SUFI EPISTEMOLOGY: IBN 'ARABI ON KNOWLEDGE (<ILM) By: Syamsuddin Arif Abstrak Makalah ini terdiri daripada tiga bahagian; bahagian pertama membahaskan makna dan hakikat ilmu, manakala bahagian kedua membincangkan tingkatan-tingkatan atau martabat ilmu. Sumber-sumber ilmu serta pencapaiannya dikupas pada bahagian yang ketiga. Semuanya mengikut pandangan Ibn 'Arabi dalam beberapa karya tulisan beliau. Representing the majority of Muslim's view, the Creed of alNasafi1 teaches that the causes of knowing (asbdb al- 'Urn) for hu man beings are three: the sound senses, the true report, and reason. Yet according to the People of Truth (Ahl al-Haqq), it must be noted, inspiration (al-ilhdm) is not one of the causes of knowing the soundness of a thing. This cautionary remark is apparently 1 That is the formal statement of the tenets of Islam (alAqald) compiled by Abu 'Umar al-Nasafi, who died (in 1177CE) about thirty years after alGhazali. Nasafi's is not only the most popular credal statement but has been the subject of numerous commentaries, the most famous of which is the Sharh atAqd'id al-Nasaftyyah by Sa'd at-Dln al-Taftazani (d. 1388CE). On the creed's spread and its reception in the Malay world, see S.M.N. al-Attas, The Oldest Known Malay Manuscript: A 16th Century Malay Translation of the 'Aqd1"id of al-Nasafi (Kuala Lumpur; University of Malaya Publications Department, 1988). 81 AFKAR-BIL3/2002 [81-94] made in response to the frequent claim made by sufis to a special knowledge not accessible to others. Indeed the sufis quite often disagree on many issues with the philosophers, theologians (mutakallimun) as well as jurists (fuqaha') who tend to ignore, if not altogether reject, mystical approach to knowledge and intu itional method of verification in favour of rationalism and empiri cism. This essay attempts to explore and expose a sufi epistemology2 as it is found in the writings of Muhyi al-Din Ibn 'Arabi (d. 1240CE). While focussing on such technical terms as 'spiritual opening' (fath), unveiling (kashf) and 'tasting' (dhawq), I shall also discuss his classification of knowledge as well as the various means of its acquisition. Reality of Knowledge It is without doubt very difficult to describe the reality of know ledge, just as it is not a simple task to explain the relationship be tween the knower and the act of knowing either. Succinctly put, the problem as to why and how a knowing subject, whether con sciously or not, becomes united with or otherwise related to an external object as the thing known remains unresolved. The diffi culty is further aggravated by the fact that no single definition of knowledge has ever been agreed upon by scholars. While alJurjani, for instance, defines knowledge f Him) as the arrival of soul at the meaning of the thing (wusul al-nafs ild ma'nd shay'),3 alGhazali holds mat knowledge is the recognition of the thing as it is (ma'rifat al-shay'i 'aid md huwa bihi).4 According to Ibn 'Arabi, however, knowledge is the mental acquisition of [knowing] any subject-matter within the limit of its being as it is (tahsil al-qalb amran-md 'ala haddi md huwa 'alayhi dhdlika al-amr); thus, 2 My use of this term is almost literal, meaning simply a 'discourse on knowledge'. Nevertheless, I do not in any way regard the GreekepistSme as equal to 'Hm. 3 Al-Jurjani, Kitab al-Ta'rlfdt, (Beirut Maktabat Lubnan, 1985), p. 161. 4 Al-Ghazali, "Kitab al-'Ilm", chap, in Iftya"Ulum al-Din with al-'Iraqi's assessment, (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-'Iimiyyah, 1986), vol. I, p. 41. Hence forth cited as Ihyd'. 82 SUFI EPISTEMOLOGY: IBN "ARABI ON KNOWLEDGE (*ILM) knowledge is a property (sifat) which is attributed to the mind through this acquisition; mind is the knower, matter the known.5 Ibn 'Arabi rejects the well-known theory put forth by logicians which says that knowledge consists of mental conception (tasawwur) and assent (tasdiq). Knowledge is neither a mental rep resentation of the object known nor the meaning (ma'nd) grasped by knower, says Ibn 'Arabi. For not every thing that is known is conceivable, and not everyone who knows is able to form a con cept in his mind.6 As a matter of fact, conception is the knower's act of imagining, of forming a mental image representing the ob ject known to him. But this mental representation, according to Ibn 'Arabi, is nothing but a state (hdlat) of mind that is temporarily held by the knower's imaginative faculty, even though he does not deny the existence of certain objects of knowledge which transcend and escape the grasp of human faculty of imagination.7 So what is the reality of knowledge? Whereas for al-Ghazali it is none other than certitude (yaqin)* for Ibn 'Arabi it is not a simple question; that is why he discusses it while dealing with the secret of predetermination (sirr al-qadr), saying that nobody knows the nature of the relationship between knowledge and the known object (ta'alluq aVilm bi-l ma'lum) if knowledge is to be under stood as a complete comprehension of realities. Yet since the real ity of a thing is that which is left in it after the stripping of the traces of its properties (salb athar al-aw§af), therefore we can say 5 Ibn 'Arabi, al-Futuhat al-Makkiyyah, new ed. Osman Yahia, (Cairo: alMaktabah al-'Arabiyyah, 1985), vol. D, p. 82, henceforth cited wFutuhat. Unless indicated by letter "B" (for Bulaq old edition), further citations thereof refer to Osman Yahia's edition. 6 Futuhat, vol. I, p. 92. Note that 'mind' is here referred to the totality of man's spiritual substance comprising all the inner mental faculties. Cf. S.M.N. al-Attas, Prolegomena to the Metaphysics ofIslam (Kuala Lumpur: Interna tional Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization, 1995), p. 148: "... [that is] the reality or very essence of man [which]... has many names [i.e. inteUect, soul, heart, and spirit]." Hereinafter cited as Prolegomena. 7 Futuhat, vol. I, p. 250. 8 See Mohd Zaidi bin Ismail, "Logic in al-Ghazall's Theory of Certitude", in al-Shajarak, Vol. 1 Nos. 1&2 (1996), p. 98, for a detailed exposition. 83 AFKAR BIL 3/2002 [81-94] that the reality of knowledge consists of both epistemic and ontic all-encompassing (al-ihdtah 'an kulli wajh).9 Nevertheless, the term haqiqah is also often used by Ibn 'Arabi as a synonym for entity ('ayn). That is to say, the reality of a thing is its immutable entity ('ayn thdbit) or the thing as it is known by God. Thus another way of defining 'reality' is to call it the non-manifest dimension of something manifest. For in many passages Ibn 'Arabi does consider God's Names to be realities (haqd'iq) as well as the archetypes of all the created things. On this basis we can say that on Ibn 'Arabi's view the reality of knowledge is in fact the divine name Knower (al- 'Alim) from which all knowledge spring out, and the reality of life is His name Living (al-Hayy) and so forth.10 But let not ibis ontological discus sion of the immutable entities detain us here.11 Levels of Knowledge Knowledge is classified by Ibn 'Arabi into three levels. First is the knowledge of the intellect ('Urn al- 'aql), that is, whatever we ob tain either necessarily (daruratan) or as a result of intellectual in quiry. Apparently he is referring here to that kind of knowledge which comes about through discursive mental processes of concep tual thinking (fikr) as well as through theoritical consideration (nazr). The second kind is the knowledge of the spiritual states (Him al-ahwal), which cannot be reached except through tasting, like one's knowledge of the sweetness of honey which is impos sible for him and anyone else to attain or verify without himself tasting. The third one is the knowledge of the secrets ('Urn alasrdr), that is, the knowledge given by God through the blowing of the Holy Spirit (ruh al-quds) into the hearts of the prophets and the friends (awliyd') of God. Unlike the possessors of the first two sorts, the knower of the last kind, according to Ibn 'Arabi, knows 9 Futuhat, vol. XIH, p. 215 and vol. XH, p. 235. 10 Futuhat, B, vol. n, pp. 39 and 563; cf. vol. I, p. 293. 11 For a comprehensive treatment, see al-Attas, Prolegomena, pp. 241-57. Cf. William C. Chittick, Sufi Path of Knowledge (Albany-New York: SUNY Press, 1989), pp. 83-8. 84 SUH EPISTEMOLOGY: IBN ■ARABI ON KNOWLEDGE CUM) and exhausts all sciences.12 Ibn 'Arabi further distinguishes two ways of acquiring knowl edge. In one passage he mentions thinking or reflection (fikr) and bestowal (wahb). The latter is the divine effusion (fayd ildhl) through which the prophets and saints receive their knowledge, because reason has no entrance into them through thinking or re flection, even though they can accept it especially in the case of those having a sound reason who are not overcome by any obfuscation deriving from imagination and reflection (shubhah khaydliyyahfikriyyah). This is because, according to Ibn 'Arabi, thinking is prone to corruption (fasdd) and hence may yield conjec tural and unreliable results (maznunah la yuthaq bihd).13 In another passage, however, Ibn 'Arabi explains that while it is true that some knowledge is acquired (kasbi) and some is given (wahbi), there exists only a fine line differentiating the two. For as a matter of fact, he maintains, both kinds of knowledge are ulti mately God-given, and the difference lies in the question as to whether or not it is acquired through any cause or by any means. That is why for Ibn 'Arabi knowledge that is obtained through godfearing (taqwd), just like that which derives from the effort of reason and senses, is not God-given but rather a fruit of some ef fort (iktisdb). Only that which comes without any means, interme diary, or cause whatsoever is called God-given knowledge.14 Channels of Knowledge No doubt Ibn 'Arabi too accepts the popular view that human be ings know things through their five senses as well as their inner faculties of mind. But the Shaikh remarks that we must recognize the limits imposed on these perceptual senses by such factors as distance, barriers, and weakness which do influence, distort or even impede our way to acquiring correct, sound knowledge.15 More12 Futuhat, vol. I, pp. 138-40. 13 Futuhat, vol. IV, p. 206. 14 Futuhat, vol. IV, pp. 119-22. 15 Futuhat, vol. H, pp. 99 and 343. 85 AFKAR BIL 3C002 [81-94] over, the process of perception involves not only the five external senses but also the internal ones such as the mental faculties (alquwa) of imagination (al-mutakhayyilah), thinking (al-mufakkirah), and the rational (al- 'aqliyyah). According to Ibn 'Arabi, the senses are never mistaken in perceiving the things which are normally related to them, such that if they happen to err, nonetheless, the mistakes belong only to that which passes judgement.16 It should be noted that Ibn 'Arabi not only divides the activity of the human mind into three kinds; reasoning ('aqt), thinking (tafakkur), and reflection (nazr), but he also recognizes the differ ent aspects of human mind, namely reason ('aql), heart (qalb), and imagination (khaydl), even though they all belong to the same en tity. In other words, whatever the means by which knowledge is obtained, the knowing subject is still one; for the above distinction is drawn to denote the modalities of knowing, as al-Attas puts it: It [i.e. the mind] has many names because of its accidental modes or states (ahwdl). Thus when it is involved in intel lection and apprehension it is called intellect; when it gov erns the body it is called soul; yet when it is engaged in receiving intuitive illumination it is called heart; and when it reverts to its own world of the abstract entities it is called spirit.17 As shown by its root meaning, the word 'aql signifies that which ties down and limits the free. It is not mentioned in the Qur'an except in the verbal forms (ya'qilun, ta'qilun, na'qilu). As a human faculty, however, 'aql almost always implies restriction and confinement in that it is by nature inclined to contain thing in its own realm, thereby creating boundaries for its subject. That is why, Ibn 'Arabi observes, rational thinkers and logicians reduce knowledge about everything into definition (hadd), and consequ ently they fail to comprehend that which refuses to be defined and resists delimitation such as the realities of God, spirit, death, etc. 16 Futuhdt, vol. H, p. 395. 17 Prolegomena, p. 148. That is, intellect for 'aql, soul for nafs, heart for qalb, and spirit for ruh. 86 SUFI EHSTEMOLOGY: IBN 'ARABI ON KNOWLEDGE ('ILM) which are beyond the stage of reason (ward' tawr al-'aql).n On the other hand, the Qur'an explicitly employs the term qalb about 130 times and often attributes understanding and intelligence to the healthy one (qalb salim). Ibn 'Arabi sees the heart as a place of constant change and fluctuation as well as a locus for knowl edge rather than for emotions and feelings. The tremendous capac ity of the heart places it beyond delimitation (taqyfd) characteristic of reason. Unlike reason, the heart is nondelimited (mutlaq), free and absolved from all limitations and constraints. Thus to the ex tent one verifies the nature and reality of things by means of his heart he can acquire certain, true knowledge about God and all metaphysical entities. One must none the less always ensure the purity and healthiness of the heart so as to prepare it for receiving knowledge from God.19 As for imagination, it should not be here understood in the popular sense of the word. When Ibn 'Arabi uses the term 'imagi nation', he most often has in mind the inter mediary realm ('dlam al-barzakh) between the spiritual and corporeal world, which is otherwise called the imaginal world ('dlam al-khaydl) not imagi nary one! or the world of images ('dlam al-mithdl). It refers to the place where the bodily and non-bodily existent things can take a shape contrary to its nature or, in Ibn 'Arabi's words, where the opposites are brought together (al-jam' bayn al-adddd). This is best exemplified by dreams. For it is in dreaming, which is a func tion of imagination, that we experience non-physical things that is, an image of a tiger or an apple in bodily forms such that we perceive and take them as real, tangible objects. Likewise is the appearance of magical artifacts in a form different from the real one. It is interesting to note that to account for these phenomena Ibn 'Arabi employs expressions like corporealization of the spirits (tajassud al-arwdh) and spiritualization of corporeal bodies (tarawhun al-ajsdd), concerning which he cites this report: the Prophet said, "I saw my Lord in the form of a youth."20 18 Futuhdt B, vol II, p. 116. 19 Futuhdt, vol. IV, 322-4; cf. pp. 220-1. 20 Futuhdt B, vol. H, p. 379. 87 AFKAR BIL 3/2002 [81-94] It is indeed quite difficult to make sense of this issue. But this is not so if we take into account Ibn 'Arabi's distinction of three kinds of knowable things (ma'lumdt): [1] a purely abstract, intan gible meaning (al-ma'nd al-mujarrad 'an al-mdddah) which is perceived by the rational faculties through proofs or a priori, [2] the sensory things that are perceivable by the senses, and [3] the imaginal (not imaginary) things which are perceived either by rea son or by the senses. The latest kind are at the same time 'mean ings' that assume shape (tashakkul) in sensory forms given by the form-giving faculty (al-quwwah al-musawwirah). The process is then explained as follows. Imagination, now as a mental faculty, takes a 'meaning', namely a shapeless reality of the world of intel ligible things and gives to it a sensory form (surah mahsusah). This takes place, according to Ibn 'Arabi, despite the fact that in normal circumstances meanings and sensory forms are mutually exclusive since the former belongs to the World of Intelligence and are free of any sort of matter, while sensory forms belong to the external world of corporeal bodies.21 Having distinguished four uses of the term 'imagination', namely [1] as a barzakh between Being and Nothingness, [2] as that between the spiritual and physical world, [3] between the mind and body, as well as [4] one of the mental faculties of man Ibn 'Arabi declares that "he who does not know the level of imagina tion has no true knowledge whatsoever [and] if this pillar of true knowledge has not been actualized by the knowers, they have not a whiff of true knowledge."22 The reason why Ibn 'Arabi calls imagination a barzakh is that it is 'the meeting place of the two Seas' that is, the Sea of Meanings and the Sea of Sensory Things, because in this intermediary world meanings are embodied and sensory things are subtilized such that the entity of every object of knowledge ('ayn al-ma'lum) is 'transformed' or imaginalized in the viewer's eyes.23 21 FutuhdtB, vol. II, p. 66. But according to al-Attas,ma'ani (sing, ma'na) in this context should be translated as 'ideal realities' as they do have ontological significance {Prolegomena, p. 250). 22 FutuhatB, vol. II, p. 312. 23 FutuhdtB, vol. II, p. 361. SUH EPISTEMOLOGY: IBN ■ARABI ON KNOWLEDGE flLM) Extraordinary Ways of Knowing Since the sufis, writes Ibn ' Arabi, "saw the mistakes of those who employ rational consideration, they turned to the path in which there is no confusion so that (hey might take things from the 'eye of certitude' ('ayn al-yaqin) and became qualified by certain knowledge."24 This holds true, for instance, in their attempt to comprehend the apparently contrary attributes and Names of God such as the Avenger (DM Intiqdm) and the Forgiving (al-Ghqffar), the Life-giver (al-Muhyi) and the Slayer (al-Mumit), the Manifest (al-Zdhir) and the Non-manifest (al-Batin), etc. In this regard Ibn 'Arab! maintains that true knowledge about God can only comes through unveiling that would enable its possessor to reconcile the seemingly contradictory positions of affirming comparability (tashblh) and denying similarity (tanzih). As Ibn 'Arabi sees it, most rational thinkers, by whom of course he means Muslim theo logians and philosophers, overemphasized incomparability so much that they could not put the opposite together. Moreover, part of the reason why the rational thinkers fell into a lopsided view of reality, according to Ibn 'Arabi, is that they ig nore the power of the imaginative faculty which alone is capable to perceive the true meaning of the Qur'anic depictions of similarity like that of God's hands, face, and eyes. For the rational faculty, which is the specific tool by which those thinkers seek to know the nature and reality of things, always tends to negate anything from God which does not appear appropriate to 'its own definition1 of Divinity. Hence they interpret or explain away (ta'wil) these terms i.e. hands, eyes, etc at the expense of denying God's own assertion of His manifestation (tajalli) and commanence (ma 'iyyah). Indeed, in order to understand this issue one must renounce his reason and give himself to spiritual 'opening', 'tasting', 'unveiling', 'witness ing'25 etc. But what do the sufis mean by these terms? One of the most significant way of knowing for Ibn 'Arabi is 'opening' (fatty). The term, the plural of which is futuh and hence the book's name Futuhdt, is used in technical vocabulary of sufism 24 Futuhdt, vol. H, p. 628. 25 Futuhdt, vol. I, pp. 250-1. 89 AFKAR BE, 3/2002 [81-94] to indicate the spiritual illumination which marls the acquisition of a higher station (maqdm) in one's spiritual journey (suluk) and normally occurs during a retreat (khalwah) as a result of certain period of self-discipline and training (riyadah).76 According to Ibn 'ArabI, "someone in whomfath preceds' the practice of riyadah save in exceptional cases will not attain to spiritual virility", al though in his own special case, Ibn 'Arabi claims he had received such illumination prior to spiritual training, saying that what hap pened to him was an experience of opening in the state of being snatched out of himself (wa kanafathtjadhbahfi tilk al-tahzah)27 Like the rest of sufi technical team, fath is borrowed from the Qur'anic verse, "Verily We have granted Thee a clear victory (fathan mubind)."2* Although the verb fataha has meanings as di verse as 'to open (a gate), to unfold (a book), to stimulate (appe tite), to conquer (a land), and to disclose or reveal (a secret),' the derivative noun fath in the verse is interestingly qualified by the adjective mubin, which means 'that which explain, make clear, show, illumine or shed light' an adjective given also to the Qur'an. Seen in this perspective, the sufis are by all means justified to understand fath as illumination rather man conquest or victory that is, a spiritual opening of the heart by God, the Light (al-Nur) and the Opener (al-Fattdh) who 'teaches mankind what they know not.' Indeed this is what Ibn 'Arabi explicitly affirms: "... on the same night of this retreat I received me 'opening' pertaining to the dhikr I was practicing; its light revealed to me what had so far been hidden from me (fa-inkashafa li bi nurihi ma kana 'indi ghayban). "29 So important is the notion of 'opening' for Ibn 'Arabi 26 Ibn 'Arab!, "Istilah al-Sufiyyah" in Rasa'illbn 'Arabi(Hyderabad, 1948), p. 11. Hereinafter Istilah., 21 Reported in Ismail ibn Sawdakin, "Kitab Wasa'il al-Sa'il", ed. Manfred Prifitlich, Die Terminohgie Ibn Arabis im 'Kitab wasa'il al-s'a'il': Text, Vbersetzung und Analyse (Freiburg-im-Breisgau: K. Schwarz Verlag, 1973), cited in Claude Addas, Questfor the Red Sulphur, tr. Peter Kingsley (Cam bridge: The Islamic Texts Society, 1993), pp. 36-7. 28 Surat al-Fath (48): 1. 29 Futuhdt B, vol. ffl, p. 488. 90 SUH EHSTEMOLOGY: IBN 'ARABI ON KNOWLEDGE ('IIM) that he devotes a special chapter to explicating the term. What comes about during such illumination is none other than true knowledge about the realities and disclosure of secrets.30 Another unusual way of acquiring knowledge for the sufis is dhawq, which in its etymological sense simply means tasting by tounge. But the sufis, as does Ibn 'Arabi, use the term in a quite different sense. For them it refers to the direct knowledge of some thing through spiritual 'opening' or 'unveiling'. According to Ibn 'Arabi, however dhawq is the first stage of the experience of God's manifestation (tajalli), while 'drinking' (shurb) is the next stage, followed by 'quenching' (riyy).3i This is because for the sufis wa ter symbolizes knowledge so that to borrow Ibn Arabi's expres sion - "the seeker of knowledge is like him who drinks the water of the sea, the more he drinks the thirstier he becomes."32 That is why even the Prophet was ordered to request from God an increase in knowledge.33 In short, suffice it to keep in mind Ibn Arabi's declaration that "knowledge comes only through tasting; that is what we call knowledge."34 More or less synonymous with spiritual opening is kashf, which may be defined as an immediate experiential knowledge of the realities of things a knowledge that God gives to His servant through manifestation (tajalli). Ibn Arabi employs the term tajalli 30 See Futuhat B, vol. IV, pp. 220-1 (chapter on Hadrat al-Fath); also vol. IV, pp. 11-2; vol. I, p. 638 and vol. n, p. 15. 31 Istilah, p. 6. Cf. Futuhat B, vol. H, p. 133 and p. 548. 32 Futuhat B, vol. II, pp. 53-2. 33 Qur'an, Sara* TaHa (20): 114. 4 Futuhat B, vol. II, p. 473. Al-Attas repostulates this point as follows: "As regards al-dhawq, the basic meaning is 'taste' in the sense applicable to both pleasure and pain alike. It refers, in the epistemological context here de scribed, to a kind of intuitive knowledge brought about by a spiritual percep tion that accompanies the direct experience of verification. The transcendental vision that it entails refers to that of the pure intellect ('aql mujarrad); and the spiritual degree of the person in that condition of the intellect is that of the archetypal realities, in which degree the knowers's verification and cognition of the transcendent Reality and Truth is called genuine dhawq." See Prolegomena, p. 203. 91 AFKAR-BH.3/2002 [81-94] for both divine (theophany) and ordinary manifestations (epipha nies) interchangeably. But 'unveiling' is a bit different from 'tast ing' in that dhawq is connected more to spiritual states than to en tities (a'ydn), whereas kashfis an experience in which the realities of things are revealed. Ibn 'Arab! further distinguishes between unveiling and tasting by saying that while kashf is something that one sees outside oneself, dhawq is one's own inward experience.35 Again it is noticeable that the transitive verb kashafa is always followed by such such objects as cover (ghitd'l veil (hijdb), and the invisible (ghayb). Clearly therefore what the sufis mean by kashf has something to do with the removal of veil and thus seeing what is now standing forth. According to Ibn 'Arabi, 'unveiling' takes place when God illuminates the heart, enabling it to see into the unseen world, not with the physical eyes or sight (basor) but with the spiritual [injsight (basirah). Among the veils which are lifted from the heart during such event are rust (rayn), passion (shahwah), and jealousy-envy (aghyar).36 Now just as physical objects are not visible without light so too unveiling cannot occur without the divine light. But the light which comes from God must coincide with the light inside the heart, since excessive radiance in theophany does not give knowledge. Ibn 'Arabi explains why this happens: Since when light is stronger than the light of sight, man perceives it, but he does not perceives [objects] through it [under the light]. That is why the Prophet said concerning God, "His veil is light." Hence unveiling only takes place through a light equiva lent to that of the insight. Do you not see that bats only come out 35 FutuhatB, vol. n, p. 605. 36 Futuhat B, vol. II, p. 241. Cf. al-Attas's exposition: "At-kashfia akin to the ocular vision. It is the laying bare of something covered. 'Covered' here per tains to what is covered to one's state of being or feeling (hal), or to one's cognition ('Urn or 'irfdn), or to one's sight or vision ('ayn). It is the removal, by God's grace, of the covering from one's state of being, or cognition, or vision that enables one to feel, or to know, or to see the reality-truth. It is cer tain knowledge based on true verification, direct apprehension, and clear vi sion, uninterrupted by any distraction." Further, al-Attas maintains thatkashf is normally followed by another experience called wujud (intuition of exist ence). See Prolegomena, pp. 201-2. 92 SUH EPISTEMOLOGY: IBN 'ARABI ON KNOWLEDGE ('ILM) in light that is equivalent to the light of their sight?37 Nevertheless, we sometimes also find another term for 'unveil ing' used by the sufis. Al-Ghazali, for instance, employs both mukashafah and kashfXo designate 'the lifting of wrap off the heart (inqishd' al-ghishdwah 'an al-qalb)' which enables the eye of the heart to know the realities of things and foresee the future.38 Hence, al-Ghazali considers the Prophet as the best example of a person to whom the realities of things are revealed (shakhsun kushifa bi haqd 'iq al-umur) and the one who possesses the science of such unveiling ('Urn al-mukdshafah).39 Ibn 'Arabi, on the other hand, views mukashafah as a kind of spiritual 'opening' which, for him, consists of [1] the opening of expression (fath al- 'ibdrah), [2] the opening of sweetness (fath al-haldwah), and [3] (he opening of revelation (fath al-mukashafah). The first refers to the outward di mension, while the second to the inward dimension.40 As for the third kind, Ibn 'Arabi says: "[The opening of] unveiling is the cause of knowledge of the Real in the things, [because] the things are like curtains over the Real; when they are lifted, unveiling oc curs ..."41 In addition to 'opening, tasting, and unveiling', another term which is frequently used by the sufis to describe their knowledge is 'witnessing' (shuhud or mushdhadah). If the two can be distin guished from one another, it may be in the sense that shuhud is employed more generally as a synonym for seeing on any level of existence,42 whereas mushdhadah [literally means watching or vi sion) is more often used as a synonym for 'unveiling'. According to Ibn 'Arabi, however, the sufis define 'witnessing' as the reality 37 Futuhat B, vol. Ill, p. 369. 38 Al-Ghazali, Ihya' (Cairo: Dar al-Hadith, 1994), vol. V, pp. 126-7. 39 Ibid., vol. m, p. 42. 40 IstUah.p. 11. 41 Futuhat B, vol. II, p. 496. 42 For a comprehensive discussion on this, see S.M.N. al-Attas, The Degrees of Existence (Kuala Lumpur: International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization, 1995). 93 AFKAR BE. 3/2002 [81-94] of certainty without doubt and hesitation (haqiqat al-yaqin bila shakk wald irtiydb), which follows unveiling and brings about knowledge about the Real (al-Haqq) as well as about the realities without exception as they are in themselves.43 In addition, Ibn 'Arabi affirms that 'witnessing' is actually a fruit of true fulfill ment of one's servitude ('ubudah) and servanthood ('ubudiyyah) which have been realized through the worship ('ibddah) of God. Concerning this he says: "This is what I mean by knowledge of the realities, that is, [witnessing] through unveiling, [for] when man witnesses the realities he cannot oppose the commands of his Mas ter to worship the commands whose bounds and prescripts he ob serves both within and outside himself."44 Postscript hi the preceeding pages we have dealt with all relevant points in Ibn 'Arabi's theory of knowledge which, in my opinion, would be more than sufficient to represent a sufi epistemology. Although, as we have seen, he appears to be concerned less with empirical knowledge than with knowledge about God, Ibn 'Arabi's descrip tion of the realities pertaining to such key epistemic notions as 'opening, unveiling, witnessing and tasting' unquestionably de serves our consideration. To sum up, it seems justifiable to say that a coherent sufi theory of knowledge like Ibn 'Arabi's if fully ap preciated and well taken into account, could be a plausible alterna tive to modern epistemologies. Allahu a 'lam. 43 Futuhdl B, vol. II, p. 495. Cf. al-Attas's definition of 'witnessing' as the trans-empirical vision and intuition of existence by wiiich the heart comes to know directly and [comes] to verify what it knows. Then he goes on describ ing how it takes place: "Both shuKud and dhawq occur when the veil of sepa rate objects and phenomenal forms is removed from the cognitive vision of one who is involved in ihefana'-baqa' experience." See Prolegomena, pp. 203 and 201. 44 Futuhat B, vol. H, p. 308. Cf. vol. I, p. 276.