salvation of individuals and one of the basic social organizations of the human society. For him the goal of religion is to manifest the divinity present if man. While proposing religion as a way of life he not only accepts religious liberalism but also proposes religious pluralism. He considers religion as an open system in which various people according to their nature and tendencies follow various ways and try to realize their goal of life. Though he has given many definitions of religions but still his conception of religion can be summed up in one definition i.e. 'True religion is always transcendental'. It transcends all notions of traditions, cultures, customs and human senses. Giving his own analogy every traditional religion i.e. Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity etc. is like a page in the vast book of religion (which he considers true religion) and as a human being we have to read its (book's) entire pages. Means here he is suggesting to transcend all traditional religions likes Hinduism, Buddhism and Christianity etc. For him religion is not talking and believing but it is being and becoming. One should realize the nature of the reality through an experience. If we analyze his conception of religion we see that he proposes a kind of religion which is tolerant, sympathetic, open, critical and universal in nature. Vivekananda proposes this kind of religion that is why at many times commented on fanaticism, he considers it as a most hard barrier in the development of individuals and society. 20 Fanaticism: Biggest hurdle for the religious world Vivekananda defines fanaticism as a tendency in which person holds particular religious position which is very strong, energetic, passionate and unsympathetic towards other religions. Fanaticism is destructive in nature and it always wants to bring sudden changes. While describing these qualities he harshly criticizes it as a way of religious theory and practice. He criticizes fanaticism as one sided ideology which is orthodox and violent in nature. Fanaticism due to this harms individuals, societies and is responsible for destruction of civilizations. He criticizes that as a revolutionary form of ideology it tries to change society rapidly but it fails in its goal. In this process fanaticism not only harms individuals but societies also because it is unable to find root causes of its problems and so becomes unable to get right of it. Which explaining fanaticism he gives two reasons for the emergence of it. He considers ignorance and bad faith are two chief reasons of the emergence of fanaticism. We see that he is critical of any kind of ignorance and about spiritual and religious kind of ignorance he is very much critical. He considers ignorance as a chief cause of all miseries. Ignorance gives us mistaken view of the world and we act and misguide our behavior. And while doing this we are unaware of our conceptions and activities which are on the wrong way. This ignorance creates bad faith which is the second reason for the emergence of fanaticism. Though he is always praiseful for faith which he considers as the most important tool for realization still he is critical about bad faith which he distinguishes from good faith. 'Faith is not belief but it is the grasp of the ultimate, an illumination'. He considers faith as a means to realize ultimate reality which can not be grasped by reason. Since reason is limited in nature and it can only grasp things which are already known. Reasoning is the comparison between certain facts which we have already perceived. Reason cannot go beyond perception where the realization of religion which can only be grasped through inspiration lies. And this inspiration emerges form faith. So he considers following faith because it can lead us towards the realization of reality. But while doing this he made distinction between good and bad faith. Bad faith according to him is accepting anything without having a realization of it. So he argues that the bad faith is the chief reason for degeneration of individuals and society. He argues this, "In true religious there is no faith of belief in the sense of blind faith. To believe blindly is to degenerate the human soul. Be an atheist if you want but don't believe in anything unquestioningly. You not only hurt yourself thereby but you injure society". Here we can see how he is making clear-cut distinction between good faith and bad faith. Here he proposes to judge bad faith from good faith with reason. Here we can see fanaticism as bad faith which can be scrutinized with the reason. When he is proposing reason as tool for judging good and bad faith he seems to trying to bring rationalization of religion. While talking about human ways of understanding the world he considers instinct, reason and inspiration as ways of it. He explains this that instinct is the basic and reason as modification of it. Inspiration which goes beyond reason is the modification of the reason. He says that the world of religion belongs to inspiration and further says that due to limited capacity of reason it becomes inadequate tool of realization of religion. But while dealing with this kind of fanatic activities he suggests using reason as a criterion for judging the difference between fanaticism and non fanaticism. 21 Here we can examine Vivekananda's viewpoint that reason can be used for judging inspiration. And ask a question that how if reason is lower to inspiration can it judge inspiration? A particular fanatic may come and say that his way is based on inspiration and can justify that reason is unable to justify it. Here, Vivekananda's interpretation of reason as a judging criterion for inspiration becomes inadequate. Inspiration may be subjective in nature where it is not possible to judge it. Definitely reason can be used for judging fanatical activities but according to Vivekananda it is lower than inspiration so it becomes impossible to judge it. Reason as a limited tool of investigation then becomes unable to make critique of inspiration. In inspiration there is a danger of subjectivity which may harm religious world. And here fanatics can justify their ways and practices. Definitely rationalization in religion is demand of time because it gives scope to create atmosphere of liberalism. If this happens tendency of fanaticism can be critically investigated. In fanaticism dogmatism is the chief guiding force of behavior. In it person or agent accepts particular axiom/s and never criticize of question its validity or correctness. He blindly follows it. Due to this blind practice it leads to violent behavior which is morally incorrect. In the worlds of religious liberalism and pluralism one can follow his ways and ideologies but they shouldn't harm others. Fanatic doesn't do this and that is why today these kinds of tendencies are giving birth to fundamentalism, terrorism, and communalism and so on. While making critique of fanaticism Vivekananda says, "It is a mistake to think that fanaticism can make for the progress of mankind. On the contrary it is a retarding element creating hatred and anger ad causing people to fight with each other and making them unsympathetic." Fanaticism brings instability to social structure, damages religious and spiritual environment and corrupts morality. In this way Vivekananda not only explains emergence of fanaticism but also discuss about its influence on human world. After knowing about Vivekananda's views on fanaticism we can see how his opinions can be seen in today's world. Is his Philosophy relevant today? 1. First of all Vivekananda suggest culture of religious tolerance and acceptance. He by following religious liberalism and pluralism considers religion as an open system. Though he is a strict proponent of Advait Vedanta his philosophy of religious pluralism is not inconsistent with his views. Even the base for religious pluralism is Advait Vedanta. He wants that kind of religion in which all views, practices are accepted. Traditional religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, and Christianity etc. are part of it but his conception of true religion surpass these forms. Even when we investigate we find that he says that he would be happy to see as many kind of religions as many individuals. This kind of religious liberalism is called as spiritual democracy by Betrice Bruteaus in the article "Facing fanaticism: Vivekananda's spiritual democracy.' In this way Vivekananda's conception of religion as an open system is very relevant in today's world. As today there are various religions but what is needed is this kind of openness which is found in Vivekananda's religion. The culture of tolerance and acceptance is the need of the time. 2. Vivekananda suggests that in this kind of religious openness what works is love. Though reason can help us to crate harmony in religions but the bond of love is the strongest in all bonds. Today if we analyze this we see that he is right when he says that love the lubricant in the machine of the multidimensional world where different parts of it have friction with each other. Different religions, cultures, ideologies are like different parts of the 22 machine which is the world. When these different parts come together there is bound to friction but he says that this friction can be reduced with lubricant which is love. Even in today's age we see that there are various laws to protect good things but these laws are unable to convert human beings to be moral. What is required is psychological kind of revolution. Here Vivekananda's thought is useful to tackle the problem of fanaticism. Today whole world see the problems of terrorism, communalism and many other kinds of intolerant violent activities and here his conception of 'love as lubricant' can be used to make it as a better place. 3. His one more interesting remedy for fanaticism is that he considers it as one of the psychological and psychological disorders. And suggest that who is affected by it should take good food, take a rest ad see a doctor if required. "In ninety cases out of hundred fanatics must have bad livers or they are dyspeptics or some way diseased. By degree even physicians will find that fanaticism is kind of disease" But to our surprise today religious fanaticism is considered as a kind of a mental disorder. In 2000 psychologist Robert Lifton Jay has described this as a psychological disorder called as 'functional megalomania' in which person creates delusions of own status in it. If this is a case fanaticism not only requires moral, spiritual kind of treatment but also requires medications and psychological treatments also. Conclusion: Swami Vivekananda by following religious liberalism, pluralism makes the critique of fanaticism. He harshly criticizes it because it is worst weapon for the destruction of human civilization. Even he suggests psychological kind of revolution. If we consider philosophy as a means of critique of human activities and want to change human behavior in the light of it certainly Vivekananda's philosophy can help us to form this kind of critique and can guide our human practices like religion. In the words of Vivekananda it can be said that if religion is a way of life it should be realized not only discussed. Bibliography: Primary sources: Swami Vivekananda (1989). The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda (Volumes 1 to 9). Kolkata: Advaita Ashram, 1st subsidized edition. Secondary sources: Beatrice Bruteau (2007) "Facing Fanaticism: Vivekananda's Spiritual Democracy" in American Vedantist, Volume 13, No. 1 Spring. Firman John, Gila Ann, On Religious FanaticismA look at Transpersonal Identity Disorder, http://www.psychosynthesispaloalto.com/pdfs/religious.fanaticism.pdf John Hick (2004). Philosophy of Religion, New Delhi: Prentice Prentice Hall of India Pvt Ltd, Indian Reprint. 23 4. SWAMI VIVEKANANDA PHILOSOPHIES EASTS IN THE WEST Pradyumna Anil Purohit & Harshal Gupta Philosophy travels, and it travels through pen and vocal cords. It travelled in East with Lord Buddha and Swami Vivekananda took it to the West. We would like to highlight through this paper the message which Vivekananda spread. He walked as a missionary in the west, holding the flag of Hindu religion at Parliament of Religion in Chicago (1893). How he philosophises the eastern ocean of knowledge and learning into an alien land with objective philosophy of past in a modern way? The philosophy of Vedanta through which he conquered the Western elite minds which modernity still speaks of. He was an integrationist of East and West. Through this paper we would be analyzing the practicality how difficult discourse it was for Vedanta into the western philosophical thought of binary opposition? The debate of how nature is representation of supernatural consciousness of different religion, faith. We would throw light on his mission of spiritual foundation in the West along with his goal to reach masses that have to manifest what potential has been hidden within. At last how he will be regarded as the prophet of modern age and generations (present and upcoming)? (Vivekananda, My India The India Eternal, p. 205).1 Vivekananda raised the Hindu (sanatan dharma) flag high in the era of enlightenment (Kant, 1784).2 Why Vivekananda is Vivekananda? Who would have heard of him, if he would not have glorified Vedas and Upanishad's teachings in west to masses? Is it true with Vivekananda only? What would have happened to Buddha similarly? What is the origin or impulse (Sandel, p. 20)3 or spark to philosophy? It lies everywhere, all around us, we live in that space but to realize it through self reflexivity (Uppal, Indian Society, p. 2)4 materialises philosophy. But who hear that self reflexive voice? Yes the individual being only. But, then how the world will know about the great findings of universe? Let us say after nirvana, Buddha is silent and he speaks nothing, because he knows everything in a way. Why would he detach his knowledge and share with world? (Vivekananda, CWSV1, p. 91) Why will he preach? We were problematizing a simple (though we made it complex enough) Hindi proverb "gyan baantne se badhta hai". The discussion started with an assumption that we have a glass filled with juice (knowledge), now we pour it into other four glasses and our juice container is close to emptiness. Now here, did the 'juice' increased in the container? No, it didn't. Why we share our knowledge? It is detachment of our self experienced and manifested truths. Why should I need to tell the world my hard earned knowledge or acquired tasty juice? Firstly, Utilitarianism will say of course it maximizes happiness both quantitatively and qualitatively hence Jeremy Bentham and enlightened utilitarian (Sandel, p. 61) John Stuart Mill both stands firm in justification. As the juice is divided so quantity is less but its quality increases as it gets appreciated by many. All in all it is increasing the happiness of the system irrespective of qualitative and quantitative indices. Secondly, whether the taste or findings were accepted by people i.e. can they associate themselves in binary opposition such as good or bad and right or wrong. In totality it gives us a value judgement. Thirdly, the essence of proverb i.e. by means of exchange of something you learn more, you got to know why it is appreciated and why it is criticised. One can have totally different reasoning while detaching the physical or abstract resources. All the three theories stand justified at their own place but why Buddha and Vivekananda or any missionary needs to do it? Vivekananda answers it as "for one's own salvation and for the 24 welfare of the world"5. "They alone live who live for others, the rest are more dead than alive" (Vivekananda, CWSV4, p. 301). He says who are we to decide what is good or bad, evil or devil we need not to be judgemental. The world travels from lower truth to higher truth so do the consciousness of the human mind. Vivekananda speaks as we don't have any jurisdiction on decision making or categorizing something as good or bad which in case is binary oppositional in nature. One who teaches or preaches religion is called missionary. Buddha travels as missionary, so do Vivekananda with a mission to colonize the minds. Buddha had a message for east whereas Vivekananda for the west (Vivekananda, CWSV9, p. 611). After the travelling of various places in Ceylon, Singapore, Hong Kong, China and Japan, he decided to move off to the west to preach what his 'Master'6 would like him to do. From the mystic command of High (Vivekananda, CWSV5, p. 28), he chalks out the plan to establish himself and give try in America if not, to target England. He has a mission planned (Vivekananda, CWSV5, p. 25). But as it appears as from tiring lecture tours and enlightened press which was reporting both in America and India make him uncomfortable, he called himself not as a missionary but a servant who need to rest in Himalayas (Vivekananda, CWSV7, p. 270). On some grounds Vivekananda has reached America but was he representing Hindu faith? Indeed he has no formal invitation at the 'World Parliament of Religions' but still he boarded the ship with a confidence that he can make it to his goal. It was with help of local intellectuals7 and few generous people who gave him refuge. Despite economic hardship of sustainability he continued to detach knowledge of his part, before the congress actually took place. "People often say that motivation doesn't last. Well, neither does bathing – that's why we recommend it daily."8 He motivated himself which he believed to be noble task of Indian enlightenment. As a sincere traveller he was constantly making reference and interpretation of 'here and there' as travelogue people like Ibn Battuta, Al Biruni, Francois Bernier or Jean Baptiste Tavernier', Marco Polo and others would have done. Most of Vivekananda has been known to the world by publication of his letters9. But the massive impact factor was only generated after the conclusion of 'Congress'. He became glorified in length and breadth to his home and alien land. 11th September in contemporary world, has two other major incidences to declare the date infamous; Salvador Allende's assassination (Uppal, Democratic Politics, pp. 3-4) and the most infamous incident of 9/11 in political timeline of democracy. But we talk here of the year 1893 at a majestic hall filled with representatives of world religions summum bonnum at Chicago. His appearance and first words 'Sisters and Brothers of America' (Vivekananda, CWSV1, p. 7) booked hearts of Americans. As far as we notice the public gathering this phrase was a gift of Vivekananda to whole of India as they internalized 'Sisters and Brothers' similarly as Shakespeare's 'lend me your ears'.10 There were many delegates as a part of healthy debate many criticized other religions; fighting for the supremacy of religious belief of another. With Vivekananda's deliberation all this conflicts were put to end as he always walked on a middle path, still holding the 'Hindu flag'. He remarked on few points towards Christianity and Buddhism (Vivekananda, CWSV1, pp. 23-24). As he was making prominence as a Hindu as some modern scholars11 quote it so as he was boasting 'Bhagwad Geeta, the Vedas and Upanishads' at the congress. Later we find in few letters12 that he was disappointed because he was known as Hindu messenger; reason might be he felt like not only glorifying Hinduism but religious spiritualism which his master taught him. 25 In this self disappointment he somehow tried to preach the moral, 'when we start believing that only one book, or one ideology or one approach has all the answers, we are doomed. This is not the question of good in every holy book or ideological treatise, but human beings must have the humility to admit that no one can really have all the answers and that too always.' We can only get better and better approximations of the truth, but may never quite get there. Vivekananda always refers to inner powers or strength to overcome every mental and physical hurdle. What he talks about is the manifestation of 'divinity and perfection' (Vivekananda, CWSV4, p. 297). It was quite a difficult discourse of Vedanta to fit that philosophy into the western framework, but he succeeds as he tries to mathematically integrate it point by point to calculate the length of line. We accidentally discovered one day in a India Today photograph the caption lines of Bodyplus capsules as "Strength is life, Weakness is Death" (Vivekananda, CWSV5, p. 379), for some body building championship. Further search of previous year's championship gave us "Muscles of Iron and nerves of Steel" (Vivekananda, CWSV5, p. 151). Youth that was his firm belief can make the change (Vivekananda, CWSV3, p. 192). Feminist may call it masculinity and at few places he has been criticized as misogamist. But at last with careful observation we see that his regard for the women welfare was much different from Dayananda Saraswati. He was broader with the American exposure. His message to the youth was to hold the infinite power within themselves and hidden potentiality (Vivekananda, CWSV1, p. 105). Was it West which made its mark on our society, the dreams of good education came to be known as the barristers by professionals like Gandhi, Nehru and others and the America return intellectuals like Ambedkar and Vivekananda? It was Columbia University influence of Ambedkar to march ahead for the rights of minority. Similarly, when our 'Swami' saw conditions of women in America he was impressed to a great extent. He kept man making education as panacea to all problems (Ganguli, 2008). He had a vision far more broad than any other visionary. It accounts for the reason that why he was considered modern, to say with full confidence one cannot understand Gita until one plays football, he mended the link of physical attribute of biceps with understanding (Vivekananda, CWSV3, p. 207)13; strength in the strict sense of mental and physical both. Did Vivekananda taught anything new to the world? No, he didn't. It was the same age old philosophy in new clothes with better explanations and modern outlook. His belief on self and interrogative power made him a true seeker and a Vedic scientist. With confidence on his own Hindu faith, he questioned it with context of modernity, the existing lifestyle, he wanted reforms to age old stereotypical messages of scriptures, as amendments are not possible into the religious authorities, and he derives the way of interpretation; exactly as the modern juries interpret the codified statutes violating the law of nature. He doesn't deny the value of scriptures, he stress that one should rely on them until one is not intellectually sound enough to work without them (Vivekananda, CWSV7, p. 15)14, let say few days back some people were criticizing in our college that 'Gandhi never went to temples'. True. But why should he go? He himself was the embodiment of truth and consciousness and the scientist who experimented the truth, and came out with universal findings. Do he really need to go to temple or needs support from scriptures. No, is the answer, Gandhi was capable enough to do without scriptures. 26 He went to the west with the mission to spread Vedanta and Indian way of philosophizing and theorizing religion. What he brings back? Application of modern scientific disciplines; he stressed on the integration of east and west (Vivekananda, CWSV5, p. 406), we the donor of universal spiritual religion and accepting the industrial and other mechanical modern sciences. He wanted spiritual foundation in west (Vivekananda, CWSV3, p. 141) and bread earning modern education with specialized skills to root out poverty. In his opinion it is better to become an atheist (Vivekananda, CWSV3, p. 9) if one's religion is making him/her starve. No one is perfect, it is by the sharing and exchanging of culture and knowledge, we become more enlightened. How this task is to be done? West and World already had enough blood on history before modern 'World Wars', in form of crusades. It was about this very fact eating out the religious consciousness and peace. In a speech at Parliament of Religions that 'religion is not crying need of India' (Vivekananda, CWSV1, p. 23), Indians beg for bread not for Christianity was his bold statement. India has enough of religion, but no self sufficiency as a nation. He talks of assimilation of minds not acculturation, to develop the harmony of east and west. We can take the words to a great extent in current geopolitical scenario where the distinctions are of North-South. When on the question of religious conversion, he said that they aspire for liberty, let them have it by Christianity; if stereotypical Hindu culture is orthodox we need to reform and liberalize it. He asserts that those reformers who crushed religion and tried to bring reforms failed (Vivekananda, CWSV5, p. 356), the new awakening was required keeping religion into private sphere, which modern thinkers of secularism speaks off. He meant the secularization but not extinguishing the religion. He talks to crush superstitions and cowardly expressions of human beings. When he propounds the Vedanta there is a subtle shift, as Vedas impression on the western elites is ritualistic, he induces the knowledge part and scientifically justifies Vedanta philosophy as Indian one. The questioners of caste system always came from self consciousness and surroundings. He tried to solve with reasoning which is quite basic and elementary. He makes out with the careful reading of Vedas that caste system was not hereditary in nature (Vivekananda, CWSV5, p. 356). He travels to China and Japan and there he finds nothing of this sort. Further he keeps on making the distinction between caste and religion. He calls Buddha and Rammohan Roy as failure as they thought that caste is a religious institution, which Vivekananda calls, is a crystallized social institution. Both of them tried to bring down religion and caste but failed (Vivekananda, CWSV5, p. 32). Here he makes a remarkable approach and answer to the caste system as 'it has been institutionalized by dogmas of religious faith with an intention of gaining power over the other.' He negates that caste is hereditary; also specifically mentions that division of labour was essential but the way contemporary values are assigned to them, were not at all tolerable. We infer that the crystallization is to be done by nature (Vivekananda, CWSV8, p. 249), but it is our duty to separate caste from religious influences. As a modern thinker Vivekananda way before Gandhi, said that we should always remember that real India is in cottage and no one is concerned about that, when we can reach the poorest of the poor, door by door we can do marvelous work. The idea was same as feeling for the miserable (Vivekananda, CWSV5, p. 27) with compassion and helping the downtrodden with whatever extra resources one may possesses. Similar later reflection in Gandhiji's Talisman which is printed on cover page of every Indian school text book teaching that 'we need to take care of last person of the society' any work or action should be taken keeping that person in mind. John 27 Rawls also making the same point in sophisticated Harvard language through his book 'A Theory of Justice' in 1971, with his idea of difference principle, he reinstate the same message, which in contemporary world has already created a sensation in public policy makers and intellectuals. Vivekananda chants with modification to age old sayings like 'mother is godlike', 'guests are godlike' etc. He says, forget all and serve the destitute considering God in them. He says chant the new mantras like let 'poor be your God' and the 'fool or ignorant be your God' (Vivekananda, CWSV6, p. 307). Are Vivekananda's views modern? How we take the basic elements of modernity into him? And more cautiously how we can say him the prophet of modern age?15 Prophet is the word which we say he was. Indeed as equal as Christ and Buddha and others. Prophet not only of a particular God or religion, not of profounder of any specialized sect or religion, he was the prophet of 'Holy Land' which we call India. He was prophet of religions' summum bonnum, the prophet of mankind as a whole. His ideas were of universal appeal. Indeed he was quite successful in selling, gifting, donating or whatever terminology one may use to define his success at 'World Parliament of Religions' and in other western countries including Scandinavia. Notes and References: 1. "I have gone through Swami Vivekananda's works very thoroughly, and after having gone through them, the love that I had for my country became a thousand-fold. . . . His writings need no introduction from anybody. They make their own irresistible appeal." 2. "If it is now asked whether we at present live in an enlightened age, the answer is: No, but we do live in an age of enlightenment. As things are at present, we still have a long way to go before men as a whole can be in a position of using their own understanding confidently and well in religious matters, without outside guidance." 3. "Feeling the force of confusion, and the pressure to sort it out, is the impulse to philosophy." 4. "This is the ability to reflect upon yourself, to turn back your gaze (which is usually directed outward) back towards yourself. But this self-inspection must be critical – i.e., it should be quick to criticize and slow to praise oneself." 5. vkReuks eks{kkFkZa txn fgrk k p 6. Sri Ramakrishna Paramhansa. 7. Prof. John Henry Wright, Asst. Prof. of Ancient Languages at Ohio State University. 8. Ziglar, Zig (1975). See You at the Top . Gretna: Pelican Pub. Co. 9. Letters of Swami Vivekananda. (2000). Calcutta, West Bengal, India: Advaita Ashram. 10. Julius Caesar, Act 3, Scene 2, Line 73. 28 11. Prof. Raghuram Raju, Dept. of Philosophy, Hyderabad University. 12. Letters of Swami Vivekananda. (2000). Calcutta, West Bengal, India: Advaita Ashram. 13. "You will be nearer to Heaven through football than through the study of the Gita. These are bold words; but I have to say them, for I love you. I know where the shoe pinches. I have gained a little experience. You will understand the Gita better with your biceps, your muscles, a little stronger." 14. "Obey the scriptures until you are strong enough to do without them; then go beyond them." 15. Marie Louise Burke, Swami Vivekananda Prophet of the Modern Age , Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. BIBLIOGRAPHY Vivekananda, S. (2002). Complete Works of Swami Vivekanand (Vols.1-9) . Mayavati, Himalayas: Advaita Ashrama. Chatterji, S. K., Dutt, N., Pusalkar, A. D., Bose, N. K., De, S. K., Ghoshal, U. N., et al. (Eds.). (1953-1978). The Cultural Heritage of India (Vols. I-VI). Calcutta, West Bengal, India: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. Ganguli, A. (Director). (2008). Be and Make [Motion Picture]. Kolkata. Gupta, M. The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna. (S. Nikhilananda, Trans.) Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India: Sri Ramakrishna Math Mylapore, Chennai. Isherwood, C. (1980). My Guru and His Disciples. London: Eyre Methuen Ltd. Isherwood, C. (1980). Ramakrishna and His Disciples. Mayavati, Himalayas: Advaita Ashrama. Jagadatmananda, S. (2000). Learn to Live. (D. N. Bhat, Trans.) Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India: Sri Ramakrishna Math, Chennai. Kant, I. (1784, September 30). An Answer to the Question: "What is Enlightenment?". Konigsberg, Prussia. Kempis, T. A. Of The Imitation of Christ. (W. Atkinson, Trans.) London Edinburgh New York Toronto and Paris: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. Letters of Swami Vivekananda. (2000). Calcutta, West Bengal, India: Advaita Ashram. Nivedita of India (1st ed.). (2002). Kolkata, West Bengal, India: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. Nivedita, S. (1991). The Master as I Saw Him (15th ed.). Calcutta, West Bengal, India: Udbodhan. 29 Rao, R. (1960). The Serpent and the Rope . London: John Murray (Publishers) Ltd. Sandel, M. J. (2010). Justice: Whats The Right Thing To Do? New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Sarvagananda, S. (2005). Falit Vedanta. (P. A. Purohit, Trans.) Calcutta, West Bengal, India: Udbodhan. Sharma, B. S. (1982). Swami Vivekananda: A forgotton chapter of his life (2nd ed.). Calcutta, West Bengal, India: Sharman Publishers. The Life of Swami Vivekananda by His Eastern and Western Disciples (6th ed., Vol. II). (1989). Mayavati, Himalayas: Advaita Ashrama. Uppal, S. (Ed.). (2007). Democratic Politics. New Delhi, India: National Council of Educational Research and Training. Uppal, S. (Ed.). (2007). Indian Society: Textbook in Sociology for Class XII. New Delhi, India: National Council of Educational Research and Training. Vireswarananda, S. (1983). Spiritual Ideal for the Present Age. Mylapore, Madras, India: Sri Ramakrishna Math Mylapore, Madras. Vivekananda, S. (2008). My India The India Eternal (Paperback ed.). Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India: Sri Ramakrishna Math, Chennai. 30 5. KARMA AS THE MAIN WAY IN GITA: REVISITING TILAK'S CONTRIBUTION TO WORLD PHILOSOPHY Shubhra Jyoti Das The central stream of classically looking at The Gītā flows along the banks of Jñāna and Bhakti. Among the classical commentators, Advaitins have resorted to Jñāna mārga and Vaiṣnavas have taken the way of Bhakti or devotion. This is seen even up to last classical Vaiṣnavas like Chaitanya. But Gītā also includes Karma as a way toward liberation along with Bhakti and Jñāna. Thus, in modern times, Bal Gangadhar Tilak came up with an interpretation based on the way of Karma. Tilak argues that in the cultural history of India, the period of Jñāna – Bhakti is a very small one1. According to him, the Gītā, by and large, inspires a life of activity and engagement. Interpretation based only on Jñāna or Bhakti is not only partial but also misleading at times. There is no doubt that Tilak's project of bringing Karma to centre was not only an eyeopener but also probably first of its kind in contemporary context. But his position and interpretation is not free from objections. The main problem here is – Can we substitute Jñāna and Bhakti by Karma and create another pole after moving from the first two poles created by the classical commentators. There is no doubt that we have slokas in Geeta which prefer the way of Karma more than the way of Jñāna. In the second sloka of the fifth chapter, Sri Krishna categorically says that both performance of action and renunciation of action lead one to the same goal. Yet the performance of action is superior to the renunciation of the same2.This kind of sloka must have inspired Tilak to come up with an exclusive karma – based interpretation of the same. But there are slokas like the thirty eighth one of the fourth chapter which declares that there is nothing as purifying as knowledge in this world. Perfected in Yoga, in course of time, one wins it in one's own self.3 This sloka gives clear superiority to Jñāna as a purifying factor. There is an implication that Karma, which is seen as the tool for chittashuddhi, probably culminates in knowledge for perfect purification. It seems that karma is not the sole factor and rather an inferior tool for elevation. The same thing can be said regarding some slokas pertaining to Bhakti or devotion as well. The first few slokas undoubtedly prescribe desireless action as the tool for emancipation but later resort to surrender and devotion for those who cannot uphold the lofty ideal of Nishkama Karma in itself. Thus it reads, "If you cannot make even these repeated efforts, devote yourself wholly to My works. Even by doing works for my sake you will achieve perfection"4 One close examination is required into the legitimacy of the shift from one triangle to the other and placing of one or the other path on the top. But before that we need to look at tilak's contribution to Global Philosophy through his Gita Rahasya first. There is a general charge on Indian Philosophy that in a roundabout way it promotes escapism. Since spiritual attainments are rated to be the highest, this country and its culture faces the charges of promoting some kind of 'other – worldly' Philosophy. This charge has been substantiated by the works of the classical commentators on Prasthanatraya i. e. on the Upanisads, Brahma sutras and the Bhagavad Geeta. All of them have opted for either Jñāna or Bhakti as the main theme and have treated the other two as players of supporting roles. 31 Here comes the radical contribution of Tilak. He showed that according to Geeta, by work also man can attain the same state as can be attained by prayer or meditation. His work can be seen as an eye – opener because for the first time in the contemporary context karma based approach was taken up by a commentator. He himself writes, "From the reference to the opinions of the earlier commentators on the Geeta, made in the beginning of the third chapter of Shankara Bhasya in favour of Karma Yoga. These commentaries are not now available; therefore there is no reason why this book of mine should not be called the first comparative exposition in support of right action"5 The very attempt to write such commentary indicates the sound ground for replying those objections. Tilaks commentary showed to the whole world that Indian Philosophy is very much rooted in the ground realities of life. It addresses the social issues like justice and equality as meticulously as it deals with the transcendental part. Larger section of humanity looks for a absolute dissolution of the problems of life. Tilak's work showed that this dissolution can be brought about by means of day to day activities of our life. This work showed that Indian culture has its proper worldly and materialistic foundations as well. This opens the possibility of a healthy work – culture in this world within the ambit of a spiritual culture which promises global peace. For every human being who aspires inner poise or Nishreyasa, this commentary opens up a dual possibility of both Abhyudaya or External prosperity and Nishreyasa. Minimum material comfort, which is a must for spiritual growth, comes as a by – product in Tilak's scheme of thought. Rather it promises surplus growth of the society, of the community and that of the nation. The eight chapters in the first manuscript book were headed by him as 'purvardha' (earlier half). The second manuscript book has been headed 'uttarardha' first part, (first part of the latter half) and the third manuscript book has been headed, 'uttarardha', second part' (second part of the later half). From this it would appear that it was his original intention to publish the book in two parts. Out of these, the manuscript book containing the first eight chapters was written within about a month, and these chapters are of extreme importance. From this the readers will get a clear idea about the thorough preparedness and the unimpeded flow of writing of the Lokamanya. Tearing off pages from the manuscript or adding new pages was not permissible under the jail regulations. But there are to be found memoranda on the inner sides of the covers of the second and third manuscript books that permission had been granted to him to insert pages containing new matter, which had suggested itself to him after further consideration. The first three manuscript books seem to have been each written within the space of one month and the last manuscript book was written within only fifteen days. The principal subject matter was written on the right-hand pages only and the subject matter to be added to the opposite page was written on the blank back of the previous page.6 The Volume I of the book has been divided into XIII Chapters. So far as the subjectmatter of the book is concerned, it has been explained in the Chapter I that the book is concerned with the method of finding out the import of a work – the deadlock arising from mutually conflicting Ethical principles and the resulting confusion as to one's duty. Chapter II explains the desire to know the Right Action and the importance of MahaBharata from this point of view. It deals with such doctrines as Non-violence, Forgiveness, Truth and Falsehood and so on. Chapter III deals with science of Right Action by placing Yoga at the centre of every action. Chapter IV discusses the Materialistic Theory of Happiness by contrasting philanthropy from unselfish deeds, meritorious deeds from pleasurable things, etc. Chapter V considers Happiness and Unhappiness 32 in details. Chapter VI goes into the consideration of the Intuitionist School and the issues concerning the Body and the Atman. Chapter VII is an attempt to develop Kapila-Sankhya philosophy or the consideration of the mutable and the immutable. Chapter VIII is the discussion on theories of the construction and destruction of the cosmos. Chapter IX is a study of the nature and the status of the Absolute Self. Chapter X is devoted to the study of effect of Karma and the Freedom of Will. Finally, Renunciation and Karma Yoga, the state of a Perfect and Worldly Affairs and the path to Devotion have been discussed in the Chapters XI, XII and XIII The Sri Bhadavadagita-Rahasya, VoL. II7, recapitulates the basic arguments and the conclusion arrived at from the Volume I of the book . It begins with Chapter XIV entitled as GitadhyayaSamgati, taking into account the methodological issues. Chapter XV is Upasamhara or the resume or the summary. In addition to all the, there are seven appendices which are very comprehensive and illuminating. The Poona Sarvajanik Sabha Quarterly has presented a summary of the speech of Mr. Tilak on Gita Rahasya in the following words: "The Karma Yoga which I preach, is not a new theory; neither was the discovery of the Law of Karma made as recently as today. The knowledge of the Law is so ancient that even Shri Krishna, the great teacher, was not the one who first propounded it. It must be remembered that Karma-Yoga (in actual action and in unselfish meditative life) has been the sacred heritage of India from times immemorial. Compliance with this universal law leads to the realization of the most cherished ideas of man. Such was the doctrine taught by seers, who never intended that the goal of life should be pure meditation or pure bhakti alone. No one can expect providence to protect one who is sitting with folded arms and throws his burden on others. God does not help the indolent. You must be doing all that you can to lift yourself up, and then only may you rely on the almighty to help you. You should not however, presume that you have to toil that you yourself might reap the fruit of your labour. That cannot always be the case. Let us then try our utmost and leave the generations to come to enjoy that fruit. Remember, it is not you who had planted the mango-trees the fruit where of you have tested. Let the advantage now go to our children and their descendants. It is only given to us to toil and work. And so, there ought to be no relaxation in our efforts, lest we incur the curse of those that come after us. Action alone must be guiding principle, action disinterested and well thought out. It does not matter who the sovereign is. It is enough if we have full liberty to elevate ourselves in the best possible manner. This is called immutable Dharma, and Karma-Yoga is nothing but the method, which leads to the attainment of Dharma or material and spiritual glory. God has declared His will. He has willed that self can be exalted only through its own efforts. Everything lies in your hands. Karma-Yoga does not look upon this world as nothing; it requires only that your motives should be untainted by selfish interest and passion. This is the true view of practical Vedanta, the key to which is apt to be lost in sophistry.8 We have no doubt about excellence of Gita Rahasya as a karma treatise. But still we need to look at certain points closely. In his preface Tilak says, "I must at the outset make it clear that I do not also say that there is no exposition at all in the Bhagavad Gita of the path of obtaining release. Nay I too have shown in this book, that according to the Philosophy of Gita, it is the primary duty of every human being in this world, to acquire the knowledge of pure form of Parameswara, and thereby to cleanse out and purify his own reason as far as possible. But that is not the principal subject matter of the Gita."9 But I think this position is not acceptable. Karma, Jñāna 33 and Bhakti are all three ways to reach the supreme. Attainment of the release is the central theme of Gita and not simply performance of karma. Nishkama Karma is a means to the attainment of that end. This seems to be an overstressing of the point. Apart from that, one needs to note that it is very hard to categorically distinguish between Jñāna, Karma and Bhakti. Because all the practices in Jñānamarga and Bhaktimārga can also be treated as karma only since they are also some or the other form nothing but acts. Actions can range from physical to oral and then to mental. The problem then is how do we distinguish between Karma, Jñāna and Bhakti. This can or will have to be done in terms of the subtlety of the actions performed. Or at the best we can say that Karma, when used as a terminology of Geeta, should denote only the gross tangible activities or that set of acts which carries more percentage of it. If this equation is accepted, then it becomes difficult for the readers to readily accept that Geeta centrally preaches only karma yoga in spite of the argument that in the face of dejection, Arjuna was inspired to engage in act through Geeta and thus the whole of Geeta can be put as 'Fight'.It is more sensible to accept the fact that the kind of activity which Arjuna was asked to engage, due his station and position in life, belongs to the 'Karma' category and not to Jñāna or the category of Bhakti. But, as a matter of fact, Geeta does not prescribe 'Karma' in general to everybody for his or her upliftment. Geeta presents a 'fusion of horizons' as far as these ways are concerned and the dominance of Karma or Jñāna or Bhakti depends more on the constitution of individual or can be more precisely called as subjective. Jñāna will dominate the intellectuals, bhakti will dominate the emotional people and the rest will resort to the karma way. And therefore it is not at all healthy to create a pole of Karma after coming out of the poles of Jñāna and Bhakti. Apart from that when we read the twelfth chapter i. e. Bhakti Yoga, we find Krishna asking to mix karma with Bhakti for the mediocre aspirants who find it hard to practice 'Abhyasa Yoga'. This again indicates that subjectivity or individual specific constitution of the seeker finally decides the nature of the path. It could well be a mixed path. Thus we end up by saying that Tilak has, in his own way, contributed radically to the understanding and interpretation of the Geeta. But while appreciating, we need to be constructively critical in order to avoid repetition of fallacies which we have committed with other commentators. References: 1. Tilak, B.G., Gita Rahasya, Kesari Press, Poona, 2000, p.xix 2. The Bhagavad Geeta, Gitapress, Gorakhpur, 2004, p.70 3. Sankara, The Bhagavad geeta, tr. A. G. Krishna Warrier, Ramakrishna Math, Madras,1983, p.176 4. Sankara, The Bhagavad geeta, tr. A. G. Krishna Warrier, Ramakrishna Math, Madras,1983, p. 391 5. Tilak, B.G., Gita Rahasya,Kesari Press, Poona, 2000, p. XXVII 6. Tilak, B.G., Gita Rahasya,Kesari Press, Poona, 2000, p.xxviii-xxix. 7. Tilak, B.G., Sri Bhadavadagita-Rahasya, VoL. II, Poona, 1936 8. Ibid. p xxvi-xxvii. 9. Ibid, p xx 34 6. MATTER AND MIND: A TRUE RECONCILIATION OF SRI AUROBINDO Nishikant Patoa The cardinal principle of Sri Aurobindo's integral advaitism is the affirmation of the reality of the world as well as of the Absolute, of Matter as well as of Spirit. This integral metaphysical exposition of Sri Aurobindo appears to us first time in his magnum opus, The Life Divine when he says, "The affirmation of divine life upon earth and an immortal sense in mortal existence can have no base unless we recognise not only eternal Spirit as the inhabitant of this bodily mansion, the wearer of this mutable robe, but accept Matter of which it is made, as a fit and noble material out of which He weaves constantly His garbs, builds recurrently the unending series of His mansions."1 In this paragraph, the sense of realisation that, "The affirmation of divine life upon earth" which is the very aim of his Integral Yoga, does not make any sense, if we do not recognize the two inevitable premises: First, that there is a belief that the Spirit or the Absolute resides in this bodily mansion (Matter), and Secondly, that this body or Matter is considered as fit and noble material for the habitation of the Spirit and "out of which He(spirit) weaves constantly His garbs, builds recurrently the unending series of His mansion." So here Matter is not only considered as spiritual mansion, but also this is the substance out of which He waves constantly the whole creation and builds the "unending series" from Matter to Spirit. It must be pointed out that the idea of evolution also, we find from this paragraph at the beginning of The Life Divine. In fact, we may consider in a sense, this as the abstract of his entire philosophy. The materialist denies the existence of the Spirit or anything mental or spiritual. It regards matter or physical existence as the fundamental reality and so life, mind etc., are nothing but the products of matter. Consciousness is only an epiphenomenon of material organism. "The entire dependence of consciousness on the physical organism, it is added, is also indicated by the fact that it is always seen associated with it and is never found apart from it."2 Sri Aurobindo thinks the task of materialist i.e., to deny spirit or consciousness is easy for arriving at "a more readily convincing simplicity of statement, a real Monism, the Monism of Matter or else of Force"3 The most powerful element of materialism is the Agnosticism which admits, "the unknowable behind all manifestation, extends the limits of unknowable until it comprehends all that is merely unknown."4 The premise on which the view of the materialistic agnosticism grounded is that sense experience is the sole means of valid knowledge and that reason cannot go beyond the facts of the sense-data. So reason, "if it goes in any way beyond the data of the senses, must be pronounced to be a false knowledge."5 But, according to Sri Aurobindo, by accepting only the faculty of sensation materialist ignores or denies those noble and useful faculties by which a sadhaka can intuit and realize those inner planes of existence in the form of consciousness which are other than this material existence. Even in the world of Matter there are physical realities which are suprasensible and there are also senses which are supraphysical or subtle organs (suksma indriya) which "can bring us into contact with other realities, supraphysical and belonging to another world included, that is to say, in an organization of conscious experiences that are dependent on some other principle than the gross Matter of which our suns and earths seem to be made."6 35 On the other hand, idealism in general holds that consciousness or spirit, not matter, is the ground of all beings. The aim of man is to reach or ascend to the Transcendent by rejecting the world and the life. The main lacuna of idealism is that it fails to give any meaning to life and to the world. For them, the phenomenal world is merely an illusion or an appearance of the ultimate Reality. Thus, the materialist denies the existence of the Spirit and the ascetic or the idealist denies the existence of matter, and as such Sri Aurobindo calls these two distinct views of reality as "the Materialist Denial" and "the Refusal of the Ascetics". According to Sri Aurobindo, each of these views based upon a partial truth and considers this partial view as the whole truth. So, Sri Aurobindo negates both of the views of their negations and affirms the reality of matter and of Spirit as an integral truth of reality. Hence, it is to be concluded that, the core of Sri Aurobindo's integral advaitism lies in the fact of "Negation of two Negations". The Matter and the Spirit, Sri Aurobindo considers, as the lowest and the highest terms of existence. Matter is nothing but the manifestation of Sprit. Sri Aurobindo shows in his evolutionary discourse that, "The Being through its manifestation in the universe take the shape of involution from where the evolution starts in the form of Matter at the first (nethermost) stage and Spirit the last or the summit of the evolutionary process."7 And the ascending terms that serve as the intermediaries between Matter and Spirit, for their reconciliation, are Life, Mind, Supermind and the grades that links the mind. So, the evolution of Matter is possible only because there has been an involution of the Spirit into the Matter. "The Vedantist in his enthusiasm for the ascent of the human consciousness, "as prof. S.K. Maitra remarks, "into the divine forgets this fundamental fact. He forgets the mainspring of all evolutionthe descent of the Sprit into the minutest particle of Matter."8 In Bergson's theory of evolution, we find the dualism of matter and Sprit. He directly refers to the difference between Spirit and matter in his book "Matter and Memory." But Sri Aurobindo envisages that Matter seems opposed to Spirit only so far as the actual and outer formulation of Matter is concerned. Spirit is consciousness, cit; and Matter is unconsciousness, acit. But, unconsciousness need not be and is not the absolute negation or utter absence of consciousness; it is only an involved or involute consciousness. It is Inconscient. The Inconscient which appears to be a void of impenetrable darkness is really a fathomless zero that includes the whole infinity within its fold. Thus creation, "At first was laid a strange anomalous base, A void, a chipper of some secret whole, Where zero held infinity in its sum And All and Nothing were a single term, An eternal negative, a matrix Nought"9 The Rig Veda also reveals the secret of the beginning of the creation in the same way, "Darkness there was: at first concealed in darkness this All was indiscriminated chaos. 36 All that existed then was void and formless: by the great power of Warmth was born that unit."10 Thus, Matter is not devoid of consciousness as the materialists think it to be. Lloyd Morgan in his theory of evolution regards life as a regrouping of physico-chemical events with no new kinds of relatedness of its constituents and also no new kinds of relatedness expressed in integration. According to Sri Aurobindo, Matter is the starting point evolution; it is there merely a physico-chemical entity. But it undergoes a change, the first of its kind, a transmutation when it is taken up by life, when it becomes the basis of life and receptacle of a living organism, then vitalized Matter behaves differently from physico-chemical Matter. A further and greater is brought about in Matter when it is taken up by the mind and it answer to the vibrations of mental organism, this mentalised Matter has yet a third norm of behavior, and a stage will come when Matter will undergo another, more radical and crucial change. It will be taken up by a higher than mind and suffused with a light, a spiritual consciousness will emerge and with it a spiritualized Matter. "When Matter first emerges it becomes the dominant principle, it seems to be and is within its own field the basis of all things, and the end of all things, but Matter itself is found to be a result of something that is not Matter. It is seen that the creative Energy in Matter is a movement of the Spirit. Matter is a form of Spirit, a habitation of Spirit."11 Thus, Spirit involves in all creations as we find in Hegel's theory of evolution also. But Hegel is wrong in identifying Spirit with reason. It ties consciousness for ever to one particular stage of it viz., reason. For Sri Aurobindo, a truly spiritual evolution must transcend reason. Evolution, which means the return movement of consciousness, as Sri Aurobindo observes, in its apparent and outward aspect, of two processes, or rather two parallel lines in a single process. First there is the sublimation, that is to say, the lower purifies and modifies itself into the higher. "Now this sublimation," as Nolini Kanta Gupta says, "is not simply a process refinement or elimination, something in the nature of our old Indian nivrtti or pratyahara, or what Plotinous called epistrophe (a turning back, withdrawal or re-absorption)."12It includes integration also, which prof. S.K.Maitra calls "The Principle of Solidarity." It means, when a higher principle emerges, it descend into the lower ones causing a transformation of them. Thus when matter yields Life, Matter is not destroyed, it means life has appeared in Matter exits in through Matter and thereby has attained a new mode and constitution, for it is not merely a bundle of chemical or mechanical reaction, it is instinct with life, it has become organic Matter. In Einstein's relativity theory we find that Matter can be converted into Energy. They are interchangeable: E=mc2. He shows that mass of any body (matter) depends upon speed (energy) with which the body is moving. Energy thus supports matter and matter embodies energy. But modern physics is unable to explain, what is the nature of this energy, which has caused this energy, how has this energy come in matter. Sri Aurobindo discovers that this Energy or force is a consciousness and that Matter, too, is a form of consciousness, just as the Mind is a form of consciousness, and the vital and the Superconscient are other forms of consciousness. The different forms of energy in the world such as Material energy, vital energy, mental energy and the like are nothing but the manifestation of the fundamental spiritual energy of the pure Spirit in its dynamic form. This force or energy of the consciousness is the Becoming aspect of the Being which descends in the creation. By this affirmation of Consciousness with force Sri Aurobindo avoids Absolute idealism. Thus, Sri Aurobindo holds, "the two are one: Spirit is the soul and reality of that which we sense as Matter; Matter is a form and body of that which we realize as Spirit."13 Matter is a form of the force of Sat-Chit-Ananda. In the lowest form of Matter the 37 Absolute is present as indwelling principle-as the Gita puts it, a dweller within the heart. As Setasvatara Upanishad says, "Within man he dwells, and within all other beings. He projects the universe, maintains it into Himself"14. Mundaka Upanishad also explicates , "By energism of Consciousness Brahman is massed; from that Matter is born and from Matter Life and mind and the worlds."15 We find the similar exposition in The Taittiriya Upanishad also when Brighu came to his father Varuna and asked him, Lord, teach me the Brahman," he was told, "energise the consciousenergy in you; for the energy is Brahman." Brighu in this approach energized his consciousness and found out that Matter is Brahman, "Annam brahmeti vyajanat" So, Sri Aurobindo's outlook which is integral, explicates that, the Spirit or Brahman is One and that One is not completed without "All this is Brahman (sarvam khalu idam Brahman)" Thus, Sri Aurobindo regards the ideal aim of The Life Divine in his epic Savitri as, "The Spirit shall look out through Matter's gaze And Matter shall reveal through Spirit's face Then man and Superman shall be at one And all the earth becomes a single life."16 References: 1. Sri Aurobindo (2001). The Life Divine. Pondicherry : Sri Aurobindo Ashram, p. 10 2. Hiriyanna, M.(2005). Outlines of Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Motolal Banarasidass Publishers Limited, p. 191 3. Sri Aurobindo (2001). The Life Divine, p.11 4. Ibid., p.14 5. Maitra, S.K. (2006). An Introduction to the Philosophy of Sri Aurobindo. Pondicherry: Sri Aurobindo Ashram, p. 2 6. Sri Aurobindo (2001). The Life Divine,p.23 7. Ibid., p. 691 8. Maitra, S.K. (2006). An Introduction to the Philosophy of Sri Aurobindo, p. 4 9. Sri Aurobindo (2009). Savitri, Book-II, Cento-I. Pondicherry: Sri Aurobindo Ashram, p. 100 10. Max Muller. F(edi.) (2011). Rig Veda, Vijay Goel, Delhi, p. 18 11. Sri Aurobindo (2001). The Life Divine, p. 693 12. Gupta, Nolini Kanta (1979). Collected Works of Nolini Kanta Gupta, Calcutta : Nolini Kanta Birth Centanary Celebration Committee, p. 40 13. Sri Aurobindo (2001). The Life Divine,p.256 14. Swami Prabhavananda, Manchester, Fredrick, (edt), (2007). The Upanishad. Madras: Sri Ramkrishna Math, p. 194 15. Satprem (2003). The Adventure of Consciousness. Delhi: The Mother's Institute of Research, p.73 16. Sri Aurobindo (2009). Savitri, Book-XI, Cento-I. Pondicherry: Sri Aurobindo Ashram, p.709 38 7. A STUDY OF ECONOMIC IDEAS OF MAHATMA GANDHI AND JAWAHARLAL NEHRU Merina Islam Indian history during the first half of the 20th century is inconceivable without acknowledging the dynamic role of Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru. They stood apart from the rest of their contemporaries as the two leading figures of Indian Nationalism. They wanted to see India free from the foreign rule. They were complementary and supplementary to each other in many respects. Gandhi could not do without the support of the young, dynamic, highly educated new leader, while Nehru was in need of a wise teacher who thought in the traditional Indian way, having unique ability to organize the masses. They contributed immensely not only for the promotion of the cause of Indian Nationalism but were also deeply involved in evolving comprehensive models of social reconstruction and economic development to be taken up in the country, immediately after the attainment of independence. On the economic front, both Gandhi and Nehru stood for the establishment of a system which would free society from the curse of poverty and exploitation and provide equal opportunities to all its members. Both shared the same dream of classless and casteless society. However the two thinkers also had differences on a numbers of issues. The present paper seeks to explore the convergences and divergences between the economic philosophies of these two personalities. The basic ideas of Gandhi in economics as well as politics were drawn from ancient Indian philosophy of life. Indian philosophy has always preached that man's life is for spiritual evolution and not only for physical satisfaction. Born and brought up in the tradition of Indian philosophy and spiritualism, Gandhi, an ardent follower of Gita, developed an economic theory, which was in the line with Indian spiritualism. He insisted that the objective of human conduct should be moral and spiritual development. He had no faith in an economics which is devoid of morality and which disregards moral values. To quote him, "True economics never militates against the highest ethical standard and an economics that inculcates mammon worship and enables the strong to a mass wealth at the expense of the weak is a false and dismal science .1 Gandhi did not receive any formal training in economics nor did he study much economics on his own. His economic ideas were shaped by his own practical experiences and intensive readings of John Ruskin, Leo Tolstoy, Gita and his political and moral principles such as Swaraj, Sarvodaya, truth, non-violence and the like. Based on these wider social principles and teachings of different personalities, Gandhi developed his economic ideas, which if brought together would give a picture of the economic system that he visualized. The most important principle which influenced Gandhi, and which later became the guiding spirit of all his ideas, was the principle of Sarvodaya the good of all. The principle originated out of his reading of Ruskin's Unto This Last which held that the good'of individual is contained in the good of all. His economic ideas were also derived from his experiences of Indian social life of his time. He was very much perturbed by the abject poverty of his countrymen. He said, "According to me the economic constitution of India, and for that matter of the world, should be such that no one under it should suffer from want of food and clothing. In other words, everybody should be able to get sufficient work to enable him to make the two ends meet.'2 He scratched his brain to the 39 maximum to find out the solution. But he wanted a solution which may lead to spiritual progress and not an opposite retrogression. Thus he wanted economic progress but not at the cost of spiritual values. Central to the Gandhian model of development was the rejection of classical capitalism and western obsession with material progress which he felt had accentuated the gulf between the elite and the masses and led to the spiritual impoverishment of mankind. Nehru born of a rich and aristocratic family and educated in a western country had a scientific approach to India's political, social and economic problems which differs from Gandhi in many respects. In a letter to Gandhi on January 11, 1928 Nehru wrote : "Reading many of your articles in Young India Your Autobiography etc., -1 have often felt how very different my ideas were from yours. And I have felt that you were very hasty in your judgments, or rather having arrived at certain conclusions you were over-eager to justify them by any scrap of evidence you might get.... You misjudge greatly if I think, the civilization of the West' and attach too great importance to it's many failings... I certainly disagree with this viewpoint."3 Nehru was a realist, while Gandhi was an idealist. Nehru represented the modern scientific outlook and had the vision of building India through the application of science and technology. Gandhi was opposed to the ideal of multiplication of wants and animal appetites. He advocated the ideal of plain living and high thinking. According to him, "independent India can only discharge her duty towards groaning world by adopting a simple but ennobled life... high thinking is inconsistent with complicated material life based on high speed imposed on us by Mammon worship".4 Nehru regarded poverty as the worst enemy of mankind. In his attitude towards poverty, he was not ready to make any compromise. Gandhi while thinking about the poor used the term Daridranarayan, the 'lord of the poor' or 'God that resides in the poor'. Nehru could not appreciate such Gandhian terminology which appeared to him as the 'glorification of poverty'. Expressing his view on this particular aspect Nehru said, "God was especially the Lord of the poor : they were His chosen people. That, I suppose, is the usual religious attitude everywhere. I could not appreciate it, for poverty seemed to me a hateful thing, to be fought and rooted out and not to be encouraged in any way."5 Talking about Gandhi, Nehru said, "He is not enamored of ever-increasing standards of living, and the growth of luxury at the cost of spiritual and moral values. He does not favour the soft life; for him the straightway is the hard way, and the love of luxury leads to crookedness and loss of virtue."6 Gandhi was not blind to the problem of poverty in India. He was, on the other hand very much alive to it. The difference between Nehru and Gandhi was that while Nehru's outlook on life and society was very modern, Gandhi's was deeply religious. Gandhi hated poverty as much as he hated the excess of wealth. However, Gandhi disliked the Socialism and Communism of the western type because, according to him, they believed in the essential selfishness of human nature. He, on the other hand, wanted to base his concept of socialism and communism on non-violence and on the harmonious co-operation of labour and capital, landlord and tenants. The most important and yet the most controversial point as regards the economic ideas of Gandhi is the theory of trusteeship. This theory has created an ideological difference between Gandhi and Nehru. 40 Gandhi was against capitalism and yet he was not against capitalists. He wanted to create an economic system in which one will have enough for himself and nothing more than that. Surplus amount should be given to the community and that is called trusteeship. Gandhi wanted the handful of the rich to be the trustees of the poor and to be charitable. Once Gandhi addressing a deputation by big zamindars said, "I shall be no party to dispossessing propertied classes of their private property without just cause. My objective is to reach your hearts and convert you so that you may hold all your private property in trust for your tenants and use it primarily for their welfare. But supposing that there is an attempt unjustly to deprive you of your property you will find me fighting for your side".7 To Nehru, Gandhi's theory of trusteeship appeared unreasonable as an individual given unchecked power and wealth could not be expected to use it entirely for the public good. Differing with Gandhi, Nehru said, "I confess that I have always been wholly unable to understand how any person can reasonably expect this to happen, or imagine' that therein lies the solution of the social problems."8 According to Fiim 'Even Plato's philosopher-Kings could hardly have borne this burden worthily.'9 The theory would only perpetuate the snobbery of birth, position and economic power and the consequences would be disastrous. Gandhi suggested to the princes to grant autonomy to their subjects and regard themselves as the trustees for the people over whom they ruled. Reacting to this suggestion, Nehru wrote, "If there is anything in this idea of trusteeship, why should we object to the claim" of the British government that they are trustees for the Government of India ? Except for the fact that they are foreigners in India, I see no difference. There are almost equally marked differences as regards the colour of the skin, racial origin and culture between various peoples in India."10 Nehru had always been thinking of 'the economic framework of society' under Socialism. In 1936, he said, "The Congress today stands for full democracy in India and fights for a democratic state, not for socialism. It is anti-imperialist and strives for great changes in our political and economic structure. I hope the logic of events will lead to socialism, for that seems to me the only remedy for economic ills." Nehru favoured the development of "a socialist order... with a controlled production and distribution of wealth for the public good."12 He aimed at some practical ways to deal with class interests. At an intellectual level, both Marx and Russian experiments impressed Nehru. He confessed that "the theory and philosophy of Marxism lightened up many a dark corner of my mind. History came to have a new meaning for me.'"13 But at the same time he found that there was plenty of dogma in official communism in Russia and he disapproved of this. Nehru analysed communism in the intellectual and pragmatic way. Though the practical side of communism as he saw in Russia, attracted him greatly, yet he was able to see unsavoury features of the system. The reasons were his background, personality makeup, impact of Gandhian philosophy of purity of means and his abhorrence of violence. He was dissatisfied with the violent methods advocated by the Communists. He found the answer to the question of methods for social revolution in Gandhian philosophy of "Ends and Means". The result of the peculiar situation, in which Nehru was placed, was that his socialism got diluted. He asserted that democratic method was the only method of the attainment of a socialistic state as also of building it up on a firm foundation. Nehru introduced socialism as model of development which is based on mixed ideology. Nehru's democratic socialism emphasises 'mixed economy', because he allowed both public and private 41 sector to co-exist. He preferred selective nationalisation of key industries and left the rest for private enterprise. Nehru visualized rapid economic growth through the instrument of economic planning. Even before independence Nehru advocated planned economic development of India. His faith in planning was mainly due to the success of economic planning in Russia. In a latter to his daughter Nehru wrote, "The second wonder that the Soviets performed was to transform great parts of this area out of all recognition by prodigious schemes of planning. There is no instance in recorded history of such rapid advance of a people... The most notable advances have been in education and in industry. By vast Five Year's Plans the industrialization of Russia has been pushed on at a feverish pace and enormous factories have been put up."14 Gandhi was shocked at the vast gulf that stretched between the rich and the poor, in their ways of living and their opportunities of growth and one of the principle causes for the vast difference between the rich and the poor seemed to him the capitalist individualist civilization of the west as embodied in the big machine. From this standpoint Gandhi tended to reject the idea of large scale industrialization based on modern machinery. Gandhi condemned industrialization because it accentuates materialism and spreads moral corruption. He said, "Indeed the west has had a surfeit of industrialization and exploitation. The fact is that this civilization is all evil... I have no quarrel with steamship and telegraphs. They may stay, if they can without the support of materialism and all it commutates."15 He remarked, "I would prize every invention of science made for the benefit of all."16 Every machine that helps every individual has a definite place in society.1 However, he made it clear that he would not tolerate such machines which might result in the displacement of labour and the centralization of wealth. Thus, he said, "I would welcome every improvement in the cottage machine, but I know that it is criminal to displace hand labour by the introduction of power driven spindles unless one is at the same time ready to give millions of farmers some other occupation in their homes.'"17 He observed, "Today machinery helps a few to ride on the backs of millions. The impetus behind it all is not the philanthropy to save labour, but greed. It is against this construction of thing that I am fighting with all my might."18 He looked back with yearning to the days of the old autonomous and more-or-less self contained village community where there had been an automatic balance between production, distribution, and consumption; where political or economic power was spread out and not concentrated as it is today; where a kind of simple democracy prevailed; where the gulf between the rich and the poor was not so marked; where the evil of great cities were absent and people lived in contact with the life-giving soil and breathed the pure air of the open spaces."19 Gandhi emphasised the values of simple village life in order to create a new social order based on truth and non-violence. His belief that India lived in villages led him to propound the concept of village Swaraj which among other things, envisaged village self-sufficiency. To quote him, "My idea of self sufficiency is that villages must be self-sufficient in regard to food, cloth and other basic necessities... though our aim is complete self-sufficiency, we shall have to get from outside the village what we cannot produce in the village; we shall have to produce more of what we can in"' order thereby to obtain in exchange what we are unable to produce." 20 42 Gandhi wanted to make every village self supporting for its food and clothing through Khadi. He conceived Khadi as a universal industry. Khadi ensures the proper utilisation of human labour. Khadi would supply work to millions of villages. According to Gandhi, spinning must be a compulsory objective of every able-bodied man. He conceived spinning as an emblem of nonviolence or a doctrine that had its roots in the purest ahimsa. In addition to Khadi he mentioned some village-industries like hand-grinding, tanning, hand pounding, soap-making, oil-pressing etc. To quote him, "It is my claim that (by reviving Khadi and other village industries) we shall have evolved so far that we shall remodel national life in keeping with the ideal of simplicity and domesticity implanted in the bosom of the masses. We will not then be dragged into an imperialism which is built upon exploitation of the weaker races of the earth, and the acceptance of a giddy materialistic civilization protected by naval and air forces that have made peaceful living almost impossible."21 Gandhi opted for decentralization of economic power. In line with this reasoning for Gandhi the advocacy of cottage and small-scale industries for all-round development of rural areas assumes great significance. Gandhi believed that decentralization of economic power could fruitfully serve the interest of community by bringing about rapid development of industries. Gandhi's two years stay at the Inner Temple in London merely provided him with legal training and he returned to India in 1891 with his Indian outlook unaffected by the British culture. He represented the true spirit of India unaffected by the western influences and he was able to identify himself with the boor masses of the country.22 On the other hand Nehru was not a blind follower of Gandhi. His passion for clarity and logic often clashed with the Mahatma's intuitive and pragmatic approach, British culture had profound effect on Nehru whereas Gandhi remained unaffected by it. Nehru's seven years stay at Harrow, Cambridge and London made him 'a queer mixture of East and West' and even in his own country, sometimes, he had an exiles feelings.23 Nehru realised the inevitability of the impact of modern civilisation and advancement of science and technology in building a modern India with an element of compromise with India's cultural heritage. He was a link between the minority of westernized Indians at the top and the vast masses blow.24 In the field of economic policy, Nehru did not believe in a dogmatic approach. He believed that India will have to evolve its own economic policy to solve its problems. Coming to economics he said: "All books on economics written in America, England, Russia or China may help us, but will not suit us in the final analysis because we have got to take into consideration of the conditions of our country. And with the help of others, no doubt, find out, first of all, what our problems are and then seek their solution. Of course, we are doing that. It will not do if we were to get hold on some problems in some other country and may be, a solution of another country and try to apply it to the problem here, which may be different.25 Nehru was always greatly concerned over the magnitude of poverty in India and economic and social deprivation and exploitation of the poor and weaker sections of the Indian society. He was very keen that the problems of poverty and inequality should be effectively tackled with speed in order to improve the condition and quality of life of the poor and the weak and to restore their human dignity. 43 He traced India's economic backwardness and poverty to Britain's domination over India. During the period when England was going through the period of advancing industrialization, India underwent a process of "passive industrialization" in course of which India-became a great producer of raw material to feed the factories of England and a huge market to consume the goods made in these factories. In consequence, the burden on the Mand grew and with it unemployment and poverty, and there was a progressive ruralization of India. He also did not fall to notice that of the so-called westernization in India has actually, for the time being strengthened feudalism, and instead of solving any of our problems, has simply intensified them."26 Nehru stressed that the only solution lay in the utilization of modern science and technology for accelerating the pace of industrialization on which depended also the prospects of agricultural development and the dismantling of the colonial economic structure. In contrast to Gandhi, Nehru was fully conscious that industrializationsetting up of basic industries and big industries in addition to the cottage and small industries was fundamental to the rapid progress of the country. He said, "I am all for tractors and big machinery, and I am convinced that the rapid industrialization of India is essential to relieve the pressure on land, to combat poverty and raise standards of livings, for defence and a variety of "other purposes."27 Emphasizing the need of industrial development Nehru said, "It can hardly be challenged that, in the context of the modern world, no country Can be politically and economically independent... unless it is highly industrialized and has developed its power resources to the utmost. Nor can it achieve or maintain high standards of living and liquidate poverty without the aid of modern, technology in almost every sphere of life."28 According to him the material prosperity brought about by the industrial age made cultural and spiritual progress far easier for large number. Nehru argued that emphasis on Khadi, handspinning and hand-weaving, which was Gandhiji's special favourite, was an intensification of individualism in production, and was thus a throw-back to the pre-industrial age. As a solution of any vital present-day problem it could not be taken seriously, and it produced a mentality which might become an obstacle to growth in the right direction.29" He did recognise that Khadi served certain useful purpose in (India but only as a transitional affair and added that, "the main drive in future will have to be a complete overhauling of the agrarian system and the growth of industry."30 However, it is observed that while there were differences of emphasis among the two leaders, but it would not be proper to overemphasize the divergencies between the economic ideas of Gandhi and Nehru. While Gandhi emphasised the value of developing agriculture and small industries, he also recognised the need to develop heavy industries as and when required. He even came to accept the necessity of many kinds of heavyindustries and large-scale key industries and public utilities, provided they were state-owned and did not interfere with some kinds of cottage industries which he considered as essential.31 similarly, while Nehru emphasized the value of developing heavy industries, he also recognised the need to develop agriculture and small industries. 44 On September 29, 1939 in a letter to Krishna Kripalani, Nehru said, "I am personally a believer in the development of large-scale industries. Nevertheless I have wholeheartedly supported the Khadi movement as well as the wider village industries movement for political, social and economic reasons. In my mind there was no essential conflict between the two, although there might occasionally be conflict in regard to certain aspects or developments of both. In this matter I do not represent Gandhiji's viewpoint to any large extent, but in practice so far, there has not been any marked conflict between the two view points. Therefore, I feel, that it is inevitable and desirable to encourage the use and development of big machine and thus to industrialize India. I am convinced at the same time that no amount of industrialization in this way will do away with the necessity of developing cottage industries on a large scale in India, and this not merely as feeders but as independent units. I do not know what science may achieve in the course of the next generation or two but as far as I can see cottage industries will be essential for India in addition to large scale industries, which should he encouraged in every way. The problem, therefore, becomes one of coordination between the two."32 Thus it is observed that, despite certain differences, there were basic similarities in the economic goals of Gandhi and Nehru. Both were equally concerned with eradicating poverty, providing employment to more and more people and making the country self-reliant in the economic field. Both wanted the means of production, distribution art and exchange to be under social control and the profit motive and acquisitive tendency among individuals to be kept under check. Problem, therefore, becomes one of coordination between the two.32 Thus it is observed that, despite certain differences, there were basic similarities in the economic goals of Gandhi and Nehru. Both were equally concerned with eradicating poverty, providing employment to more and more people and making the country self-reliant in the economic field. Both wanted the means of production, distribution arts exchange to be under social control and the profit motive and acquisitive tendency among individuals to be kept under check. References: 1. R.K. Prabhu (edi.) (1966). The Mind of Mahatma Gandhi . Ahmedabad : Navajivan Publishing House,p.264. 2. J.B. Kripalani,(1970). Gandhi: His Life and Thought .Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, p.368. 3. Verinder Grover (edi..). Jawaharlal Nehru : A Biography of Vision and Ideas. New Delhi: Deep & Deep Publications, p.754. 4. Shriman Narayan (1968). The Selected Works of Mahatma Gandhi : The Voice of Truth, Vol. VI. Ahmedabad : Navajivan Publishing House, p.329. 5. Jawaharlal Nehru (2001). An Autobiography . New Delhi: Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund, Teen Murti House, p. 192. 6. Jawaharlal Nehru (1946). The Discovery of India .Calcutta: Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund, Oxford University Press, p.404. 7. Hans Raj Madnpotra (1993). Nehru Rediscovered . Moti Nagar : Krishna Publishers, pp.148-149. 8. Jawaharlal Nehru (2001). An Autobiography, op.cit., p. 192. 45 9. Ibid., p.528. 10. Ibid., p.533. 11. K.S. Bharathi (1984). Gandhi and Nehru . Delhi: Chankya Publications, p. 139. 12. Jawaharlal Nehru (2001). An Autobiography, op.cit., p.523. 13. Ibid., p.362. 14. Jawaharlal Nehru (2001). Glimpses of World History. New Delhi : Jawaharlal Memorial Fund, p.686. 15. K.S. Bharathi (1984). Gandhi and Nehru, op.cit., p.55. 16. Ibid. 17. M.K. Gandhi, The Selected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, The Voice of Truth, Vol. VI, p.379. 18. Ibid., p.380 19. Jawaharlal Nehru (1946). The Discovery of India, op.cit. ,p.404. 20. M.K. Gandhi (1959). Khadi -Why and How. Ahmedabad: Navaj House, p. 166. 21. M.K. Gandhi. The Selected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.l 22. For detail see Hans Raj Madnpotra. Nehru Rediscovered, 23. Ibid. 24. For detail see K.S. Bharathi, Gandhi and Nehru, op.cit.. p.5 25. Verinder Grover (edit.) (1990) . Political Thinkers of India: Jawatari . New Delhi : Deep & Deep Publication, p.535 26. Jawaharlal Nehru (2001). An Autobiography op.cit., p.520. 27. Jawaharlal Nehru (1946). The Discovery of India, op.cit., p.406 28. Ibid., p.407. 29. Jawaharlal Nehru (2001). An Autobiography, op.cit.. p.523. 30. Ibid, p.524. 31. For detail see Jawaharlal Nehru (1946). The Discovery of India, op.cit. 32. Sarvepalli Gopal (ed.)(1983). Jawaharlal Nehru: An Anthok . University Press, pp.302.303. 46 8. SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY OF SAHEED BHAGAT SINGH Manju Chauhan Shaheed Bhagat Singh was born on 28th September, 1907 in a Sikh family in village Khatkar Kalan in Nawan Shahar district (Now known as Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar) of Punjab. He was son of Sardar Kishan Singh and Vidyavati1. Bhagat Singh was arrested on throwing bombs in Central Assembly along with Sukhdev and Rajguru and awarded death sentence also because they killed the Assistant Superintendent Saunders to avenge Lalaji's death after Lathi Charge during the protest against Simon Commission. He and his associates was hanged in the early hours of 23rd March, 19312. This made him "Shaheedthe martyred one". He was not only a revolutionary but was a thinker too. Due to his extra-ordinary activities other than revolutions made him "The Legend". SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY Bhagat Singh, after joining Hindustan Republic Association (HRA) started political work, but after the establishment of Navjawan Bharat Sabha (NBS) in April 1926, socialist ideas among the revolutionaries started to grow. Sohan Singh Josh and Lala Chabil Das (his Principal at College) have a considerable role in Bhagat Singh's socialist ideas3. He had expressed his views on a number of issues like religion and liberation, struggle, communalism, satyagaha and strikes participation of student in politics etc. in different papers and magazines like Kirtia and Shardhanand etc. THE IDEA OF TERROR Terror is the word about which lots of misinterpretations were spread, Bhagat Singh claims that nobody had tried to understand the real meaning of "Terror". They have accepted it as a crime. So, the work 'Terror' was being abused. This was defined as a crime or illegal act so the common people got confused and took self defence also as 'Terror'. Bhagat Singh suggests that self defence or violence for the protection of the nation should not be called as 'Terror' instead it should be called the use of power. The Arab people defend their right to self-defence through terror in a powerful poem which is written by Surian poet Nazir Qabbani4. "We are accused of terrorism if we refuse to die with Israel's bulldozers tearing our land tearing our history... We are accused of terrorism if we refuse to be effacted If we throw a stone at the glass of the Security Council 47 after the Caesar of Caesars grabbed it for his own We are accused of terrorism if we refuse to negotiate with the wolf We are accused of terrorism. If we defended our land and the honour of dust if we revolted against the rape of people, our rape If we defended the... last stars in our sky ..... If this was a sin how beautiful is terrorism I am with terrorism as long as the new world order wants to slaughter my offspring and send them to dogs For all this I raise my voice high: I am with terrorism..."5 Due to this, the use power in form of courage, martyrdom, soldier's duty, the ability to operate arms, fearlessness, bravery, and to put down the heads of tyrants were started to be considered as terror6. The prominent persons like Chhattrapati Shivaji, Maharaja Ranjit Singh etc., had become the victims of hatred of people. So, the common people have started giving up violent actions to remain wise. Bhagat criticizes this by saying that the purpose of use of power decides it is terror or not. The quotation "End justifies the means"7 satisfies the thinker's mind to understand the difference between the 'terror' and a moral action. So, it is obvious the will of the doer and the results of his action decide that if it is terror or not. BOMB PHILOSOPHY "The Philosophy of Bomb" was the major document of Hindustan Socialist Republic Association (HSRA). It was written by Bhagwati Charan Vohra in January, 1930 as a reply to Gandhi's article, 'The Cult of Bomb' published in Young India on 2nd January, 1930. The bomb 48 philosophy was also published in Young India and threw light on the limitations of Gandhian non-violence8. Bhagat Singh and other revolutionaries believed that revolution was the only way to get independence. This doesn't means to fight openly and kill one another in anger, proud and enthusiasm. In his views, our social systems also should be free from the foreign social system's influence. For this, he criticizes Gandhi's 'Gospel of love and self-imposed suffering' with some questions, "Will he let the world know how many enemies of India he has been able to turn into friends ?, How many O' Dwyers, Readings and Irwins has he been able to convert into friends of India? If none, how can India be expected to share his "growing faith" that he will be able to persuade or compel England to agree to Indian Independence through practice of non-violence."9 He further explains that Bombs were thrown to make the deafs hear. This (The Philosophy of Bomb) was the bomb of the revolutionary ideas of Bhagat Singh to awake the young Indians and turn their mind towards the independence. He hoped, "Like other countries, the terrorism will take the shape of the revolution, the country will get independence socially, politically and economically."10 VIEWS ON COMMUNALISM Bhagat Singh's article on communalism was published in June 1928 through 'Kirti'. This was for definite solution for the problem of communal works.11 India's condition was very pitiable. The wars based on religion and fought among the different religious communities were termed as communal wars. Bhagat Singh realized that in such conditions India's future was very dull. He considered the communal leaders responsible for the wars because they could not stopped the wars. At the same time, the people who persuaded nationalism and independence were escaping from the situation. Next, he criticizes the newspapers which were supposed to teach, to increase communication, to remove communalism, to aware and to shape a united nationalism. But, they were doing the reverse. To improve the situation, Bhagat Singh suggested improving the economic condition. For this, he argued that it was necessary to remove the foreign government to improve the economic condition. So, he suggested people to unite and put an end to discrimination and to take the government to the native hands. The awareness among the young Indians is the beautiful way to check the communal wars. He suggested in the end, if religions should be separated from the politics, then we can unite. We think India's true well-wishers will think about our views and save the nation from the self-damaging elements (Communal Leaders).12 VIEWS ON UNTOUCHABILITY AND CASTE SYSTEM Barrister Jinnah's article published in 1923 to transfer the Dalit population (who were called untouchables) to Hindu-Muslim missionary institutions had sparked off a fierce debate.13 Bhagat Singh in his article "The Problem of Untouchability" criticized the philosophical spiritual rationale of untouchability as a major problem. In the nation of 30 crore people, 6 crore were called untouchables. This is very embarrassing that such things exist in 20th Century also. He criticizes the social orthodox elements and hierarchical system that treats inhumanly those 49 sections which were necessary for basic services to the society. So, he suggested to the untouchables, "You are backbone of this country organise yourself, the problem of untouchability will find no solution".14 He appreciates the demands for equal opportunities and equal treatment in walks of life. He has shown that we need to abolish the evils of untouchability and caste system as the worst form of deprivation, discrimination, exploitation and inequality in India. ATHEISM Bhagat Singh with his Arya Samajist background was very religious in the beginning but he turned into a complete atheist in 1926. He tried to grasp to the complexity of religion, society and politics with the Marxist understanding in then existing Indian context.15 Bhagat Singh denied the existence of God. In 1926, he had become a declared atheist. In October, 1930 he had written an article "Why I am an Atheist" to clarify his views about Atheism. He defines the Atheism as critical investigation and experiment of the facts. And the religion, on the other hand is a set of believes on the supernatural power. He concludes that a man needs a lot of confidence to declare himself as "Atheist" because then he has to believe in his own capabilities and should full of confidence. He called the religion as drugs because it has addicted the thinking of people. He criticized the scholars and thinkers who were not struggling against the mysterious problem but had proven their weakness in the name of motionless faiths. He invokes the criticism, challenge and investigating the truth. In his views, faith is good but blind faith is worthless. He had faith that there is no such supernatural power which directs and sustains the nature. He believes in nature and not in God. CONCLUSION Bhagat Singh's extra ordinary activities have made him "The Legend". He had given true definition of terror and differentiated terror and the self-confidence. He had given the philosophy of Bomb as it was the only way to get independence. He had criticized the communalism and suggested to aware the people to put an end to communalism. He had strongly opposed the evils of untouchability and caste system. He was an Atheist and doesn't believe in God's existence even in his last days of life. So, it is clear that Bhagat Singh at such an early age had developed his thinking scientifically. He had made the 'Jail', a library and laboratory through his experiments.16 His social philosophy gives us a new way to think about the social problems as well as to solve them. Only the need is to understand and apply them accordingly. Bhagat Singh's social ideas are still worthwhile in the society. References: 1. Shaheed Bhagat Singh, Culture India, http://www.culturalindia.net/leaders/bhagatsingh.html 2. ibid. 50 3. P.M.S. Grewal (2007), Bhagat Singh: Liberation's Blazing Star, LeftWord Books, New Delhi,p.44 4. ibid, p.44 5. ibid, pp.58-59 6. Jagmohan Singh and Chhaman Lal (edits) (2001), Documents of Bhagat Singh and His Associates, Rajkamal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi,p.207 7. ibid,p.197 8. P.M.S. Grewal (2007), Bhagat Singh: Liberation's Blazing Star , p.51 9. Bhagat Singh (2009) Philosophy of Bomb, Rahul Foundation, p.9 10. ibid, p.6 11. Jagmohan Singh and Chhaman Lal (edits) (2001), Documents of Bhagat Singh and His Associates, p .217 12. ibid,p.221 13. Datta Desai, "Revisiting Bhagat Singh: Ideology and Politics" (2011) http://www.shahidbhagatsingh.org/index.asp?linkid=36 14. ibid. 15. ibid. 16. Jagmohan Singh and Chhaman Lal (edits) (2001), Documents of Bhagat Singh and His Associates, p.11 51 9. BHAGAT SINGH AS A SUREFOOTED REVOLUTIONARY AND HIS VENDURE: A FOSTER-SON OF COLONIALISM Sheena Krishnan Ulamparambath "My life has already been committed to a noble case – the case of the freedom of India. For that, reason comforts and worldly desires have no attraction in my life. You must be remembering that.... when I was quite young, Bapuji (grandfather) had declared that I was being pledged for the service of the country. I am, therefore, honouring the pledge of that time. I hope you will excuse me.1 A letter written by Bhagat Singh to his father, when his father had arranged his marriage, is quoted above. Bhagat Singh objected to the arrangement and left his home by leaving this letter for his father, which clearly validates his ardent patriotism and deep love for the nation. Bhagat Singh was gripped by patriotic fervor. He was also very sensitive to the plight of the two women in the house who lived without their husbands, the dead Swarn Singh's widow, and the exiled Ajit Singh's wife, and, hence, determined not to let same happen to any girl, who, might marry him.2 Hence, in this paper, an attempt is made to explore various causes that nourished Bhagat Singh's growth as a patriot. Among various factors, his family background stands at the top. Bhagat Singh's ancestors were actually the adventurous migrants, who, originally came from the village of Khatkar Kalan in the Jullundur district 27 K.M. from Phagwara and it was from there, they migrated to and settled in the village of Banga in the Lyllapur District, now in West Pakistan.3 He came from a patriotic Jat Sikh family, some of whom had participated in movements supporting the independence of India and others, who, had served in Maharaja Ranjit Singh's army. His grandfather, Arjun Singh was not only a scholar and doctor but also an ardent follower of Swami Dayananda Saraswati's Arya Samaj. Being a nationalist, religious reformer and social worker, he actively participated in the social and religious movements in the nineteenth century, which would carry a heavy influence on Singh. Unlike many Sikhs, Bhagat Singh did not attend Khalsa High School in Lahore, because his grandfather did not approve of the school officials' loyalty to the British authorities.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagat_Singh cite_note -SanyalYadav2006-19 Instead, his father enrolled him in Dayanand Anglo Vedic High School, an Arya Samajist school. In 1893, Arjun Singh became one of the delegates to the Congress Session held at Lahore. He was man of conviction, who always opposed dogmatism and rigid traditionalism. His father, Kishan Singh too was a social worker, who had organized extensive relief works in different parts of the country. Bhagat Singh's father as well as father's brothers, Ajit Singh and Swaran Singh founded a party namely Bharat Mata Society in the year 1906. Later they became the members of the Ghadar Party, led by Kartar Singh Sarabha Grewal and Har Dayal. Kishan Singh joined Arya Samaj as well as the Indian National Congress and consequently; he had faced 42 political trials, remained in jail for two years and was an internee for another too. Ajit Singh with the blessings of Lala Lajpat Rai, launched extremist movement in the Punjab. The government reports regarding the activities of Ajit Singh reads, "Ajit Singh during the last two months has held a constant series of meetings and has openly advocated sedition. He clearly ought to be stopped at once."4 Report continues, "Agitator Ajit Singh and others have urged the people to rise, attack the English and be free."5 His seditious speeches led to the outbreak of violent riots at Lahore and Rawalpindi in 1907, which the then Lieutenant Governor described "as exceedingly serious and exceedingly dangerous and as urgently demanding a remedy."6 Lala Lajpat Rai also was amazed to see the overwhelmed agitating 52 attitude of the people that was created due to the frequent political meetings called by Ajit Singh in which, he urged the people to resist the government actively. On the Radio, Ajit Singh usually began with the famous couplet of Bahadur Shah, the Mughal Emperor: Gazion mein boo rahgi jab talak Imman ki. Tabto London Tak Chelegi teg Hindustani ki. Maja Ayega jab hamara raj dekhenge Ke apni hi zamin horgi apna asaman hoga Shahidon ki chitaon per language her baras Meley Wattan par marane walon ka yahi Baqi nishan hoga. The translation of the above lines is given: So long as our soldiers of freedom Have faith and confidence in themselves The sword of Hindustan will continue To penetrate the heart of London itself. There will be sheer joy when we attain swaraj And when the land and the sky of India will be ours Annual fairs will be held at the cremation grounds of martyrs.7 We can say that the influence of Ajit Singh on Bhagat Singh was the greatest because he did all such seditious adventurous activities at a time when raising even a finger against the British was considered as a passage to death. The influence of Swaran Singh, a nationalist, on Bhagat Singh could not be underestimated. He published anti British literature and organized agitation against the colonization Bill. He too was arrested on a charge of sedition and was tried and imprisoned. Ajith Singh was forced to flee to Persia because of pending cases against him while, Swaran Singh died when he was only 23 in 1910 at his home after releasing from Borstle Jail, Lahore. It is from the above discussions it is assumed that his family background occupied with many fearless patriots and freedom fighters might have converted Bhagat Singh a revolutionary terrorist. The impact of Kartar Singh Sarabha's heroism and sacrifice, one of the heroes of Ghadar movement, on Bhagat Singh can be clearly understood from the fact that when Bhagat Singh was arrested; a photograph of Kartar Singh Sarabh was recovered from him. It is learnt that he always 53 carried Sarabha's photo in his pocket, might be to derive motivation from it. Moreover, he used to show the photo to his mother and say that Sarabh is his hero, friend and companion and at home, he used to recite the couple, a favorite with Kartar Singh Sarabha.8 Seva desh di jindariye bari aukhi Gallan karnian dher sukhalian ne Jinhan desh sevawich pair paya Unhan lakh musibtan jhallian ne. The translation in English is given below: Serve one's motherland in the real sense is extremely very tuff, It is very easy to talk about it, O! My little soul! Those, who, wishes to take the task of patriotism Had to undergo countless torments and agonies.9 An important factor in his intellectual and political growth was his access of the Dwarka Dass Library, Lahore, from where, he had started acquiring Marxist literature in the mid-1920s. He was clearly groping for a comprehensive philosophy of human liberation. This led him to Marxism and the Ghadar revolutionaries of the Punjab. Bhagat Singh wrote regularly in their organ, Kirti (Punjabi), on subjects as varied as 'Communalism and its Solution', 'Problem of Untouchability', 'Religion and Our Freedom Struggle' etc.10 The trials, convictions and arrests of the Ghadrites left a deep imprint on the minds of young elements in northern India, especially on Punjabis. "It was their example of sacrifice which was followed by Bhagat Singh and his comrades through the Naujawan Bharat Sabha and the Hindustan Republican Association. Among the major influences on Bhagat Singh, the greatest was that of the Ghadar movement."11 The revolutionary terrorists were severely suppressed during the First World War and most of its leaders were put in jail or absconding. When non-cooperation movement was launched on the urging Gandhi, C.R. Das and other leaders and most of the revolutionary terrorists either joined the movement or suspended their own activities in order to give the Gandhian mass movement a golden chance. However, sudden suspension of the non-cooperation movement shattered the high hopes and inspiration and many youngsters and they questioned the very basic strategy of the national leadership and its emphasis on non-violence and demanded for alternatives. They were not happy with the ideas of the swarajists. They believed that only violent methods would bring freedom to India. Thus, revolutionary terrorism again became attractive and active under the activities of Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee, Surya Sen, Jatin Das, Chandrasekhar Azad, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Shiv Varma, Bhagwati Charan Vohra and Jaidev Kapur. They enthusiastically participated in the non-cooperation movement. Thus, two separate strands of revolutionary terrorism developed one in Punjab, U.P. and Bihar and other in Bihar.12 54 In April 1919, as a boy of 12, he visited the Jallianwala Bagh, where, the British police had massacred hundreds of unarmed Indians, and came back with blood soaked earth. In 1921, at the age of 14, he told his grandfather about the preparations being made by the railway men to go on strike. At age of 13, Singh began to follow Mahatma Gandhi's non-cooperation movement. At this point, he had openly defied the British and had followed Gandhi's wishes by burning his government-school books and any British-imported clothing. Following Gandhi's withdrawal of the movement after the violent murders of the police officers by villagers from Chauri Chaura, Uttar Pradesh, Singh, disgruntled with Gandhi's nonviolence action, joined the Young Revolutionary Movement and began advocating a violent movement against the British. Already at 15, Bhagat Singh even debated with his father regarding Gandhi's decision to withdraw the non-cooperation movement. The same year, on February 4, Mahant Narain Dass had killed more than 140 devout Sikhs in collaboration with the British at Gurudwara Nankana Sahib. When Akali workers protested this massacre, Bhagat Singh was at the forefront of welcoming the protestors in his village. Bhagat Singh joined National College Lahore at the age of 15. Around this time, he learned Punjabi language and the Gurumukhi script. This may seem strange today, given that he was born a Sikh. However, his grandfather, Arjun Singh, was a staunch Arya Samajist, who, emphasized learning Sanskrit. Therefore, young Bhagat Singh learnt Sanskrit, in addition to Urdu, English and Hindi.13 He proved to be good reader and writer in both Hindi and Punjabi. In 1923, Bhagat famously won an essay competition set by the Punjab Hindi Sahitya Sammelan. This grabbed the attention of members of the Punjab Hindi Sahitya Sammelan, including its General Secretary Professor Bhim Sen Vidyalankar. At this age, he quoted famous Punjabi literature and discussed the Problems of the Punjab. He read a lot of poetry and literature, which was written by Punjabi writers and his favourite poet, was Allama Iqbal from Sialkot. The frustrated young leaders, like Ramprasad Bismil, Jogesh Chatterjea and Sachindranath Sanyal, whose, Bandi Jiwan served as a textbook to the revolutionary movement, met at Kanpur in October 1924 and founded the Hindustan Republican Association (or Army). It aimed to organize armed revolution to overthrow the colonial rule and establish in its place a Federal Republic of the United States of India, whose, basic principle would be adult franchise.14 Bhagat Singh came to Kanpur in 1923, after writing to his father that he would not marry, joined the paper as well as Hindustan Republican Association. Bhagat Singh started writing in the Pratap under the pen name Balwant. He worked during flood relief, and did duty as headmaster in a school. He wrote, in Hindi, an essay on the Language Problem in Punjab, and won a prize for this essay competition. In 1924-25, he wrote two essays in Matwala: one on 'Loving the World' (Vishwa Prem) and another on the youth (Yuvak). When six Babbar Akali revolutionaries were executed in 1926, his article, 'Blood Drops on Holi Day' (Holi ke Din Rakt ke Chhinte) was published with the byline, 'A Punjabi Youth.' In his celebrated essay, 'Why I am an Atheist', written in 1930, Bhagat Singh says that this was the time he was being radicalized, and the end of 1926, still short of 19, he was already an atheist. Before armed struggle cold to be waged, propaganda had to be organized on a large scale, men had to be recruited and trained and arms had to be produced, Bhagat Singh thought. All these required money. The most important action of HRA was the Kakori Robbbery, on 9 August 1925, ten men held up the 8-Down train at Kakori, an obscure village near Lucknow, and looted 55 its official railway cash. The Government reaction was quick and hard. It arrested a large number of young men and tried them in the Kakori Conspiracy Case.15 In his teenage years, Bhagat Singh started studying at the National College in Lahore, but ran away from home to avoid early marriage, and became a member of the organization, Naujawan Bharat Sabha (Youth Society of India). Bhagat Singh was already something of a veteran in running organizations. He had been central to the Naujawan Bharat Sabha, formed in 1926 on the pattern of youth organizations in Italy, inspired by Mazzini and Garibaldi. In the Naujawan Bharat Sabha, Singh and his fellow revolutionaries grew popular amongst the youth. He also joined the Hindustan Republican Association through introduction by his history teacher, Professor Vidyalankar,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagat_Singh cite_note-23 which had prominent leaders like Ram Prasad Bismil, Chandrashekhar Azad and Ashfaqulla Khan. It is believed that he went to Kanpur with the aim of freeing Kakori train robbery prisoners from the jail, but returned to Lahore for unknown reasons. On the day of Dassera in October 1926, a bomb was blasted in Lahore, and Bhagat Singh was arrested for his alleged involvement in this Dassera Bomb Case in 29 May 1927, and was released on a bail of Rs.60, 000 after about five weeks of his arrest. He kept on writing for the edited Urdu and Punjabi newspapers published from Amritsar. In September 1928, a meeting of various revolutionaries from across India was called at Delhi under the banner of the Kirti Kissan Party. Bhagat Singh was the secretary of the meet. His later revolutionary activities were carried out as a leader of this association. A number of factors contributed to the shaping of Bhagat Singh's socio-political thought. First of all, his family environment, then, Gandhi's decision to suddenly suspend the non-cooperation movement, disappointed many a youth of India. Most of the future revolutionaries, Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee, Surya Sen, Jatin Das, Chandra Sehkar Azad, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev Singh, Siv Verma, Bhagwati Charan Vohra, Jasidev Kapur and a host of others had actively participated in the non-cooperation movement. Gandhi's slogan 'Swaraj in one year' had inspired them with the spirit of nationalism. Their high hopes that Gandhi's first all – India movement had risen, however, got temporarily frustrated. The period of his revolutionary activities began from the time he left Lahore and went to Kanpur. Bhagat Singh got busy in building his contacts with other like-mined revolutionaries. At Kanpur he stayed with Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi and came to know Batukeshwar Dutt16 We can say that both the strands developed under the influences of varied social forces. The main was the upsurge of working class trade unionism after the war. They identified revolutionary potential of the new class and wished to harness it to the nationalist revolution. The revolutionaries in northern India were the first to emerge out of the mood of frustration and reorganized under the leadership of the old veterans. A real breakthrough in terms of revolutionary struggle, goals, aims and objectives, targets, future plan, methodology and ideology of revolution etc. was inaugurated by Bhagat Singh and his comrades. Bhagat Singh himself declared once that the "the real revolutionary armies are in the villages and in factories."17 References: 1. Gupta D. N. & Chandra Bipan (2007) Bhagat Singh Select Speeches & Writings, National Book Trust India, New Delhi, Introduction, p. ix. 2. Bhupender Hooja (2007) Bhagat Singh the Jail Notebook and Other Writings, Compiled with an Introduction by Chaman Lal, Left Word Books, New Delhi, p.13. 56 3. Singh Deol Gurdev & Singh Karan (1969) Shaheed Bhagat Singh: A Bibliography, Punjabi University, Patiala, p. 4. 4. Home Department (Political), Government of India, Proceedings of August (1907), numbers 148-235, p. 3, as quoted in Deol Gurdev Singh & Singh Karan (1969), Shaheed Bhagat Singh: A Bibliography, Punjabi University, Patiala, p.7. 5. Ibid. 6. Home Department (Political), Government of India, Proceedings of August (1907), numbers 148-235, p. 40. 7. Parm Bakhshish Singh and Devinder Kumar Verma, Ed. (1998) Punjab and the Freedom Struggle, Publication Bureau, Punjabi University, Patiala, p. 179. 8. Singh Deol Gurdev (1978) Shaheede-Azam Sardar Bhagat Singh: The Man and his Ideology, Deep Prakashan, Nabha, pp. 108-109. 9. Ibid., p.12. 10. Bhupender Hooja, op. cit., p. 14. 11. Singh Deol Gurdev (1978), op. cit., p.108. 12. Bipan Chandra (1989) India's Struggle for Independence 1857-1947, Penguin Books India, New Delhi, p. 247. 13. Bhupender Hooja, op. cit., pp. 12-13. 14. Bipan Chandra (1989) op. cit., p. 248. 15. Ibid, p. 248. 16. Gupta. D.N & Chandra Bipan, Introduction, p. xii. 17. Shiv Varma, Ed. (1986) Selected Writings of Shaheed Bhagat Singh, Appendix I, New Delhi, p.130. 57 10 MkWvEcsM+dj dk lkekftd&fpUru ,oa ekuokf/kdkj ns'kjkt fljloky Hkwfedk Hkkjrh; lafo/kku ds fuekZrk MkWHkhejko vEcsMdj flQZ nfyrksa ds gh usrk ugha gSA og ,d ,sls jk"Va iq#"k gSa A ftUgksaus lewps ns'k ds lEcU/k esa] Hkkjr ds bfrgkl ds lEcU/k esa] ,oa lekt ifjorZu ij egÙoiw.kZ oSpkfjd ;ksxnku fn;k gSA MkWvEcsM+dj ,d fo}ku] ys[kd] jktuhfrK] lekt&lq/kkjd] dkuwu fo'ks"kK] f'k{kk&'kkL=h vkSj uolekykspd ds :i esa ubZ ih<+h ds lkeus mn; gq, gSa A ge lHkh mu ikS/kksa dks lhap ik, gSa tks MkWHkhejko vEcsMdj us yxk, Fks A tks f'k{kk va/kfo'okl] HkkX;okn] ladh.kZokn] izfrfØ;kokn tSlh dqjhfr;ksa dks /oLr djrh gS] og xzg.k djus ;ksX; gSA muds liuksa dks iwjk djus ds fy, gesa dBksj ladYi] bZekunkjh vkSj izHkkoiw.kZ <ax ls dke djuk gksxk] rHkh ge lgh ek;us esa bu fopkjdksa dks lPph J)katfy ns ldrs gSA izLrqr ys[k esa ek= muds fparu dk va'k Hkj js[kkafdr fd;k x;k gSa ftlesa muds fopkjksa ls ifjp; ,oa ekuokf/kdkj ds ckjs ,d fujis{k fparu fn;k x;k gS vkSj orZeku le; dh tkrh; leL;kvksa] ekuokf/kdkj ds ijLij lEcU/k dks n'kkZ;k x;k gSA vEcsM+dj % O;fDrRo ,oa fopkj vk/kqfud ;qx esa vEcsM+dj dk fpUru vekuoh;] vuSfrd ,oa vU;k;iw.kZ lkekftd O;oLFkk ds izfr fonzksg ,oa fojks/k dk lcls l'kDr Loj ekuk tkrk gSA ckY;dky ls gh dBksj vuqHkoksa ls xqtjrs gq, vEcsM+dj dks vusd lkekftd cqjkbZ;ksa ,oa foM+Ecukvksa ds lkFk viuh thou fu;fr ls lk{kkRdkj gqvk FkkA xgu v/;;u ,oa mPp f'k{kk ds vk/kkj ij mUgksaus lkekftd v'kqHk&ds izfr viuh vkykspukRed n`f"V dks ,d foosd&lEer ,oa rkfdZd vk/kkj iznku fd;k AMkWvEcsndj vius firk ds vykok xkSre cq)] T;ksfrck Qqys vkSj dchj ls izHkkfor Fks] ftUgsa vEcsM+dj ds rhu xq: Hkh dgk tkrk gSA MkWvEcsM+dj us ik'pkR; LorU=rk vkSj ekuorkoknh lEcU/kh fopkjksa dk Kku izkstkWu Msoh] tkWu LVwvVZ fey] ,Me.M czqds vkSj izksgkjksYM ykWLdh bR;kfn fopkjdksa ls fy;kA ftldk izek.k mudh fyf[krksa vkSj Hkk"k.kksa esa iz;ksx m)j.kksa ls yxk;k tk ldrk gSA vr% dgk tk ldrk gS fd MkWvEcsndj dks if'pe us muds ^^gfFk;kj** vkSj iwoZ us ^^vkRe&cy** fn;k] ftlds vk/kkj ij lkekftd lekurk vkSj lkekftd U;k; ds fy, mUgksaus la?k"kZ fd;k A 1 MkWvEcsMdj vk/kqfud Hkkjr ds egku fpard nk'kZfud] vFkZ'kkL=h fof/kosrk] 'kksf"krksa ds eqfDr&uk;d] la?k"kZ'khy lkekftd dk;ZdrkZ vkSj lafo/kku fuekZrk Fks A os LorU=rk&lekurk&cU/kqRo ds ØkfUrdkjh vkn'kks± dks Hkkjrh; lekt esa LFkkfir djuk pkgrs FksA tks Hkh izFkk] ijEijk] fopkj/kkjk] dkuwu ;k /kkfeZd ekU;rk bu ewY;ksa vkn'kksZ dks izkIr djus esa ck/kk jgh gSa] os muds izcy vkykspd jgs A mUgksaus tkfrizFkk&NwvkNwr vkSj iwathoknh&lkeUrh fopkj/kkjk dh reke 'kks"k.kijd iz.kkfy;ksa dh blh vk/kkj ij vkykspuk djds cgqvk;keh o oLrqijd fo'ys"k.k fd;k A mudk fo'okl Fkk fd vxj os vius la?k"kZ esa dke;kc gks tkrs gSa rks ;g fdlh fo'ks"k leqnk; ds fgr esa ugha gksxk A cfYd lHkh Hkkjrh;ksa ds fy, ,d ojnku cusxk A os pkgrs Fks fd cgqtu ijEijkxr lkekftd fLFkfr ij viuh etcwr fLFkfr cuk;sA muds vkn'kZ LorU=rk] lekurk vkSj HkkbZpkjk Fks A ^^vkt mnkjhdj.k] HkweaMyhdj.k o futhdj.k dh uhfr;ksa ls lekt esa vlekurk dh [kkbZ xgjh gqbZ gS tcfd muds lkekftd] jktuhfrd] vkfFkZd o /kkfeZd fpUru dk dsfUnz; rRo lekurk gS ftldh cqfu;kn ij gh dksbZ okLrfod yksdra= cu ldrk gSA yksdrkfU=d i)fr;ksa dh txg rkuk'kkgh o jkt'kkgh dh izòfr;ka c< jgh gSaA jk"Va dh lEifr dks cM+s iwath 'kkgksa dks HksaV fd;k tk jgk gSA jkT; viuh dY;k.kdkjh Hkwfedk ls iYyk >kM+ jgk gSA Jfedksa] efgykvksa] oafprksa] fiNM+ksa] vYila[;dksa] nfyrksa ij mRihM+u c<+ jgk gS vkSj muds vf/kdkj Nhus tk jgs gSaA vf/kdka'k jktuhfrd usrk o ikfVZ;ka equkQk[kksj iawthifr;ksa o 'kks"kdksa ds ,tsUV dh rjg dke dj jgh gSaA ,sls esa lekt ifjorZu ds bPNqdksa ds fy, MkWHkhejko vEcsM+dj ds izsj.kknk;h la?k"kZ'khy thou o ØkfUrdkjh fopkjksa ls nksLrh fugk;r izklafxd gSA** 2 58 lafo/kku ds ckjs esa os dgrs gS] ^^'kjhj ds igjkos ds fy, cuk;s x;s lwV dh rjg] lafo/kku Hkh ns'k ds ;ksX; gksuk pkfg,A ftl rjg detksj 'kjhj okys O;fDr ds diM+s esjs fy, Bhd ugha gS] mlh rjg ns'k ds fy, og dksbZ ykHk ugha igqap ldrk A yksdra= dk vFkZ gS cgqtu dk jkt A blfy, bl ns'k esa ;k rks fgUnqvksa dk jkt jgsxk ;k fQj bl cgqer dk ftlesa vNwr] vkfnoklh vkSj de tual[;k okys gSa] muds izfr D;k uhfr viukbZ tk;sxh] ;g egRoiw.kZ gSA**1⁄4ì351⁄2 3 ^^;g dgus ls ckr ugha curh fd gj iqjkuh ckr lksus ds cjkcj gksrh gSA ydhj ds Qdhj cuds dke ugha pyrk fd tks cki&nknk djrs vk;s gSa] og lc vkSykn dks Hkh djuk pkfg, A lkspus dk ;g rjhdk Bhd ugha gSA ifjfLFkfr ds cnyus ds lkFk&lkFk fopkj Hkh cnyus pkfg, ;g t:jh gSA** 1⁄4ì301⁄2 MkWvEcsMdj us vius xzaFk ^oq oj fn lqnjkt* fd Hkwfedk esa fy[kk gS] ^^,sfrgkfld lp dh [kkst djus ds fy, eSa ifo= /keZ xzUFkksa dk vuqokn djuk pkgrk gwaA blls fgUnqvksa ds irk py ldsxk fd muds lekt] ns'k ds iru vkSj fouk'k dk dkj.k cuk gS & bu /keks± ds fl)kUrA nwljh ckr ;g gS fd HkoHkwfr ds dFkukuqulkj dky vuar gS vkSj /kjrh vikj gS] dHkh u dHkh dksbZ ,slk bUlku iSnk gksxk] tks eSa dqN dg jgk g¡w] ml ij fopkj djsxk A bl xzaFk dks mUgksaus vk/kqfud Hkkjr ds lcls mÙke iq#"k T;ksfrck Qqys dks lefiZr fd;k gSÂ^ftu yksxksa dh tu&vkUnksyuksa esa :fp gS] mUgsa dsoy /kkfeZd n`f"Vdks.k viukuk NksM+ nsuk pkfg, A mUgsa Hkkjr ds yksxksa ds izfr lkekftd ,oa vkfFkZd n`f"Vdks.k gh viukuk gksxkA** os dgrs gSa] ^^gesa fdlh dk vk'khZokn ugha pkfg,A ge viuh fgEer] cqf) rFkk dk;Z ;ksX;rk ds cy ij vius ns'k rFkk vius fy;s iwjh yXu ds lkFk dke djsaxs A tks Hkh tkx`r gS] la?k"kZ djrk gS] mls var esa LFkk;h U;k; fey ldrk gSA** ^iwuk&,DV* esa pkgs nfyrksa dks ^fQjdw QSlys* ls de lgwyrsa feyh] ij blls Hkkjr ds bfrgkl esa vNwrksa dks oksV dk vf/kdkj] dsUnzh; vkSj izkUrh; fo/kku&lHkkvksa esa vius izfrfuf/k Hkstus] iqfyl HkrhZ] 'kSf{kd&lqfo/kk,a vkSj ukSdfj;ksa esa vkjf{kr LFkku izkIr gqvk A lfn;ksa ls ifNM+s] yrkMs+] vNwrksa] xqyke vius nq[k&nnZ dh dgkuh lqukus ;ksX; gq, A ;g ,d fcuk [kwu&[kjkcs ds ,slk badykc Fkk] tks vdsys MkWvEcsMdj dh ;ksX;rk] yxu] R;kx] esgur vkSj la?k"kZ ds dkj.k gh gqvk Fkk] ftuds dkj.k vNwrksa dh vktknh dh 'kq:vkr gqbZ A xka/kh vNwrksa ds /keZ ifjorZu djds muds eqlyeku ;k blkbZ cuus ds fy, rks rS;kj Fks] ij vNwrksa ds vyx vf/kdkjksa ds fy, lger ugha gq, A 4 ^^xka/kh ds ej.kozr ds dkj.k lkjk ns'k fgy x;k vkSj xka/kh th dh tku cpkus ds fy, pkjksa rjQ ls esjs Åij ncko Mkyk x;k A tku cpkus dk ,d gh mik; Fkk fd xka/kh dh bPNk ds vuqlkj iz/kkuea=h ds QSlys esa lq/kkj fd;k tk, A bl rjg eSa cM+s /keZ&ladV esa Qal x;k Fkk A ,d rks ns'k ds cgqr fderh thou dks cpkus dk loky Fkk vkSj nwljh rjQ gtkjksa lkyksa ls ihfM+r] lfr] vNwr turk ds vf/kdkjksa dh cfy nsuk A bl le; eSa ,slh uktqd fLFkfr esa Fkk] 'kk;n gh dksbZ vksj nwljk O;fDr gks A vxj eSa xka/kh th ds izk.k ugha cpkrk rks eq>s ns'k dh 'kakfr Hkax djus okyk vkSj ekuork dk nq'eu dgk tkrk vkSj esjs lkFk vNwrksa dks Hkh bl bYtke dk Hkkxh cuuk iM+rk A vUr esa] eSaus cM+s nq[kh eu ls xka/kh th dh 'krksZa ij le>kSrk Lohdkj fd;k] tks ^iwuk&,DV* ds uke ls e'kgwj gSa A** 5 Tkkfrokn ,oa ekuokf/kdkj lkekftd lqj{kk dh Hkkouk ekuo dks mlds vf/kdkj feyus dh fLFkfr esa vkrh gS A ekuokf/kdkjksa ls vfHkizk;] balku ds thou 1⁄4izk.k1⁄2] LorU=rk] lekurk rFkk xfjek ls lEcfU/kr ,sls vf/kdkjksa ls gS] tks Hkkjrh; lafo/kku }kjk ;k vUrjkZ"Vah; izlafo/kkvksa }kjk ekU; gSa vkSj ftudks Hkkjr ds U;k;ky;ksa esa ykxw fd;k tkrk gS A nwljs 'kCnksa esa lEekutud thou thus ds fy, t:jh vf/kdkjksa dks ekuo vf/kdkj dgrs gSa A ysfdu vxj ge Hkkjrh; lekt dh orZeku fLFkfr ns[krs gSa] rks ikrs gSa fd ekuokf/kdkjksa dk mYya?ku gksuk] ;gka ij vke ckr gS A vktkn Hkkjr ds lÙkklhu usrk o fpUrd ;gh ekurs jgs gSa fd vkfFkZd fodkl o f'k{kk ds izpkj&izlkj ds lkFk&lkFk tkfr izFkk o Nqvk&Nwr tSlh xyh&lM+h ijEijkvksa dk Lor% gh vUr gks tk;sxk] ysfdu mudh ;g lksp vc rd lgh lkfcr ugha gqbZ gS A bu cqjkbZ;ksa ds fo:) Bksl dne u mBkus ls mudks feVkus dk ladYi 59 dsoy ,d lñbPNk cudj jg x;k] cfYd vktknh ds ckn viukbZ xbZ vkfFkZd&lkekftd uhfr;ksa ls gq, vleku fodkl o iwokZxzgiw.kZ f'k{kk us bls vkSj etcwr fd;k A /khjs&/khjs tkfr&izFkk us Lo;a dks jktuhfrd bdkbZ ds rkSj ij laxfBr dj fy;k A tkfr&izFkk ds fo:) lkekftd vfHk;ku u pykus ds dkj.k gh lekt esa O;kIr tkfrxr nqjkxzg&iwokZxzgxzLr laLdkjksa] fopkjksa] ekU;rkvksa] fjoktksa o deZdk.M+ksa us lkekftd&lkoZtfud thou dks fdl rjg izHkkfor fd;k gS A 6 bldk Toyar izek.k gesa orZeku esa fyf[kr nfyr lkfgR; esa feyrk gS A vuqlwfpr tkfr ;k nfyr] tks Hkh dg fyft, budh leL;kvksa dh izd`fr lkekftd gS A lkekftd leL;k dk funku jktuhfrd] iz'kklfud ,oa vkfFkZd mik;ksa ls ugha fudkyk tk ldrk gS A dsUnz esa dY;k.k ea=ky;] x`g ea=ky; vkSj lHkh jkT;ksa esa dY;k.k foHkkxksa dh LFkkiuk dh xbZ gSA budk ewy dke gS nfyr dh leL;kvksa dk gy fudkyuk A Lok/khurk feyus ls vkt rd bu ek/;eksa ls bruk /ku O;; fd;k x;k gS fd vkt ;g leL;k ugha jguh pkfg, Fkh ijUrq leL;k gSA 7 buds /ku ls rFkkdfFkr Lo.kksZ vkSj dqN jktuhfrd vkSj iz'kklfud nfyrksa dks rks Qk;nk igqapk] tcfd okLrfod t:jreaan rks bu leL;kvksa ls vc Hkh tw> jgs gSa vkSj bu dY;k.kdkjh ;kstukvksa dh igqap ls cgqr nwj gS A vuqlwfpr tkfr@tutkfr 1⁄4vR;kpkj fuokj.k1⁄2 vf/kfu;e 1⁄4The Scheduled Caste/Tribe (Prevention of Attrocities1⁄2 Act 19891⁄2 dk eq[; mís'; mDr tkfr;ksa dks] rFkkdfFkr mPp tkfr;ksa ds vR;kpkjksa ls eqDr djokuk gS A ihfMr i{k] fu'kqYd dkuwuh lgk;rk dk ik= gS A nks"kh dks tqekZuk lfgr 6 ekg ls ikap o"kZ rd dh dSn gks ldrh gS A bu ekeyksa ds fy, izns'k esa fo'ks"k vnkyrksa dh O;oLFkk dh xbZ gS A dksbZ yksdlsod tks vuqlwfpr tkfr vFkok tutkfr ls lEcfU/kr u gks rFkk vf/kfu;e ds vuqlkj dÙkZO; ikyu u djs rks 6 ekg ls ,d o"kZ rd dSnlfgr tqekZuk gks ldrk gS A nks"kh }kjk] ftl py ;k vpy lEifÙk dk bLrseky] vR;kpkj djus esa fd;k gks og tCr gks ldrh gS A vnkyr] ml O;fDr dks nks o"kZ ds fy, fufnZ"V {ks= ls fu"dkf"kr jgus ds fy, vkns'k ns ldrh gS] tgka ml O;fDr }kjk dksbZ vR;kpkj djus dk vans'kk gks A 8 ysfdu okLrfodrk blds fcYdqy foifjr jgrh ghS D;ksafd bl ,DV dh dk;Zokgh gksus ls igys gh le>kSrs ;k lkekftd ncko ;k iz'kklfud nkoisap o lwpuk dk] ihfM+r dks vHkko gksus ds dkj.k ;g lc dkxth dk;Zokgh jg tkrk gS A lkewfgd cykRdkj ds nks"kh NwV tkrs gSa] lkewfgd vfXudk.M] uj&lagkj ds nks"kh ljsvke ?kwers gSa vkSj ljdkj o iz'kklu pqIih cka/ks j[krk gS A iwjs ns'k dh tula[;k esa izfr'kr ds fglkc ls vuqlwfpr tkfr;ksa dh lcls vf/kd tula[;k iatkc esa 1⁄42687%1⁄2] fgekpy izns'k esa 1⁄424-62%1⁄2] if'pe caxky esa 1⁄421-99%1⁄2] mÙkj izns'k esa 1⁄421-16%1⁄2] gfj;k.kk esa 1⁄419-07%1⁄2] rfeyukMw esa 1⁄418-35%1⁄2] jktLFkku esa 1⁄417-03%1⁄2] f=iqjk esa 1⁄415-12%1⁄2 gS A tcfd vU; jkT;ksa esa tula[;k dk izfr'kr 15 ls de gSA 9 efgyk mRihM+u ,d vke leL;k gS] cM+s ?kj dh vkSjrksa dk mRihM+u ?kj dh pkgj fnokjh ds vUnj rd lhfer gksrk gS A nfyr efgykvksa ds lkFk vUnj ckgj gj txg mRihM+u gksrk gS A ?kj esa ?kj ds yksxksa }kjk vkSj ckgj lekt }kjk D;ksafd os [ksrksa] [kfygkuksa esa dke djrh gSa A bu dk;ZLFkyksa ij mudk 'kks"k.k gksrk gS A bZV ds HkV~Bksa ij muds lkFk cykRdkj dh ?kVuk,a izk;% izfrosfnr gksrh gS ysfdu rFkkdfFkr mPp oxZ dh izHkkoh iapk;rksa o tkrh; usrkvksa dh feyh&Hkxr ls ihfM+r efgyk ds ifjokj ij ncko cuk;k tkrk gS vkSj dbZ ckj rks mudh gR;k rd dj nh tkrh gS A nwljk U;k; izfØ;k dh yEch vof/k ds gksus ds dkj.k ihfM+r yksx ekufld :i ls vkSj vkfFkZd :i ls izrkfM+r gksrs gSa A nqHkkZX; gS fd 'kklu&O;oLFkk vHkh rd dsoy vius oknksa ij [kM+h gS A tc rd mudks lkekftd leL;kvksa ls NqVdkjk ugha feysxk rc rd os nfyr gh jgsaxs A mudh cgq&csfV;ksa ds lkFk nqjkpkj gksrk jgsxk A tkfrxr lkEiznkf;drk dks c<+kok nsus okys usrkvksa us] laxBuksa us o jktuhfrd nyksa us dHkh tkfrokn ds f[kykQ vfHk;ku ugha pyk;kA gk¡] muds fy, tfVy fLFkfr vo'; jgh gS fd mudks tkfr;ksa esa caVk gqvk] ,d ds Åij ,d mPp tkfr okyk lekt Hkh pkfg, vkSj lkEiznkf;drk dh jktuhfr dks c<+kok nsus ds fy, lHkh tkfr;ksa dks ,d leqnk; dh igpku nsus okyk eap Hkh pkfg, A blh ckr dks bl rjg Hkh dg ldrs gSa fd lkEiznkf;d 'kfDr;ksa dks lkekftd :i ls tkfr;ksa esa foHkkftr lekt pkfg, vkSj jktuhfrd n`f"V ls lHkh ,d >.Ms ds rys Hkh A 10 60 okLrfodrk rks ;g Hkh gS fd nfyrksa dks viuk oksV nsus dh Hkh LorU=rk ugha gS] D;ksafd viuh xqtj clj ds fy, ftu yksxksa ds ?kjksa esa ;k [ksrksa esa os dke djrs gSa] os yksx mUgsa dke NqMokus vkSj vU; rjhdksa ls nck;s j[krs gSa A ;fn os yksx vius euekus <ax ls oksV ns Hkh nsrs gSa rks mudks ekjk&ihVk tkrk gS ?kjksa esa rksM+QksM dh tkrh gS A jktuhfrK vkSj iz'kklu ;g dgdj iYyk >kM+ ysrk gS fd ;g nks xqVksa dh fHkMUr ek= gS A nwljk igyw ;g Hkh gS fd mEehnokj rks vkilh lkB xk¡B ls lEcU/k etcwr dj ysrs gSa] ysfdu blesa filrs cspkjs nfyr gh gSa A Hkkjrh; lafo/kku }kjk izR;sd ukxfjd dks fuEufyf[kr ewy vf/kdkj fn;s x;s gSa] ftUgsa ekuo&vf/kdkjksa esa 'kkfey fd;k x;k gS& lekurk dk vf/kdkj] LorU=rk dk vf/kdkj]thou o O;fDrxr LorU=rk dk vf/kdkj]nks"k flf) ds fo:) vf/kdkj vkSj 'kks"k.k ds fo:) vf/kdkj A blh izdkj vUrjkZ"Vah; Lrj ij Hkh ekuokf/kdkjksa dks ekU;rk nh xbZ gS A tSls 1948 esa ekuokf/kdkjksa dh lkoZHkkSfed ?kks"k.kk 1⁄4Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 19481⁄2 vkSj 1993 esa ekuo vf/kdkjksa dh fo;uk ?kks"k.kk 1⁄4Viena Declaration of Human Rights1⁄2 bu ?kks"k.kkvksa esa ewy vf/kdkjksa ls lEcfU/kr vf/kdkjksa dk o.kZu gS A mnkgj.k ds rkSj ij efgykvksa ,oa ckfydkvksa dk 'kks"k.k ds fo:) vf/kdkj] vYila[;dksa dk lkaLd`frd&/kkfeZd ,oa Hkk"kk lEcU/kh vf/kdkj] 'kj.k ikus dk vf/kdkj] tkrh;rk ds HksnHkko dks [kRe djuk vkfn A 11 vkt dh okLrfod fLFkfr ;g gS fd tks Hkh yksx ekuokf/kdkj ds fy, la?k"kZ djrs gSa] og Hkh vlqjf{kr jgrs gSa rFkk mu ij >wBh dk;Zokfg;ak ;k iz'kklfud ncko Mkyk tkrk gS] ftuds ifj.kkeLo:i U;k;&izfØ;k dk igyk pj.k gh VwV tkrk gSA ekuokf/kdkfj;ksa dh lqj{kk ds fy, ekuokf/kdkj vk;ksx dk xBu jk"Vah; Lrj ij fd;k x;k gS A ysfdu mijksDr of.kZr rF; ekuokf/kdkj dh tkap dk fo"k; ugha curh gS D;ksafd os vuqlwfpr& tkfr dh gSa ;k nfyrksa ls lEcfU/kr gSa A vlekurk] HksnHkko] LokfHkeku dk 'kks"k.k] Lok/khurk dh ywV] cykRdkj] NwvkNwr tSls vijk/k D;k ekuokf/kdkjksa dk guu ugha gS\ bl oLrqfLFkfr dk o.kZu djus dk gekjk vfHkizk; gS fd bu leL;kvksa dk lgh fo'ys"k.k djrs gq, vko';d dne mBk;s x;s rkfd ge lgh :i esa ekuorkoknh] /keZ&fujis{krkoknh bR;kfn 'kCnksa dks vius ns'k o lekt ds lkFk yxkus esa xoZ eglwl djsa A ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd nfyr ,oa vU; fiNM+s oxksZ dh leL;kvksa dks lkekftd leL;kvksa dh rjg gh izLrqr fd;k tk,a u fd mUgsa jktuhfrd ,oa vkfFkZd eq[kkSVk iguk;k tk,a A U;k;&izfØ;k esa fujis{krk] f'k{kk dh Lok;rrk ,oa mijksDr fo"k;ksa ij bZekunkjh ls fpUru djus ij gh bu leL;kvksa dk lgh gy [kkstk tk ldrk gSA MkWvEcsM+dj dk n'kZu lekt dks leLr v'kqHk ,oa vfHk'kki ls eqDr dj Lok/khurk] lekurk vkSj Hkzkr`Ro ij vk/kkfjr lekt jpuk ds fy, izsfjr djrk gS A fopkj vkSj O;ogkj nksuksa gh Lrjksa ij vEcsM+dj vlekurk] vLì';rk] vf'k{kk] va/kfo'okl] vU;k;] vuSfrdrk tSls lkekftd v'kqHkksa ,oa vfHk'kkiksa ls yksgk ysrs gSa ,oa ,d ekuoh;] uSfrd ,oa U;k;fiz; lekt ds fuekZ.k dk vkg~oku djrs gSaA vEcsM+dj ,d ,sls lekt ds LoIu n`"Vk Fks] ftlesa euq"; vius foosd ls va/kfo'oklksa dk [k.Mu djrk gS] lekt vkSj izd`fr ds izfr oSKkfud ,oa foosdlEer n`f"Vdks.k viukrk gS vkSj /keZ'kkL=ksa esa D;k fy[kk gS] bldh fpUrk u djds ekuoh; uSfrdrk ,oa U;k; ds vkn'kks± ds vuq:i O;ogkj djrk gSA lanHkZ % 1Vijay Chintaman, "Dr. Ambedkar as a Humanist Sonawane" in Essays in Honour of Bharat Ratna Baba Saheb Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, p. 2. 2- ^^vEcsM+dj ls nksLrh** Hkkjr dh tuoknh ukStoku lHkk 1⁄4DYFI1⁄2] dq#{ks=&;equkuxj] 2008 3izLrqr fopkj iatkch esa vejthr flag dkax }kjk vuqokfnr MkWckck lkfgc vEcsMdj] us'kuy cqd VaLV] bafM+;k] 2000 ls ladfyr fd;s x;s gSa A 4For detail discussion see xka/kh vkSj vEcsM+dj in Milestone Education Review, Year 03, No.04 (April, 2012), pp.15-21 61 5MkW- ,l-,y-fojnh] ^^tc xka/kh us ^vNwrksa** dks T;knk vf/kdkj nsuss ds fo:) vkej.k&ozr fd;k ** v[kckj------------------cq/kokj] 6 vDrwcj 2006 laikndh iUuk dk iatkch ys[k ls fgUnh Hkkouqokn1⁄2 6lqHkk"k pUnz] nfyr vkRedFkk,¡ % vuqHko ls fparu] lkfgR; miØe] 2006] ì"B &11 7ft;k yky vk;Z] nfyr dgk¡ tk,¡] izdk'ku laLFkku] ubZ fnYyh] 2005] ì"B & 23 8MkW- ,l-,l- 'khyoar] vkids dkuwuh vf/kdkj] lkFkh izdk'ku] 2008] ì"B & 154 9ft;k yky vk;Z] nfyr dgka tk,a] ì"B & 26 10lqHkk"k pUnz] lkEiznkf;drk] lkfgR; miØe] 2006] ì"B & 63 11MkW- ,l-,l- 'khyoar] vkids dkuwuh vf/kdkj] ì"B & 136 62 11 xka/kh jfpr ^fgan LojkT;* iqLrd dk vkykspukRed v/;;u vkpk;Z 'khyd jke 1857 bZñ ds i'pkr~ dk Hkkjr eas ew<+rkvksa] uknkfu;ksa] cpius ,oa fo'okl?kkr dk ,d yack bfrgkl ekStwn gSA mPp dksfV dks dgs tkus okys usrk ewY;ghu lkfcr gq,] dqVuhfrK dgs tkus okys vrqyuh; egku yksx ns'k ds fy, fouk'kdkjh fl) gq,] egkiq#"k dgs tkus okys yksx fo'okl?kkrh o rq"Vhdj.k ds vorkj dgykus yxs] uhfr o vkpj.k dk >aMk nqfu;k esa cqyan djus ns'k ds d.kZ/kkjksa us nqfu;k ds ekufp= ij Hkkjr dh tedj feV~Vhiyhr djokbZ] vfgalk o lR; ds uke ij yk[kksa yksxksa dks ekSr ds ?kkV mrkj fn;k x;k] jk"Vafirk&pkpk&rkÅ dgykus okyksa us ns'k dks 'kq: ls var rd csodwfQ;ksa ds Hkaoj esa Qalk, j[kk] fo'oxq# o lksus dh fpfM+;k dks vui<+ o vikfgr cukus ds vusd dqpØ jpus ds fjdkMZ dk;e fd, x,] ns'k dk /ku ywVdj fons'kh cSadksa esa tek djokdj Hkz"Vkpkj dh lkjh lheka, rksM+ nh xbZ rFkk lkS 1⁄41001⁄2 o"kZ esa os ?kksVkys o dqÑR; fd, tks 1235 o"kZ dh Hkkjr dh xqykeh ds nkSjku fons'kh vkØkark Hkh ugha dj ik, Fks A Hkkjrh;rk dks nqf"kr] dyafdr ,oa fou"V djus gsrq bu nq"Vksa o Hk"eklqjksa us dksbZ dlj ugha NksM+ j[kh gS A blh Øe esa lu~ 1909 bZñ esa fy[kh xka/kh dh iqLrd ^fgan LojkT;* Hkh mYys[kuh; gS A xka/kh dks ekuus okys u rks bl iqLrd o bldh fopkj/kkjk dk fojks/k dj jgs gSa] u leFkZu dj jgs gSa rFkk u gh nksuksa dk;Z ,d lkFk dj jgs gSa ysfdu xka/kh ds uke dk lgkjk ysdj ns'k dks csodwQ [kwc cuk;k tk jgk gS A nsf[k, dqN uewus tks xka/kh dh iqLrd ^fgan LojkT;* ls m)`r fd, x, gSas & 1ssjsy ;k vLirkyksa dk ukjk djus dk /;s; esjs eu esa ugha gS] vxj ;s mudk dqnjrh ukjk gks rks eSa t:j mldk Lokxr d:axk A jsy ;k vLirky nksuksa esa ls ,d Hkh Åaph vkSj fcYdqy 'kq) laLÑfr dh lwpd ugha gS A T;knk ls T;knk bruk dg ldrs gSa fd ;g ,d ,slh cqjkbZ gS] tks Vkyh ugha tk ldrh AÞ 1⁄4fgan LojkT; ds ckjs esa] ìñ 261⁄2 xka/kh iwjk thou jsyksa esa ;k=k djds viuh fopkj/kkjk dk izpkj djrs jgs rFkk mUgha jsyksa dks ikuh ih&ihdj xfy;ka Hkh nsrs jgs A ,d egkiq#"k dgs tkus okys O;fDr ds thou esa bl izdkj dk fojks/kkHkkl fdlh Hkh n`f"Vdks.k ls lgh ugha dgk tk ldrk A dlwj jsyksa dk u gksdj jsy esa ;k=k djus okyksa dh ekufldrk dk gS vkSj xka/kh Hkh muesa ls ,d gS A vjs! rduhdh lk/kuksa dk lnqi;ksx djds larqfyr rjDdh ls vkxs c<+rs tkvks & ;gh rks lgh fodkl dk ewy ea= gS A 2ssvxj esjs fopkj xyr lkfcr gksa] rks mUgsa idM+ j[kus dk esjk vkxzg ugha gS AÞ 1⁄4izLrkouk] ìñ 291⁄2 ysfdu D;k xka/kh ds f'k"; ,slk dj jgs gSA\ os rks xyr&lgh dk fopkj fd, cxSj vka[ksa o cqf) dks can djds xka/kh dk leFkZu djus dh ckrsa fd;k djrs gSa] gkaykfd ,slk os Lo;a Hkh ugha djrs gSa A tc xka/kh Lo;a ;g dg jgs gSa fd xyr fl) gksus okys esjs fopkjksa dks Lohdkj u djks rks fQj xka/khoknh D;ksa ns'k dks xM~<ksa esa /kdsy jgs gSa\ mnkgj.k ds fy, ns'k dh j{kk] ns'k dh ,drk o vkradokn ij jksdFkke yxkus esa xka/kh dh [kks[kyh vfgalk o izse dh uhfr lQy ugha gqbZ rks vc bls xka/khokn ds vuqlkj R;kx D;ksa ugha fn;k tkrk gS A xka/khokfn;ksa esa ,slh fgEer\ 3ssftls vki lgh tkx`fr ekurs gSa og rks cax&Hkax ls gqbZ] ftlds fy, ge ykMZ dtZu ds vkHkkjh gSa AÞ 1⁄4ìñ 71⁄2 ns'k ls izse djus okyksa ls xka/kh dks bruk }s"k D;ksa gS fd os cax&Hkax dh mYVh O;k[;k djds ykMZ dtZu dh iz'kalk djus ls vius vkidks ugha jksd ik jgs gS\ Økafrdkfj;ksa us tks dqckZfu;ka nh Fkh mudk dksbZ egRo ugha gS D;k\ xeZ ny okyksa dh gj le; fuank djuk dgka dh le>nkjh gS\ Hkkjrokfl;ksa esa tkx`fr ik'pkR; izHkko ls Lohdkj djuk ijys ntsZ dh ew[kZrk gS A 4ss;s tks nks ny gq, gSa og ns'k ds fy, vPNh fu'kkuh ugha gS &&& ,sls ny yacs vjls rd pysaxs ugha AÞ 1⁄4ìñ 691⁄2 63 nks ny gksuk ;k vyx&vyx gksdj dksbZ Hkh vkUnksyu pykuk ;fn lgh ugha gS rks fQj rkuk'kkgh 1⁄4,dnyh;1⁄2 gh lgh gks ldrh gS A ,d&nyh; O;oLFkk esa ml ny&fo'ks"k dh euekuh gh pyrh gS A ogka ij Lora=rk dks dksbZ LFkku ugha gksrk gS A xka/kh dh ekusa rks fgVyj dh O;oLFkk gh lgh gks ldrh gS D;ksafd ogka ij ,d ny dh O;oLFkk gh gksrh gS A yksdrkaf=d dgk tkusokyk dksbZ Hkh O;fDr ,dnyh; O;oLFkk dk leFkZu ugha dj ldrk A eSa gh dsoy lgh gw¡] ckdh lc xyr gSa & xka/kh th dh bl lksp us Hkkjr dks dkQh uqdlku fd;k gS A 5ssge ekaxrs gSa mruk vaxzst gesa ns nsa] rks fQj mUgsa fudky nsus dh t:jr vki le>rs gSa\ &&& vxj os /ku ckgj u ys tk,a] uez cu tk,a vkSj gesa cM+s vksgns nsa] rks muds jgus esa vkidks dqN gtZ gS\Þ 1⁄4ìñ 10&111⁄2 fdlh u fdlh izdkj ls vaxzst] vaxzsth o vaxzsft;r dk leFkZu djuk xka/kh dh viuh fo'ks"krk gS A vius nq'euksa ls izse djus dh xka/kh th dh lksp us iwjs thou esa ,d Hkh nq'eu dk fny ifjofrZr ugha fd;k A nq"V O;fDr dsoy nq"Vrk dh Hkk"kk gh le>rs gSa] izse dh ugha A fiNys 65 o"kZ ls ikfdLrku ds izfr xka/khoknh lksp us ikfdLrku dks fdruk cnyk gS\ tks ftl izdkj ls le>rk gks mls mlh izdkj ls le>kus esa gh le>nkjh gS A lc O;fDr;ksa ls ,d gh Hkk"kk esa ckrsa djuk ew[kZrk o vYiKrk dh igpku gS A ge mu O;fDr;ksa dks vius ns'k esa jgus dh vkKk D;ksa ns tks 200 o"kZ ls bldks ywVrs vk, gSa\ xka/kh us vius ?kj esa fdrus yksxksa dks iukg nh gqbZ Fkh\ ;k fdlh O;fDr }kjk tcju xka/kh ds ?kj ij vf/kdkj dj ysus ij D;k xka/kh dk fQj Hkh ;gh mÙkj gksrk\ 6ssfganqLrku vaxzstksa us fy;k lks ckr ugha gS] cfYd geus mUgsa fn;k gS A fganqLrku esa os vius cy ls ugha fVds gSa] cfYd geusa mUgsa fVdk j[kk gS AÞ 1⁄4ìñ 211⁄2 xka/kh ;g ,d rjQk ckr dj jgs gSa A Bhd gS fd dqN gekjs gh Hkkb;ksa us vaxzstksa dk lkFk nsdj jk"Va ds lkFk xíkjh dh Fkh ysfdu bldk ;g vFkZ fudkyuk fd geus gh mudks fVdkdj j[kk gqvk gS ;g iwjh rjg ls lgh ugha gS A Hkkjr esa vaxzstksa dk fojks/k Hkh rks gks jgk Fkk A ysfdu xka/kh ogka ij csotg vius HkksFkjs vL=ksa vfgalk] lR;kfn dks ?kqlsM+ nsrs gSa A vkSj FkksM+h nsj ds fy, mudh ckr lp Hkh eku yh tk, rks D;k vc Hkh mudks ;gka fVdk, j[kuk t:jh gS\ dksbZ gekjk 'kks"k.k D;ksa djs\ dksbZ ge ij fgalk D;ksa djs\ fdlh ij fgalk djuk xyr gS rks mlls Hkh vf/kd xyr nwljksa dh fgalk dks lgu djuk gS A 7ssfganqLrku dks jsyksa us] odhyksa us vkSj MkWDVjksa us daxky cuk fn;k gS A ;g ,d ,slh gkyr gS fd vxj ge le; ij ugha laHkysaxs] rks pkjks vksj ls f?kjdj cckZn gks tk,axs AÞ 1⁄4ìñ 271⁄2sseuq"; jsyxkM+h dk iz;ksx djds Hkxoku~ dks Hkwy x;k AÞ1⁄4ìñ 311⁄2 D;k tc jsysa ugha Fkh rks lHkh yksx Hkxoku~ dks ;kn djrs Fks\ jsy ls Hkxoku~ dks ;kn djuk ;k mls Hkwy tkus dk D;k laca/k gs\ dkSu ls 'kkL= esa fy[kk gS ;g fd jsy Hkxoku~ dks Hkwyk nsrh gSa\ jsyksa esa iwjs thou ?kwers jgs rFkk mUghsa dh fuank Hkh djrs jgs & ;g gS gekjs jk"Vafirk dh lksp A ukfLrd O;fDr jsy dh [kkst ls iwoZ Hkh [kwc Fks rFkk vkfLrd O;fDr vkt Hkh [kwc gSa A vkt ls ikap gtkj o"kZ iwoZ pkokZd Hkh ukfLrd gh FksA ml le; rks jsyxkfM+;k¡ ugha Fkha A xka/khoknh gh tkus fd bl rjg dh mFkyh ckrksa esa fdruh xgjkbZ gS \ 8sstc vaxzst fganqLrku esa ugha Fks rc ge ,d jk"Va Fks] gekjs fopkj ,d Fks] gekjk jgu&lgu ,d Fkk A rHkh rks vaxzstksa us ;gka ,d jkT; dk;e fd;k A Hksn rks gekjs chp ckn esa mUgksaus iSnk fd, AÞ1⁄4ìñ 291⁄2 ;gka irk ugha xka/kh D;ksa vaxzstksa ds fojks/k esa cksyus dks foo'k gks x,\ xka/kh] xka/khoknh o muds lg;ksxh rks ;gh ekurs Fks fd Hkkjr ,d jk"Va dHkh ugha Fkk A vaxzstksa us gh gesa jk"Va gksuk fl[kyk;k A ge rks tkfgy o xaokj Fks 'kq: ls gh A oSls 'kk;n irk rks xka/kh dks Hkh ;k fd nks"kh dkSu gS] vktknh vfgalk ls ugha fey ldrh rFkk vaxzst nq"V izòfÙk ds gS ysfdu jktuhfrd dkj.kksa ls xka/kh us dHkh Hkh lPpkbZ dks Lohdkj djus dh fgEer ugha fn[kykbZ A dk'k! lR; ds elhgk dgs tkus okys lR; dks Lohdkj dj ysrs A 64 9ssxk; dh j{kk djus dk ;gh ,d mik; gS fd eq>s vius eqlyeku HkkbZ ds lkeus gkFk tksM+us pkfg, vkSj mls ns'k dh [kkfrj xk; dh j{kk gsrq le>kuk pkfg, A vxj jg u ekus rks eq>s xk; dks ejus nsuk pkfg,] D;ksafd og esjs cl ch ckr ughaA vxj eq>s xk; ij vR;ar n;k vkrh gks rks viuh tku ns nsuh pkfg,] ysfdu eqlyeku dh tku ugha ysuh pkfg, A ;gh /kkfeZd dkuwu gS] ,slk eSa ekurk gw¡ AÞ 1⁄4ìñ 331⁄2 bLykeh rq"Vhdj.k dh blls cM+h fe'kky vkSj dkSu lh gks ldrh gS & ikBd fopkj djsa\ eqlyekuksa dks [kq'k djus ds fy, xka/kh fdlh Hkh vR;kpkj dks 1⁄4fgnqavksa ij djus gsrq rRij gks ldrs gSa A fganqvksa ds lkFk fdruk Hkh ?k`f.kr dqdeZ D;ksa u gks jgk gks] xka/kh dqdeZ djus okys dks vfgalk o lR; dk ,d 'kCn Hkh u cksysaxs ysfdu eqlyekuksa ij ;fn vR;kpkj u Hkh gks jgk gks rks Hkh xka/kh fganqvksa dks vfgalk] HkkbZpkjs o izse dk ikB i<+k nsaxsA dSlh ekufldrk dks ysdj xka/kh ;g lc djrs Fks & euksoSKkfud tkusa] ;ksxkpk;Z tkusa ;k Lo;a xka/kh gh tkusa A xka/kh dks eqlyekuksa }kjk xk; dk o/k Hkh Lohdk;Z gS ysfdu fganqvksa }kjk viuh j{kk djuk ek= Hkh Lohdk;Z ugha gS & ;g dSlh uSfrdrk o /kkfeZdrk gS xka/kh dh\ xka/kh th /kkfeZd dkuwu blh dks Lohdkj djrs gSa A ysfdu fopkj.kh; ;g gS fd ,sls rks fdlh ns'k dk 'kklu py gh ugha ldrk A fdlh Hkh fopkj/kkjk dksbZ gS rFkk fdlh dh fopkj/kkjk dksbZ A xks[kys dqN dgsaxs] ukSjksth dqN dgsaxs] usg: dqN dgsaxs A lqHkk"k dqN dgsaxs rFkk lkojdj dqN dgsaxs A ysfdu dsoy xka/kh dh gh D;ksa lquh tk, & lqHkk"k o lkojdj dh D;ksa ugha\ 10ssvLirky iki dh tM+ gSa A mudh cnkSyr yksx 'kjhj dk tru de djrs gSa] vkSj vuhfr dks c<+krs gSa AÞ1⁄4ìñ 411⁄2 blls vf/kd ew<+rkiw.kZ lksp vkSj D;k gks ldrh gS fd nqfu;k ls fpfdRld o fpfdRlky; gh lekIr gks tk,a A dksbZ Hkh le>nkj O;fDr bl lksp dk D;k leFkZu dj ldrk gs\ ysfdu yksxksa dh thou'kSyh nsf[k, fd bruh vO;kogkfjd lksp ds gksrs gq, Hkh lkekU; O;fDr D;k cM+s&cM+s fpard Hkh xka/kh dk fojks/k ugha djrs gSa A viuh ckgjh o Hkhrjh vka[ksa can djds LokFkZo'k o vKkuo'k&yksx bl rjg ew<+ nqfu;k esa dgha ugha feysaxs A iki rks tgka vLirky ugha gSa ogka Hkh gksrs gSaA budk vLirkyksa ds gksus ;k u gksus ls dksbZ laca/k dSls gks ldrk gS\ O;fDr iwjh rjg ls izkÑfrd ugha gks ldrk( FkksM+h&cgqr Ñf=erk rks t:jh gksrh gh gS A fcekfj;ka u gksa ;g vPNk gS ijarq nq?kZVukvksa esa 'kjhj dks pksaV rks yx gh ldrh gs] ,sls volj ij vLIkrky u gksaxs rks fpfdRlk dSls gks ldsxh\ xka/kh dk ;g vfrokn [krjukd o vO;ogkfjd gS A D;k xka/khoknh Hkh dksbZ bl ij vc py jgk gS\ fnu&jkr xka/kh dh jV yxkus okys vLirkyksa esa iM+s jgrs gSA 11ssgekjh viuh xqykeh feV tk, rks fganqLrku dh xqykeh feV xbZ ,slk eku ysuk pkfg, A & ge vius Åij jkT; djsa ogh LojkT; gSa] vkSj og LojkT; gekjs gFksyh esa gS AÞ 1⁄4ìñ 471⁄2 jk"Va dh vktknh gsrq ;g xka/kh dh cgqr cM+h rFkk u iwjh gksus okyh 'krZ gS A ;g 'krZ iwjh gks ugha gks ldrh rFkk ns'k vktkn ugha gks ldsxk A lkekU;tu ls egku ;ksxh vkSj og Hkh ,dne ls cuus dh vlaHko vk'kk xka/kh D;ksa yxk, gq, gSa\ vkSj fQj D;k xka/kh us Lo;a bl ^LojkT;* dh izkfIr dj yh Fkh\ muds thou ij /;ku nsus ls ,slk dksbZ Hkh ladsr ugha feyrk gSA xka/kh mu dk;ks± dks djus gsrq mÙksftr djrs gSa ftuls O;fDr dk vge~ [kwc iksf"kr gksrk gks A ;fn mudh ^LojkT;* dh vo/kkj.kk dks eku fy;k tk, rks fQj xka/kh us ns'k dh vktknh gsrq ^Hkkjr NksM+ks* vkfn vkUnksyu D;ksa pyk,\ gjsd O;fDr dks vius jkT; dh izkfIr Lo;a gh djuh gS A okLro esa xka/kh ds fopkj vO;ogkfjd rks Fks gh] blds lkFk gh os vfLFkj ,oa iy&iy ifjorZu'khy Hkh Fks A os dc D;k dg ns& fdlh dks D;k xka/kh dks Lo;a ij gh Hkjkslk ugha Fkk A bl rjg dh fopkj/kkjk ds izk/kkU; ds dkj.k ge vkt nqfu;k ds lokZf/kd Hkz"V] xjhc o Lo;a ds jk"Va ds lkFk ?kkr djus okys cu x, gSa A 12ss[kwu djds tks yksx jkt djsaxs] os iztk dks lq[kh ugha cuk ldsaxs A /khaxjk us tks [kwu fd;k gS mlls ;k tks [kwu fganqLrku esa gq, gSa muls ns'k dks Qk;nk gqvk gS] ,slk vxj dksbZ ekurk gS rks ;g cM+h Hkwy djrk gS AÞ1⁄4ìñ 511⁄2 ;g ckr xka/kh th dsjy Hkkjrh;ksa ij ykxw djrs gSa & bZlkbZ;ksa o eqlyekuksa ij ugha A vaxzstksa o eqlyeku geykojksa us Hkkjr esa tks jDrikr fd;k rFkk ns'k esa rckgh epkbZ] mldh fe'kky nqfu;k esa dgha ugha 65 feyrh A xka/kh dks Hkxr flag] fcfLey] /khaxjk o lqHkk"k }kjk QSyk;h tk jgh fgalk o jDrikr rks fn[kyk, iM+rs gSa ysfdu vaxzstksa o eqlyekuksa }kjk izk;ksftr vkrad] minzo] jDrikr] uj&lagkj o [kwu fn[kyk, ugha iM+rs A dSls egkRek Fks xka/kh th\ mudh varjkRek dh vkokt Hkh vñHkwr Fkh tks lnSo Hkkjr ds fojksf/k;ksa ds "kM~;a=ksa esa Hkh Hkkjr dk dY;k.k ryk'k djus dks rRij jgrh Fkh A ns'knzksfg;ksa dks ekjus&dkVus esa dksbZ iki ugha gS A ml le; xeZ ny okyksa }kjk ns'k dh vktknh gsrq tks vkUnksyu pyk, tk jgs Fks ;fn xka/kh muesa ck/kk u Mkyrs rks vkt Hkkjr dh rLohj bruh Hkz"V] dq:i ,oa fo'okl?kkriw.kZ u gksrh A xka/kh dks vkn'kZ ekuus okys gh ywV jgs gSa ns'k dks A vf/kdka'k ,sls usrkvksa ij Hkz"Vkpkj ds vkjksi yxs gSa A ysfdu U;k;&O;oLFkk dh detksfj;ksa dk ykHk mBkdj os iwjs ns'k dk etkd mM+k jgs gSa A 13ssvkids fy, vPNk jkLrk rks ;gh gS fd tc ekSdk feys rc vki ml vkneh ds Hkhrj ls pksjh dk cht gh fudky nsa AÞ1⁄4ìñ 561⁄2 ek= dg nsus ls rks dqN gkfly ugha gksrk gS A D;k xka/kh dj ik, bldks\ xka/kh vius iwjs thou D;k ,d Hkh O;fDr ds eu ls pksjh] tkjh] fgalkfn ds fopkjksa dks fudky ikus esa lQy gks ik, Fks\ ,slk dksbZ mnkgj.k vktknh ls iwoZ rFkk vktknh ds i'pkr~ ds Hkkjrh; bfrgkl esa ugha feyrk A gka] ;g izek.k t:j feyrs gSa fd muds dbZ m|ksxifr vuq;kf;;ksa us viuh nkSyr dks gtkjksa xquk dj fy;k gS A ;g ÑR; mUgksaus yksxksa dk [kwu pwldj] ns'k ds lkFk xíkjh djds rFkk pksjh djds gh fd;k gS A tc xka/kh th gh pksjh ds fopkj dks fdlh ds eu ls ugha fudky ik, rks vU;ksa O;fDr;ksa dh D;k rkdr fd os bl ÑR; esa lQy gks ik,a A mins'k nsuk ,d ckr gS rFkk mu ij pydj lQyrk izkIr djuk fcYdqy vU; ckr gS A fQj gj fcekjh dk ,d gh bZykt ugha gksrk gS A LFkwy cqf) o nqcqZf) O;fDr twÙkksa dh Hkk"kk le>rs gSa] vfgalk o lR; dh ugha A xka/kh rks ikfdLrku dk eu Hkh ugha cny ik, fQj os fdl rjg ls bl izdkj ds nkos dj jgs gSA\ dqN Hkh dgdj mls varjkRek dh vkokt fl) dj nsuk xka/kh dh vknr Fkh A 14sslR;kxzg dk mnkgj.k & n;k /keZ dk ewy gS] ikiewy vfHkeku AÞ1⁄4ìñ 591⁄2 ß'kjhj cy dk iz;ksx djuk] xksyk&ck#n dke esa ykuk] gekjs lR;kxzg dkuwu ds f[kykQ gS AÞ 1⁄4ìñ 631⁄2 ßlR;kxzg ds fy, tks fgEer vkSj cgknqjh pkfg,] og rksi dk cy j[kus okys ikl gks gh ugha ldrh &&& os 1⁄4xeZny okys1⁄2 [kqn tc vaxzstksa dks ekjdj jkT; djsaxs rc vkils vkSj gels tcju dkuwu euokuk pkgsaxs AÞ 1⁄4ìñ 641⁄2 ysfdu ;gk¡ rqylh us ;g rks dgha Hkh ugha dgk gS fd tc nq"V] vkrrk;h o vkradoknh vki o vkids jk"Va dks gkfu igqapk,a rks Hkh n;k dks ugha NksM+uk pkfg, A xka/kh ckrsa rks dj jgs gSa egf"kZ iratfy jfpr ^;ksxlw=* dh rFkk ml izdkj dh lk/kuk ls os drbZ 'kwU; FksA bl fojks/kkHkkl o /kkyesy us lkjk xqM+&xkscj dj fn;k A fo'ofotsrk igyoku dk gkFk ;fn fdlh lkekU; O;fDr ls feyok fn;k tk, rks tks ifj.kke fudysxk] og lcds lkeus gSA vfgalk] lR;] vpkS;Z] vu'ku o miokl dh tks nqxZfr Hkkjr esa gks pqdh gS ;k gks jgh gS] mldh fe'kky fo'o esa dgha Hkh u feysxh A ;fn lR;kxzg o vfgalk rFkk rksi ds cy dk lgh iz;ksx xka/kh th djrs rks 'kk;n Hkkjr vkt dh rjg cnuke u gksrk A xeZ ny okyksa ij xka/kh th us tks vaxzstksa dh rjg Øwj gksus dk vkjksi yxk;k gS og ueZ ny okyksa ds laca/k esa lR; fl) gks jgk gS A vktknh ds ckn uje ny okys gh lÙkk eas jgs gSa rFkk tks ywV&[klksV mUgksaus bl ns'k esa epkbZ gS og vrqyuh; gSA 15sstgk¡ gqDe ekuus okyksa us lR;kxzg djuk lh[kk gS ogka jktk dk rqYe mldh rhu xt dh ryokj ls vkxs ugha tk ldrkAÞ 1⁄4ìñ 651⁄2 xka/kh dh ;g iafDr;ka ,d ckj ugha vfirq vusdksa ckj xyr fl) gks pqdh gSa A vkSj fdlh dh ckr jgus nks rFkk xka/kh dk gh mnkgj.k ys yks A xka/kh rks gqDe ekudj lR;kxzg djus okyksa esa Fks fQj Hkh vaxzstksa o eqlyekuksa ds tqYe ds vusd ckj os f'kdkj gq, A tc xka/kh tSlk lR;kxzgh gh lPpk lkR;kzgh u gks ldk rks vU; lkekU;tu dSls lR;kxzgh gks ik,saxs&;g ;k rks Lo;a xka/kh tkus ;k muds xq# VkYLVk; vkfn tkusa A blh rjg dh lksp us Hkkjr dk dkQh fgLlk phu dks ns fn;k rFkk d'ehj dk dkQh fgLlk ikfdLrku ds dCts esa gS A 1948] 1962 o 1971 esa Hkkjrh xk¡/kh dh lR;] vfgalk] lR;kxzg o vu'ku dh uhfr;ksa ds nq"ifj.kke cqjh rjg ls Hkqxr pqdk gS rFkk Hkqxr Hkh jgk gS A dk'k! Hkkjr esa xka/kh dh ;g iqLrd ^fgan LojkT;* fy[kh gh u tkrh A 66 16sslR;kxzgh dks larku iSnk djus dh bPNk ugha gksuh pkfg,AÞ 1⁄4ìñ 671⁄2 ;fn ;g lR; gS rks vkt rd lPpk lR;kxzgh dksbZ gqvk gh ugha gS rFkk Lo;a xka/kh Hkh lPp lR;kxzgh ugha Fks A xka/kh dh dbZ larkusa Fkha A fQj larku iSnk djus rFkk lR;kxzgh gksus ;k u gksus esa laca/k gks Hkh dSls ldrk gS A ;g dqrdZ rks ml cw<+h vkSjr ds dqrdZ dh rjg gS tks mlds xkao okyksa ds lkFk >xM+k gksus ds dkj.k ml xkao dks NksM+dj pyh xbZ Fkh rFkk lw;ksZn; gksus ij dg jgh Fkh fd vc xkao okys muds ogka lw;ksZn; u gksus ls iNrk jgs gksaxs D;ksafd ftl eqxsZ dh ckax ls lw;ksZn; gksrk Fkk og rks og vius lkFk ys vkbZ gS A 17ssxjhch dks viukus dh Hkh t:jr gS A iSls dk yksHk vkSj lR;kxzg dk lsou&ikyu dHkh ugha py ldrs AÞ 1⁄4ìñ 671⁄2 xka/kh ds bl xjhch ds fl)kar us Hkh Hkkjr esa c[ksM+k [kM+k fd;k gS A muds vuq;kf;;ksa rFkk vU; Hkkjrh;ksa us bl xjhch ds fl)kar dks tcjnLrh viukus dh dksf'k'k dh ftlls fd mUgsa dkQh dqN neu djuk iM+k A ml neu dk cnyk vc xka/khoknh cM+s&cM+s ?kksVkys djds ys jgs gSa A gj fnu yk[kksa djksM+ dk ?ksVkyk fd;k tkuk lk/kkj.k lh ckr gks xbZ gS A ;gka rd fd muds usrk 70 yk[k ds ?kksVkys dks ?kksVkyk ugha ekurs rFkk dgrs gSa fd ;fn 70 djksM+ dk xksyeky gksrk rks ?kksVkyk dgk tkrk A 70 yk[k dk ?kksVkyk dksbZ ?kksVkyk ugha gS A ^e/;e iFk* dh lh[k ;fn xka/kh th nsrs rks ckr gh dqN vkSj gksrh A 18ssml vkneh us lPph f'k{kk ikbZ gS] ftldh cqf)] 'kq)] 'kkar o U;k;n'khZ gS A mlus lPph f'k{kh ikbZ gS ftldk eu dqnjrh dkuwuksa ls Hkjk gqvk gS vkSj bafnz;ka mlds o'k esa gSa] ftuds eu dh Hkkouk,a fcYdqy 'kq) gS AÞ 1⁄4ìñ 701⁄2 bl n`f"Vdks.k ls rks xka/kh Hkh lPph f'k{kk ugha ik lds FksA bl dlkSVh ij dksbZ Hkh O;fDr [kjk ugha mrj ldrk] Lo;a xka/kh Hkh ugha A xka/kh bl izdkj dh vfroknh ,oa vO;ogkfjd ckrsa djds Hkkjr dks ,d ,slk <ksax o ik[kaM dk jksx ns x, gSa ftldh fpfdRlk vkt Hkh ugha gqbZ gS rFkk iwjk Hkkjr bldh fxj¶r esa gSA xka/kh thou ds vafre o"kks± esa Hkh viuh bfUnz;ksa ij dkcw ikus esa lQy ugha gks ik, Fks & thou ds 'kq: o e/; esa rks os lnSo vlQy jgs gh Fks A 19ssftl f'k{kk dks vaxzstksa us Bqdjk fn;k og gekjk Ükàxkj curh gS] ;g tkuus yk;d gS AÞ1⁄4ìñ 721⁄2 gekjh dakxzsl dk dkjksckj Hkh vaxzsth esa pyrk gS A vxj ,slk yacs le; rd pyk] rks esjk ekuuk gS fd vkus okyh ih<+h gekjk frjLdkj djsxh vkSj mldk 'kki gekjh vkRek dks yxsxk AÞ1⁄4ìñ 731⁄2 ;g 'kki Hkkjr dh vkRek dks yx pqdk gS A Hkkjr ij vaxzsth Hkk"kk iwjh rjg ls lokj gS A dkaxzsl] ftldks xka/kh thou Hkj [kqjkd&ikuh nsrs jgs Fks mlus vaxzsth Hkk"kk] vaxzsth O;ogkj] vaxzsth dkuwu o vaxzsth f'k{kk dks Hkkjr ij bl rjg ls ykn fn;k gS fd leLr Hkkjrh; laLÑfr] bldk n'kZu&'kkL=] blds thou&ewY; o Hkkjr jk"Va [krjs esa iM+ pqdk gS A xka/kh o xka/kh dh dkaxzsl bl iki gsrq iwjh rjg ls ftEesokj gS A Hkkjrh; 'kkL=ksa dh euekuh O;k[;k,a xka/kh ds lkeus Hkh gks jgh Fkha] Hkkjr dks ml le; Hkh lisjksa dk ns'k if'peh fo}ku dg jgs Fks rFkk xka/kh ds le; Hkh vf/kdka'k Hkkjr ds dkuwu Hkkjr dks yacs le; rd xqyke j[kus dh ekufldrk ds dkj.k fufeZr fd, x, Fks A vkt Lo;a xka/kh dh f'k{kkvksa ds dkj.k vusd izdkj ds O;FkZ ds c[ksM+s [kM+s gks x, gSa & ftudk dksbZ lek/kku fudyrk fn[kykbZ ugha iM+ jgk gS A 20sslkjs fganqLrku ds fy, tks Hkk"kk pkfg,] og rks fganh rks gksuh pkfg, mls mnwZ ;k ukxjh esa fy[kus dh NwV gksuh pkfg, AÞ1⁄4ìñ 741⁄2 gksuk rks irk ugha D;k&D;k pkfg,] ysfdu gks rks ugha jgk gSA dg rks lc nsrs gSa ysfdu djrk dksbZ gS gh ugha A xka/kh th dk Hkkjrh; jktuhfr ij bruk izHkko Fkk fd os tks pkgs og djok ldrs Fks A xka/kh th ;fn lPps ân; ,oa iwjs ladYi ls fganh dks jk"VaHkk"kk cuokus dk ladYi djrs rks fganh vo'; gh Hkkjr dh jk"VaHkk"kk cu tkrh A tks O;fDr fganh dh ckr Hkh vaxzsth esa mBk,sxk og fganh dk D;k Hkyk djsxk\ fdlh Hkh rjg ls vaxzst [kq'k jgsa] eqlyeku [kq'k jgsa rFkk mudh vuki&'kuki ekaxsa ekuh tkrh jgsa & ;gh n'kZu&'kkL= gS xka/kh dk A xka/khoknh vktknh ds ckn jk"VaHkk"kk fganh ds lc ls cM+s fojks/kh fl) gq, gSa A iwjs Hkkjr dk vaxzsth dj.k djus esa os lc izk.ki; ls tqVs gq, gSa A vaxzsth dk Hkwr lokj gks x;k gS iwjs Hkkjr ij A gj foHkkx esa 67 vaxzsth Hkk"kk esa dke gksrk gS A ;qok&oxZ bl Hkk"kk o bldh laLÑfr ds nq"izHkkoo'k viuh tehu ls m[kM+rk tk jgk gSA thou&ewY;ksa dk uk'k lk gks pqdk gS A 21ss;a= vkt dh lH;rk dh eq[; fu'kkuh gS vkSj og egkiki gS ,slk eSa rks lkQ ns[k ldrk gwa AÞ 1⁄4ìñ 761⁄2 ß;a= dk xq.k rks eq>s ,d Hkh ;kn ugha vkrk] tcfd mlds voxq.kksa ls eSa iwjh fdrkc fy[k ldrk gwa AÞ1⁄4ìñ 791⁄2 xka/kh dh ;g cgqr cM+h deh gS A fodkl:ih xkM+h esa cSBdj xka/kh lnSo ihNs gh ns[krs gSa] vkxs ugha A ysfdu xka/kh dks ;g irk ugha gS fd xkM+h esa ;k=k djrs le; ihNs flQZ /kwy gh gksrh gS A fodkl djus okys vkxs ns[krs gSa A ihNs dks vk/kkjHkwfe cukdj vkxs ns[kuk fodkl pkgus okyksa dk iz/kku xqiz gksrk gS A cqjkbZ ;a=ksa esa ugha gS vfirq ;a=ksa dk iz;ksx djus okys O;fDr;ksa ds fpÙk esa gS A fpÙk esa :ikarj.k gh izeq[k gS] ;a= ugha A ;a= rks cspkjs futhZo gSa] mUgsa iki o eq.; ls D;k ysuk&nsuk A xka/kh dks ;g rF; le> esa D;ksa ugha vk ldk\ ;a= dk iz;ksx ge larqfyr fodkl gsrq Hkh rks dj ldrs gSa A ^;a=&fojks/k* xka/kh ds n'kZu&'kkL= dk ,d vkSj fiNM+k gqvk igyw gS A xka/kh }kjk dgh xbZ ckrksa dks dksbZ Hkh xka/khoknh eku Hkh ugha jgk rFkk mudk fojks/k djus okyksa dks os ns'knzksgh dh laKk nsus yxrs gSa A 22ssvaxzsth jkT; dks ;gka fVdk, j[kus okys ;s /kuoku yksx gh gSa A ,slh fLFkfr esa gh mudk LokFkZ l/ksxk A vxj os ns'k dk Hkyk djuk pkgrs gksa rks [kqn viuk dke /khjs&/khjs de dj ldrs gSa A os [kqn iqjkus] izkS<+] ifo= pj[ks ns'k ds gtkjksa ?kjksa esa nkf[ky dj ldrs gSa vkSj yksxksa ls cquk gqvk diM+k ysdj mUgsa csp ldrs gSa AÞ1⁄4ìñ 771⁄2 xka/kh ds f'k"; fcM+yk vkfn Hkh bl dke dks ugha dj lds rks vU; m|ksxifr bls D;ksa djus yxs\ xka/kh dh ckrsa lPps ek;uksa esa ^;wVksfi;k* gS A ;s dHkh Hkh iwjh ugha gks ldrha A yksxksa ds e/; budk ftØ djus ;k vkn'kZ ds :i esa ;s Hkfy o vPNh yxrh gSa ysfdu thou&fuekZ.k ;k l`tukRedrk gsrq budk dksbZ Hkh ewY; ugha gS A bl rjg dh f'k{kkvksa ds dkj.k gh ge ckgj ls dqN rFkk Hkhrj ls dqN gks x, gSa A gekjk thou ik[kaM ds flok; dqN Hkh ugha jg x;k gS A vki vkcknh dks de ugha dj jgs gSa rFkk p[kkZ dkrus dks ns'k dks foo'k djrs gSa rks ,sls esa lkjk ns'k pkSchl ?kaVs p[kkZ gh dkrrk jgs rks Hkh lkjs ns'kokfl;ksa dk ru ugha <dsxk A vaxzst ns'k dk 'kks"k.k djrs jgs rFkk vc tks lÙkk esa gSa os 'kks"k.k dj jgs gSa rFkk ge vkjke ls cSBdj pj[kk pykrs jgsaxs A pj[kk Hkh rks ;a= gh gS A 23sseSa xeZ ny okyksa ls dguk pkgrk gw¡ fd &&&& LojkT; vkidh dksf'k'kksa ls feyus okyk ugha gS A LojkT; rks lcdks vius fy, ikuk pkfg, A nwljs yksx tks LojkT; fnyk nsa og LojkT; ugha] cfYd ijjkT; gS AÞ1⁄4ìñ 801⁄2 xka/kh dh ,slh gh f'k{kkvksa us ns'k dks nsj ls vktkn gksus esa iwjh enn dh A ;g bl izdkj dh ckrsa vaxzst jkt dks cpkus gsrq dkQh le; rd lgkjs dk dke djrh jgh Fkha A vjs igys ckgjh LojkT; dks rks ik yks] Hkhrjh LojkT; fQj ik ysaxs A bl laca/k esa ,d vkSj ckr gS fd xka/kh t:jr o voljkuqlkj 'kCnksa dks rksM+&ejksM+dj dqN dk dqN vFkZ fudkyrs jgs A igys LojkT; dk vFkZ ^Hkhrjh jkT;* Fkk ysfdu tc xeZ ny dh Økafrdkjh xfrfof/k;ksa ls ns'k dks vktknh nsuk vaxzstksa dh foo'krk gks xbZ rks xka/kh th >wBk Js; ysus ds pDdj esa Lojkt dk vFkZ ^ckgjh lÙkk* djus yxs A bl voljokn esa os ekfgj Fks A xka/kh us xeZ ny okyksa }kjk vftZr fd, tkus okys LojkT; dks ^ijjkt* rd dh laKk ns Mkyh A 'kk;n vius gkFk ls izflf) dks f[kldrs ns[kdj mUgksaus ;g lc fd;k gksxk A ;ksx] /;ku] lk/kuk o Lojkt dh ckrsa rHkh Hkfy rjg laHko gksrh yxrh gSa tc gekjk ckgjh thou lè) o etcwr gks A ns'k gkgkdkj dj jgk gS] lH;rk o laLÑfr [krjs esa gS] vaxzstksa us 'kks"k.k o vR;kpkj dh lkjh lhek,a rksM+ nh gSa vkSj xka/kh gSa fd Hkhrjh ^LojkT;* dh jV yxk jgs gSaA 24sslPpk Lora=rk lsukuh og gksxk tks vaxzsth dk mi;ksx ykpkjh esa gh djsxk A viuh odkyr NksM+ nsxk rFkk ?kj ij p[kkZ pyk,sxk A MkWDVj viuh MkWDVjh NksM+ nsxk rFkk p[ksZ ls viuk xqtkjk djsxk A /kuh viuk /ku pj[ks pyokus ij [kpZ djsxk A tks vaxzst dk dlwj ugha fudkysxk rFkk ;g lkspsxk fd gekjk dlwj nwj gksrs gh vaxzst Lo;a gh bl ns'k dks NksM+s nsaxsAÞ1⁄4ìñ 85&861⁄2 68 vkrrk;h dks vkrrk;h ds :i esa u ns[kus ls Hkkjr us fouk'k dh tks yhyk lSdM+ksa o"kks± ls ns[kh gS og dkQh ihM+knk;h gS A rF; dks lgh :i esa ns[kus ls ge iyk;u D;ksa djrs gSa\ fons'kh geykoj gekjs ns'k esa vk, rFkk ml ij vf/kdkj dj fy;k & blesa gekjh deh Fkh ijarq mu fons'kh geykojksa dks csdlwj crykuk ijys ntsZ dh ew<+rk gS A deh nksuksa dh gh gksrh gS geyk lgu djus okys dh Hkh rFkk geykoj dh Hkh A ,d vU; ckr ;g fd gekjs lq/kjrs gh geykoj dSls lq/kjsxk\ xka/kh us foLrkj ls bl ckjs esa dqN ugha cryk;k gS A ;g fl)kar ;fn lR; gksrk rks iwjh nqfu;k ls vkrad o minzo dHkh dk lekIr gks tkrk A geykoj] vkardoknh o nq"V izÑfr ds O;fDr;ksa ls ;fn mUgha dh Hkk"kk esa ckr ugha dh xbZ rks mudk mRlkg vR;kpkj djus dk vkSj Hkh c<+ tk,xk A Hkxoku~ cq) ls ysdj xka/kh rd rFkk xka/kh ls ysdj vc rd bl lksp us Hkkjr dks cckZn djds j[k fn;k gS rFkk lHkh ns'k o vkradoknh Hkkjr dks ew<+rkvksa] minzo] Hkz"Vkpkj o ?kksVkyksa dk LoxZ ekurs gSa A ;g egkjksx irk ugha dc Hkkjr dk ihNs NksM+sxk\ Hkxoku~ cq)] xka/kh] VkyLVk; o Fkksjks vkfn dksbZ Hkh uhfr&'kkL=h jÙkhHkj Hkh dke;kch gkfly ugha dj ldk gS A Hkkjr dh vktknh gsrq xka/kh us tks 'krZ ^fgan LojkT;* iqLrd esa j[kh gS mlls ns'k dHkh Hkh vktkn ugha gksrk rFkk xka/kh o muds psys Lo;a Hkh bl vktknh dh dlkSVh dks iwjk ugha dj ik, Fks A og lqHkk"k gh Fks ftudh j.kuhfr us vaxzsth lsuk dh dej dks rksM+ fn;k Fkk rFkk blh otg ls vaxzst Hkkjr ls Hkkxus dks foo'k gq, Fks A xka/khoknh uhfr;ksa ls rks ;g ns'k gtkj o"kZ i'pkr~ Hkh vktkn ugha gksrk A 25ss;g iqLrd eSaus 1909 esa fy[kh Fkh A 12 o"kZ ds vuqHko ds ckn Hkh esjs fopkj tSls ml le; Fks os oSls gh vkt gSÞ A1⁄4ìñ 881⁄2 1909 bZñ esa fy[kh mudh ;g iqLrd xeZ ny okyksa dks uhpk fn[kykus ,oa vaxzstksa dh enn djus gsrq fy[kh xbZ yxrh gSA blds 12 o"kZ i'pkr~ ;kfu fd 1922 bZñ esa Hkh muds fopkj iwoZor~ gh Fks A xyfr;ksa ls mUgksaus dqN Hkh ugha lh[kk & ;g Hkkjr dk nqHkkZX; Fkk A fons'kh fo}kuksa dh fopkj/kkjk dks Hkkjr esa ykxw djuk oSls Hkh O;ogk;Z ugha Fkk ysfdu xka/kh iz;ksxoknh FksA mUgksaus vusd fouk'kdkjh ,oa ?kkrd iz;ksx fd, Fks vkSj mudk nq"ifj.kke Hkkjr vc Hkh Hkqxr jgk gS A 12 o"kZ esa lc dqN cny tkrk gS ysfdu xka/kh dh lksp ugha cnyh A ^fgan LojkT;* tSlh frfFkcká iqLrdsa dsoy ek= VksVs o nfjnzrk dk n'kZu&'kkL= izLrqr djrh gSa A 26ssbl iqLrd ds izsj.kkL=ksr gSa fons'kh VkyLVk; 1⁄4The Kingdom of God is within You, What is Art, The Slavery of our Times1⁄2] Fkksjks 1⁄4Life without Principles, On the Duty of Civil Disobdience1⁄2] jfLdu] 1⁄4Unto This Last, A Joy for Ever1⁄2] esftuh 1⁄4Duties of Man1⁄2] IysVks 1⁄4Defence and Death of Socrates1⁄2] Vsyj 1⁄4The Falacy of Speed1⁄2 dkjisaVj 1⁄4Civilization, its Cause and Cure1⁄2 ukSjksth 1⁄4Poverty and Un-British Rule in India1⁄2 jfpr iqLrdsa gS u deky fd uhfr&'kkL= eeZK o lk{kkr~ nsork dh bl iqLrd dk izsj.kkL=ksr lkjs ds lkjs fo}ku fons'kh gSa A Hkkjr esa izsj.kk iznku djus okyh iqLrdsa lSadM+ksa dh la[;k esa ml le; Hkh Fkha rFkk vkt Hkh gSa ysfdu xka/kh us NkaVdj mUgha iqLrdksa dk pquko fd;k tks O;fDr dks nfjnz] vHkkoxzLr] xjhc o taxyh cukus ds flok; dqN ugha nsrhA ;k fQj ;g Hkh lgh gS fd xka/kh us bu iqLrdksa esa ls mUgha ckrksa dk pquko fd;k gS tks mudh ladh.kZ] nfjnz o fiNM+h lksp esa fQV gks ldrh gksa A xka/kh us jkek;.k o xhrk ls ;g lh[k ugha yh fd vkrrk;h dks rqjar naM nsdj u"V dj nks vfirq Jhjke o Ñ".k dh d#.kk] vfgalk o lR;kfn dh xrksa dks gh nksgjkrs jgs rFkk bl izdkj dh f'k{kkvksa ls vktknh ls iwoZ vaxzstksa dk o vktknh ds i'pkr~ mxzokfn;ksa dk tks mRlkgo)Zu gqvk gS mldk mnkgj.k lkjs fo'o esa feyuk eqf'dy gS A 27bl iqLrd dk ys[ku yanu ls vÝhdk ykSVrs gq, xka/kh us jkLrs esa tks laokn fy[kk] og ^fgan LojkT;* ds uke ls izfl) gqvk A izdk'kd&uothou izdk'ku eafnj] vgenkckn A vuqoknd& vèryky Bkdksjnkl uk.kkoVh 1⁄4fnlacj 20061⁄2 ml le; xka/kh ds eu&efLr"d esa ,slh&,slh ;kstuk,a gh rS;kj gksrh jgrh Fkha fd os dSls viuh ckrksa dks lp o vU;ksa dh ckrksa dks >wB fl) dj ldsa A xka/kh esa FkksM+s Hkh foosd&cqf) gksrs rks os gkFk /kksdj xeZ ny okyksa ds ihNs u iM+rs] le;&le; ij eqlyekuksa ij gksus okys vR;kpkjksa ij coky u epkrs rFkk fgUnqvksa ij gksus okys vR;kpkjksa ij ekSu u lk/k ysrsA rq"Vhdj.k dh egkO;kf/k vkt dh ugha gS vfirq ;g rks xka/kh ds le; ij gh tUe ys pqdh Fkh A fganw fujgh gS] vR;kpkj lgus ds fy, gS] mls vR;kpkj pqipki lgu dj ysuk pkfg, rFkk eqlyeku fdlh Hkh izdkj dk vR;kpkj djus dks Lora= gS A fganw eD[kh Hkh ekjs rks iki gS ysfdu eqlyeku uj&lagkj Hkh djs rks Hkh og lgh gS A xka/kh eqfLye vR;kpkjksa ij lnSo ekSu lk/ks jgs rFkk fganqvksa dks 69 gh lR;] vfgalk] d#.kk vkfn ds mins'k nsrs jgsA ns'k dk nqHkkZX; Fkk fd bl ns'k dks dksbZ lgh usrk o ekxZn'kZd yacs le; rd ugha feyk vkSj ;fn dksbZ feyk Hkh rks mls "kM~;a=ksa esa my>kdj ;k xíkjh djds ekSr ds eqag esa igqapk fn;k x;k A Hkxr flag] fcfLey] v'kQkdqYyk] panz'ks[kj] lqHkk"kpanz vkfn rFkk vkSj Hkh vusdksa jk"Vaokfn;ksa ,oa lPps ns'kHkDrksa dks "kM~;a= ds rgr gh ekSr ds ?kkV mrkj fn;k x;k Fkk A vc rks lR; dks lR; dguk Hkh xqukg le>k tkrk gS ijarq ,d le; ,slk Hkh vo'; vk,sxk fd ge lR; cksyus dks vktkn gksaxs A ,d le; ,slk t:j vk,sxk fd tc gesa ;g iwjh rjg ls ekywe gks tk,sxk fd ^fgan Lojkt* tSlh iqLrdsa dsoy fojks/kkHkklh o dkycká gh ugha gSa vfirq ;s nfjnzrk] VksVs] vHkko o xjhch dh lksp dks Hkh vkxs c<+kus esa enn djrh gSa A ,slh iqLrdksa ij ;k rks izfrca/k yxuk pkfg, ;k bUgsa i<+us dh vkKk mUgha ikBdksa dks gksuh pkfg, ftudh cqf)&yfC/k mPpdksfV dh gks A ,slh iqLrdsa O;fDr] lekt o jk"Va dks iaxw cukrh gS A vdeZ.;rk dh lh[k nsrh gSa ,slh iqLrdsa A dgka vusd dqckZfu;ka nsus ds ckn Hkh jk"Vaksa dh vktknh LFkk;h ugha cu tkrh gSa vkSj ;gka Hkkjr esa ^fgan LojkT;* tSlh iqLrdksa ls jkejkT; ykus dh dksf'k'ksa dh tkrh jgh gSa A bl iqLrd ds uke esa ^fgan* 'kCn Hkh 'kk;n xka/kh us xyrh ls gh Mky fn;k gS A xka/kh dks rks ;gka ij ^eqfLye LojkT;* 'kCn Mkyuk pkfg, Fkk A eqfLye rq"Vhdj.k dh lkjh lhek,a yka?k tkus okyk O;fDr ^fgan LojkT;* dh ckr dj gh dSls ldrk gS\ Lokeh n;kuan }kjk orZeku ;qx esa loZizFke mñ?kksf"kr ^Lons'kh* o ^LoHkk"kk* dh LFkkiuk dc gks ldsxh \ 70 Contributors Dr. Rita Roy Chowdhury, Associate Professor, Department of Philosophy, Vivekananda College for Women, Kolkata. Ms. Reni Pal, Assistant Professor (Philosophy), Surendranath College, Kolkata Mr. Pradeepkumar Mane, Research Scholar (Ph.D.), Department of Philosophy, University of Pune, Poona. Mr. Pradyumna Anil Purohit, Institute of Law, Nirma University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat. Ms. Harshal Gupta, Institute of Law, Nirma University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat. Mr. Shubhra Jyoti Das, Research Scholar, Centre for Philosophy, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. Mr. Nishikant Patoa, Research Scholar (Ph.D.), Department of Philosophy, Assam University, Silchar (Assam). Dr. Merina Islam, Assistant Professor (Philosophy),Cachar College, Silchar (Assam). Ms. Manju Chauhan, Student (Philosophy), B.A.Final Year, P.G.Govt. College for Girls, Sector11, Chandigarh. Dr. Sheena Krishnan Ulamparambath, Assistant Professor (History), P.G.Govt. College for Girls, Sector-11, Chandigarh. Dr. Desh Raj Sirswal, Assistant Professor (Philosophy), P.G.Govt. College for Girls, Sector-11, Chandigarh. Acharya Shilak Ram, Assistant Professor, Department of Philosophy, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra.