Prolegomena 5 (2) 2006: 149–164 Mill's Perfectionism PIERGIORGIO DONATELLI Sapienza University of Rome – Faculty of Philosophy Via Carlo Fea 2, 00161 Rome, Italy piergiorgio.donatelli@uniroma1.it ORIGINAL SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE / RECEIVED: 20–07–06 ACCEPTED: 03–11–06 abstraCt:.J ..S ..Mill.lays.great.emphasis.on.the.importance.of.the.notion.of.the. individual.as.a.progressive.being ..The.idea.that.we.need.to.conceive.the.self.as.an. object.of.cultivation.and.perfection.runs.through.Mill's.writings.on.various.topics,.and.has.played.a.certain.role.in.recent.interpretations ..In.this.paper.I.propose. a. specific. interpretation. of. Mill's. understanding. of. the. self,. along. the. lines. of. what.Stanley.Cavell.identifies.as.a."perfectionist".concern.for.the.self ..Various. texts.by.Mill,.ranging.from.the.Logic.to.On Liberty,.show.an.understanding.of.the. self.in.which.both.the.theoretical.and.the.practical.domain.are.presented.as.being. internally.connected.to.the.transformation.of.the.self ..Mill.elaborates.a.criticism. of.a.notion.of.truth.articulated.by.doctrines.having.a.life.independent.of.the.self,. as.well.as.a.notion.of.choice.which.is.not.the.expression.of.one's.inner.self ..This. internal.relation.of.truth.and.choice.to.the.self.generates.a.special.dialectic.within. the.self,.which.Mill.explores.in.On Liberty's.second.and.third.chapters.by.means. of.several.contrasts,.such.as.passive.vs ..active.knowledge,.living.vs ..dead.beliefs,. or.being.oneself.vs ..liking.and.choosing.in.crowds . KeyworDs:.Individuality,.liberalism,.perfectionism,.truth,.utilitarianism . I There. is. little. doubt. that. the. culture. of. the. self. and. the. idea. of. human. perfectibility.marks.an.important.line.of.thinking.in.Mill ..In.his.Autobiog- raphy,.he.writes.that.one.consequence.of.his.mental.crisis.in.the.winter.of. 1826–27.was.that.he."gave.its.proper.place,.among.the.prime.necessities. of.human.well-being,.to.the.internal.culture.of.the.individual".(Autobiog- raphy,.in.CW.I,.p ..147) .1.Mill's.first.reaction.to.these.new.ideas,.which. 1.All.references.to.Mill's.works.pertain.to.the.Collected Works of John Stuart Mill. (hereinafter.CW),.general.editor.J ..M ..Robson,.I–XXXIII.(Toronto.–.London:.University. of.Toronto.Press.–.Routledge,.1963-1991) . 150 Prolegomena 5 (2) 2006 he.linked.especially.with.Romanticism.and.Saint-Simonism,.was.one.of. enthusiasm.and.eclectic.acceptance ..In.a.letter.to.John.Sterling.dated.October. 20,. 1831. he. writes. that. his. differences. with.Wordsworth. and. the. philosophical.Tories.were.differences.of. fact.or.detail,.while.his.differences.with.the.radicals.and.the.utilitarians.were.differences.of.principle .. Mill.claims.that.utilitarians.see.only.one.side.of.the.question,.and."in.order. to.convince.them,.you.must.put.some.entirely.new.idea.into.their.heads,. whereas.Wordsworth.has.all.the.ideas.there.already,.and.you.have.only.to. discuss.with.him.concerning.the.'how.much',.the.more.or.less.of.weight. which.is.to.be.attached.to.a.certain.cause.or.effect.[...]".(Earlier Letters,. in.CW.XII,.p ..81) ..In.this.same.letter,.he.even.writes.that.his.position.is. the.direct.antithesis.of.liberalism,.which.neglects.what.is.needed.for.human.happiness.(Earlier Letters,.in.CW.XII,.p ..84) ..While.such.positions. were.given.some.space.in.his.writings.from.this.period,.such.as.The Spirit of the Age.(1831),.Mill.quickly.changed.his.ideas ..In.a.letter.to.Carlyle. from.January.1834.he.recognizes.that.he.had.been.overwhelmed.by.his. reaction.to.the.narrowness.of.his.utilitarian.teachers,.and.had.thus.become. "catholic. and. tolerant. in. an.extreme.degree,. and. thought.one-sidedness. almost.the.one.great.evil.in.human.affairs.[...]".(Earlier Letters,.in.CW. XII,. p .. 205) ..Having.overcome. this. extreme. reaction,.he.was.now. in. a. position.to.assess.the.advantages.of.the.utilitarian.as.well.as.the.Romantic.and.the.German-Coleridgian.schools ..By.1833.Mill's.writings.already. showed.the.emergence.of.this.new.perspective ..The.anonymous.Remarks on Bentham's Philosophy.(1833).proposed.to.defend.a.reformed.version.of. utilitarianism.in.which.the.depths.of.individual.character.were.taken.into. consideration ..These.same.topics.are.given.a.fuller,.more.mature.treatment. in.the.essay.Bentham,.published.in.1838 . One. might. well. read. the. entire. corpus. of. the. Mill's. writings. from. the.1830s.as.a.phase.in.which.he.was.working.out.the.main.axes.of.his. thought.in.those.areas.where.he.later.made.his.greatest.contributions,.such. as.logic,.political.economy,.government.and.religion ..Mill.gives.a.clear. statement.of.this.new.perspective.in.his.Autobiography,.where.he.writes. the.following: The.acquaintance. I.had. formed.with. the. ideas.of. the.Coleridgians,.of. the. German.thinkers,.and.of.Carlyle,.all.of.them.fiercely.opposed.to.the.mode.of. thought.in.which.I.had.been.brought.up,.had.convinced.me.that.along.with. much.error.they.possessed.much.truth,.which.was.veiled.from.minds.otherwise.capable.of.receiving.it.by.the.transcendental.and.mystical.phraseology. in.which.they.were.accustomed.to.shut.it.up.and.from.which.they.neither. cared,.nor.knew.how,.to.disengage.it;.and.I.did.not.despair.of.separating.the. truth.from.the.error.and.expressing.it.in.terms.which.would.be.intelligible. and.not.repulsive.to.those.on.my.own.side.in.philosophy ..(Autobiography,. in.CW.I,.p ..253) 151P. DONATELLI: Mill's Perfectionism Mill.writes.that.he.had.come.to.conceive.of.his.goal.as.giving.a.new. philosophical.expression.to.ideas.which.were.prominent.in.the.Romantic. school,.yet.conspicuously.absent.in.the.empiricist.and.utilitarian.tradition .. These.ideas.revolved.around.the.importance.of.character.and.the.education.of.the.self ..So.we.might.wish.to.read.Mill's.entire.corpus.of.writings. in.this.light,.as.the.re-elaboration.of.an.empiricist.and.utilitarian.perspective.that.would.enable.the.articulation.of.a.Romantic.notion.of.the.self . Reading.this.sort.of.philosophical.goal.into.Mill's.project.is.a.fairly. recent.feature.of.Mill.scholarship ..More.traditional.readings.preferred.to. emphasize. the. incompatibility. of. the. diverse. philosophical. trends. that. find.expression.in.Mill's.writings ..In.his.classic.work.The Philosophy of John Stuart Mill,2.Anschutz.presented.Mill.as.an.author.torn.between.the. naturalist. line,.which.was. inductivist. and.associationist. in. its. logic. and. utilitarian.in.its.ethics,.and.an.anti-naturalist.strand,.one.whose.logic.was. deductivist.and.essentialist.and.whose.ethics.was.liberal ..Newer.readings. –.those.from.the.1970s.such.as.Alan.Ryan's,3.as.well.as.more.recent.ones. like.John.Skorupski's4.–.have.tried.to.offer.a.different.picture,.although. they,.too,.stress.certain.moments.of.tension.in.Mill's.work . This.revision.of.Mill's.thought.has.also.worked.to.deepen.our.understanding.of. the.variety.of. intellectual. themes.in.his.work ..For.example,. for.many.decades.readers.focused.on.Mill's.use.of.the.liberal.and.utilitarian.perspective.in.ethics ..Recently,.however,.new.ideas.have.come.to.the. fore,.one.of.them.being.the.importance.of.the.dimension.of.the.self.and.its. perfectibility ..This.appears.to.be.a.distinctive.point.of.view.that.is.independent.of.both.the.utilitarian.notion.of.value.and.the.liberal.conception. of.autonomy ..The.emphasis.given.to.perfectionist.themes.has.also.resulted. from.an.interest. in.placing.Mill's.work.within.European.Romanticism,5. as.well.as.a.concern.for.the.important.role.that.Plato.and.classical.Greek. culture.played.for.Mill6.–.for.both.of.these.lines.seem.to.underscore.the. importance.of.the.self,.of.virtue.and.perfectibility . 2.R .. P ..Anschutz,. The Philosophy of J. S. Mill. (Oxford:. Clarendon,. 1953,. 2nd. ed .. 1963) . 3.A ..Ryan,.J. S. Mill.(London:.Routledge.and.Kegan.Paul,.1974) . 4.J ..Skorupski,.John Stuart Mill.(London:.Routledge,.1989) . 5. N .. Capaldi,. John Stuart Mill: A Biography. (Cambridge:. Cambridge. University. Press,.2004);.R ..Devigne,.Reforming Liberalism: J. S. Mill's Use of Ancient, Religious, and Romantic Moralities.(New.Haven.–.London:.Yale.University.Press,.2006) ..See.also.R .. J ..Halliday,.John Stuart Mill.(London:.George.Allen.and.Unwin,.1976) . 6.T ..H ..Irwin,."Mill.and.the.Classical.World",.in.J ..Skorupski.(ed .),.The Cambridge Companion to Mill.(Cambridge:.Cambridge.University.Press,.1998),.pp ..423–463;.N ..Urbinati,.Mill on Democracy: From the Athenian Polis to Representative Government.(Chicago:.University.of.Chicago,.2002) . 152 Prolegomena 5 (2) 2006 II There.are.various.questions.that.arise.once.we.recognize.the.role.played. by.the.culture.of.the.self.in.Mill's.thought ..I.wish.to.mention.two.of.these. here .. One. concerns. the. specific. interpretation. of. this. notion. of. the. self. and. its.perfectibility;. the.other.concerns. the. traditional.problem.of.how. this. line.of. thinking.combines.with.others,. such.as.utilitarian.or. liberal. thought,.which.are.obviously.prominent.as.well ..I.would.like.to.address. both.questions,.and.will.attempt.to.do.so.with.reference.to.On Liberty . Mill.writes.that.the.notion.of.liberty.discussed.in.this.book.is."civil,.or. social.liberty:.the.nature.and.limits.of.the.power.which.can.be.legitimately. exercised.by.society.over. the.individual".(On Liberty,. in.CW.XVIII,.p .. 217) ..The.book.is.not.primarily.devoted.to.the.political.question.of.liberty,. that.is,.to.what.forms.of.government.are.required.in.order.to.guarantee.the. right.to.liberty,.but.rather.to.a.certain.larger.problem ..As.Mill.wrote.in.a. letter.to.Theodor.Gomperz.from.1858,.the.book's.subject.is."moral,.social,. and.intellectual.liberty,.asserted.against.the.despotism.of.society.whether. exercised.by.governments.or.by.public.opinion".(Later Letters,.in.CW.XV,. p ..581) ..As.he.shows.in.the.first.chapter,.Mill.assumes.that.there.has.been. a.gradual.achievement.of.personal.liberties,.extending.from.the.first.immunities.limiting.the.power.of.the.sovereign.to.constitutional.checks.and,. from.there,.to.the.(contractarian.and.utilitarian).concept.of.government's. identification.with.the.interests.of.people ..Once.the.process.of.civilization. has.reached.this.point,.it.becomes.clear.that."the.'people'.who.exercise.the. power.are.not.always.the.same.people.as.those.over.whom.it.is.exercised;. and.the.'self-government'.spoken.of.is.not.the.government.of.each.over. himself,.but.of.each.by.all.the.rest".(On Liberty,.in.CW.XVIII,.p ..219) . At.this.point,.the.possibility.emerges.that.the.same.majority.of.people.which.embodies.government.may.endanger.personal. liberty ..This. is. Alexis.de.Tocqueville's.problem.of.the.tyranny.of.the.majority ..Mill.had. devoted.two.lengthy.discussions.to.Tocqueville's.Democracy in America. in.1835.and.1840 ..He.remarked.how.the.fears.expressed.by.Tocqueville. regarding.democracy.were."not.of.too.great.liberty,.but.of.too.ready.submission;.not.of.anarchy,.but.of.servility;.not.of.too.rapid.change,.but.of. Chinese. stationariness". (De Tocqueville on Democracy,. in. CW. XVIII,. p ..188) ..These.same.conclusions.are.restated.in.another.essay.written.in. 1836,.Civilization ..Having.shown.the.great.merits.of.a.democratic.society. (which.include,.among.other.things,.the.growth.of.a.spirit.of.cooperation. and.greater.civil.customs,.along.with.an."increase.of.humanity,.a.decline. of.bigotry,.as.well.as.of.arrogance.of.caste"),.Mill.identifies.its.great.danger.in."a.relaxation.of.individual.energy:.or.rather,. the.concentration.of. it. within. the. narrow. sphere. of. the. individual's. money-getting. pursuits". 153P. DONATELLI: Mill's Perfectionism (Civilization,. in.CW.XVIII,. pp .. 125,. 129) ..These. are. all. themes.which. Mill.discovered.at.the.time.he.was.writing.The.Spirit of the Age,.and.which. he.treated.from.the.1830s.onwards,.with.the.aim.of.showing.the.merits.of. those.processes.of.modern.civilization.connected.with.a.market.economy. and.democracy,.as.well.as.their.dangers,.which.he.perceives.in.a.loss.of. individual.qualities . However,.in.his.writings.from.the.1830s.Mill.dealt.with.such.questions.in.a.manner.which.he.later.found.unsatisfying ..He.suggested.in.these. writings.that.the.regeneration.of.individual.character.against.the.degeneration.of.public.opinion.could.be.achieved.by.forming.a.class.of.cultivated. people.who.would.be.able.to.impose.their.opinion.on.the.many.(Civiliza- tion,.in.CW.XVIII,.p ..134) ..He.relied.on.a.notion.of.individual.perfectibility.which.permitted.delegating.to.a.few.people.the.task.of.formulating. ideals.and.convictions.for.all.the.rest.–.a.notion.which,.on.the.social.level,. could.assume.an.authoritarian.form,.as.it.had.done.among.both.Romantic. conservative.writers.like.Coleridge,.who.invoked.the.formation.of.a.special.clerisy,.and.the.Saint-Simonian.authors,.who.advocated.the.guiding. role.of.a.class.of.industrialists.and.scientists . I. would. suggest. that. the. problem. which. Mill. treats. in. On Liberty,. namely,.the.nature.and.limits.of.the.power.which.society.can.legitimately. exercise.over.the.individual,.should.be.read.as.a.later.and.more.mature.response.to.the.same.sorts.of.questions.that.he.had.been.tackling.in.his.writings.of.the.1830s ..Mill's.answer.to.this.problem.returns.to.his.idea.of.the. importance.of.personal.qualities.and.their.perfectibility ..The.perfectionist. themes.which.emerged.during.those.earlier.years.are.used.in.On Liberty. as.part.of.his.response.to.this.problem . As. is.well.known,.Mill's.answer. to. the.problem. is. the.principle.of. liberty,.concerning.which.he.states.the.following: [T]he.only.part.of.the.conduct.of.anyone.for.which.he.is.amenable.to.society. is. that.which.concerns.others .. In. the.part.which.merely.concerns.himself,. his.independence.is,.of.right,.absolute ..Over.himself,.over.his.own.body.and. mind,.the.individual.is.sovereign ..(On Liberty,.in.CW.XVIII,.p ..224) It.should.be.noted,. in. the.first.place,. that. the.principle.of. liberty.stands. very.much.apart.from.the.sort.of.underestimation.of.personal.liberty.that. pervades.Mill's.writings.from.the.1830s.like.The Spirit of the Age,.and.is. more.akin.to.the.appeal.to.the.individual's.sovereignty.over.his.personal. interests.found.in.Bentham.and.the.utilitarian.tradition ..The.further.step. taken.in.On Liberty.is.to.show.that.the.same.conception.of.human.nature. that.inspired.Mill's.writings.from.the.1830s.is.consistent.with.the.utilitarian.perspective.and.can.serve. to. justify. the.principle.of. liberty ..As.Mill. writes.in.On Liberty: 154 Prolegomena 5 (2) 2006 It.is.proper.to.state.that.I.forego.any.advantage.which.could.be.derived.to. my.argument.from.the.idea.of.abstract.right.as.a.thing.independent.of.utility .. I.regard.utility.as.the.ultimate.appeal.on.all.ethical.questions;.but.it.must.be. utility.in.the.largest.sense,.grounded.on.the.permanent.interests.of.man.as.a. progressive.being ..(On Liberty,.in.CW.XVIII,.p ..224) I.propose.to.distinguish.three.levels.operating.in.On Liberty,.in.which. the.Romantic.themes.of.personal.perfectibility,.re-appropriated.in.a.utilitarian.framework,.serve.to.defend.the.principle.of.liberty ..We.find.in.On Liberty.a.statement.of.the.liberal.doctrine.of.the.individual's.sovereignty. in.his.own.personal.sphere,.which.comprises.the.individual's.right.to.lead. his.personal.life.in.freedom.and.in.favorable.circumstances ..There.is.also. a.second.level.where.Mill.offers.a.justification.of.this.principle,.one.which. reveals.his.perfectionist.point.of.view ..On.the.third.level,.Mill.shows.how. this.perfectionist.point.of.view.may.be.read.as.a.version.of.the.utilitarian. theory . Mill's.arguments.in.On Liberty.may.thus.be.summarized.as.follows .. He.holds.that.in.order.to.achieve.a.society.with.a.high.standard.of.happiness.–.according.to.the.utilitarian.maxim.of."the.greatest.happiness.of. the.largest.number".–.conditions.in.which.individuals.may.perfect.themselves.are.to.be.promoted ..A.cultivated.person.will.enjoy.a.kind.of.pleasure.(wherein.happiness.consists).whose.value.is.higher.than.that.enjoyed. by.someone.who.has.not.cultivated.his.faculties ..As.suggested,.the.value. of.individual.perfection.derives.from.a.theory.of.human.nature.which.Mill. had. already. developed. in. the. 1830s .. In. the. 1850s. he. returned. to. these. themes,.especially.to.the.argument.according.to.which.individual.perfection.corresponds.to.a.higher.kind.of.happiness,.and.developed.a.utilitarian.interpretation.of.the.perfectionist.doctrine ..This.is.found,.among.other. places,.in.the.second.chapter.of.Utilitarianism,.where.Mill.shows.how.a. hedonist.utilitarianism.can.account.for.the.sort.of.value.appreciated.only. by.individuals.who.have.educated.themselves.in.the.entire.range.of.human. faculties ..The.novel.argument.found.in.On Liberty.is.as.follows:.in.order. to.promote.this.sort.of.happiness,.which.is.based.on.the.notion.of.individuals.as.progressive.beings,.one.needs.to.promote.liberty,.as.defined.by.the. principle.of.liberty . Before.turning.to.Mill's.argument.in.On Liberty,.I.wish.to.consider. briefly.how.he.links.his.perfectionism.to.the.utilitarian.doctrine .7.In.his. Utilitarianism,.the.foundation.of.ethical.theory.is.happiness,.as.traditionally.held.by.utilitarianism;.but.here.Mill.introduces.a.new.notion.of.happiness ..Only.a.narrow.conception,.such.as.that.criticized.by.Mill's.writings. from.the.1830s,.could.view.happiness.as.a.simple.entity.independent.of.in7.I.wish.to.thank.the.anonymous.referee.for.suggesting.that.this.topic.be.mentioned . 155P. DONATELLI: Mill's Perfectionism ner.circumstances,.that.is,.of.individual.character,.as.well.as.of.the.broader. historical.and.cultural.circumstances.that.influence.individual.personality .. In. his. essay. Bentham,. Mill. criticized. his. predecessor. precisely. on. this. point,.arguing.that.individual.character.produces.in.each.person.a.specific. perspective: Every.circumstance.which.gives.a.character. to. the. life.of.a.human.being,. carries.with.it.its.peculiar.biases;.its.peculiar.facilities.for.perceiving.some. things,.and.for.missing.or.forgetting.others ..But,. from.points.of.view.different. from.his,.different. things.are.perceptible;.and.none.are.more. likely. to.have.seen.what.he.does.not.see,.than.those.who.do.not.see.what.he.sees .. (Bentham,.in.CW.X,.pp ..90–91) Accordingly,.Mill.argues. that. the. intrinsic.particularity.of.each.point.of. view.should.be.dealt.with.by.enlarging.the.mind,.and.especially.the.imagination,.through.historical.and.poetical.culture . In.Utilitarianism.this.idea.is.reworked.into.the.notion.of."competent. judges" ..As.desires.are.satisfied.or.frustrated.in.ways.that.depend.on.individual.character,.the.judgment.of.a.certain.activity.–.or,.as.Mill.writes,.of. a.whole."manner.of.existence",.of.entire.styles.of.living.(On Liberty,.in. CW.X,.p ..211).–.must.be.rooted.in.an.individual.point.of.view ..Therefore,. competent.judges.are.those.who.are.able.to.express.this.sort.of.qualified. judgment.by. imaginatively.assuming.various.and.diverse. inner.circumstances ..Judgment.is.not.expressed.from.a.neutral.point.of.view;.rather,. it.is.internal.to.the.perspective.that.calls.it.forth ..Only.someone.who.has. experienced.a.certain.activity.–.the.reading.of.novels,.for.instance,.as.a. central.activity.in.one's.life.–.can.judge.the.sort.of.enjoyment.and.happiness.to.be.derived.therefrom ..In.this.same.vein,.Mill.writes.in.Bentham. that.only.someone.who.has.personally.experienced.dramatic.situations.in. life.can.truly.weigh.their.significance.(Bentham,.in.CW.X,.p ..92) ..There. is.no.such.thing.as.happiness.or.unhappiness.independent.of.either.the.activity.in.which.they.occur.or.the.manner.of.existence.which.they.express .. Therefore,. Mill. offers. a. radical. criticism. of. a. certain. utilitarian. model. which.requires.only. the.capacity. to.calculate.consequences ..He.appeals. instead.to.the.capacity.to.understand,.to.enter.imaginatively.into.the.inner. circumstances.of.diverse.lives.so.that.one.can.determine.what.one.feels. and.sees. from.that.point.of.view ..Comparing.and.calculating.happiness. and.unhappiness.are.to.be.carried.out.from.this.perspective ..It.is.clear.that. Mill's.model.does.not.require.the.ability.to.sum.up.homogeneous.quantities.from.some.external.point.of.view.(if.this.really.was.Bentham's.idea),. but.rather.the.weighing.of.experience.from.a.personal.point.of.view . Mill's.argument.is.empiricist,.and.assumes.the.following.form ..Someone.who.has.experienced.certain.activities.and.manners.of.existence.will. 156 Prolegomena 5 (2) 2006 privilege.certain.pleasures,.certain.dimensions.of.value.according.to.which. one.may.perfect.oneself ..In.this.sense,.Mill.is.an.empiricist.(although.he. would.not.have.used.the.term.himself),.for.he.holds.that.moral.reflection. learns. from. experience .. However,. experience. presupposes. a. cultivation. of.the.self.according.to.specific.dimensions.of.value ..Mill.assumes.that. people.who.can.deliver.qualified.judgment.are.those.who.have.perfected. themselves.morally,.intellectually,.and.in.their.aesthetic.and.sympathetic. sentiments ..He.clearly.defends.this.idea.in.discussing.the."powerful.natural.sentiment".at.the.basis.of.utilitarian.morality,.that.is,.the."desire.to.be. in.unity.with.our.fellow.creatures".(Utilitarianism,.in.CW.X,.p ..231) ..This. sentiment,.Mill.writes,.is.at.the.foundation.of.all.moral.sentiments;.yet.in. most.individuals.it.is."much.inferior.in.strength.to.their.selfish.feelings,. and.is.often.wanting.altogether" ..However,.Mill.adds.the.following: [T]o.those.who.have.it,.it.possesses.all.the.characters.of.a.natural.feeling ..It. does.not.present.itself.to.their.minds.as.a.superstition.of.education,.or.a.law. despotically.imposed.by.power.of.society,.but.as.an.attribute.which.it.would. not.be.well.for.them.to.be.without ..(Utilitarianism,.in.CW.X,.p ..233) Accordingly,. one. does. not. seek. to. defend. the. moral. point. of. view. against.anyone,.particularly.not.against. the.most. insensitive.and.selfish. of.persons ..On.the.contrary,.one.assumes.the.existence.of.individuals.who. have.already.attained.to.the.moral.life ..It.is.to.these.people.that.the.empiricist. test. is.addressed ..Mill.claims. that. the.desire. to.be. in.unity.with. their.fellow.creatures.is.deeply.rooted.in.them;.that.is,.it.is.associated.with. pleasant.sentiments.in.a.way.which.resists.the.dissolving.force.of.reflection.carried.out.from.a.point.of.view.external.to.morality ..On.the.one.hand,. therefore,.we.assume.dimensions.of.value.according.to.which.individuals. perfect.themselves;.on.the.other,.however,.these.dimensions.are.worked. out.in.individual.experience,.where.they.are.confirmed.or.challenged ..Experience.is.always.qualified,.and.yet.it.has.its.own.role ..Experience.produces.different.results.with.a.change.of.circumstances,.i .e ..the.sentimental. associations.by.which.one.perceives.new.forms.of.good.and.evil,.justice. and.injustice ..This.is.the.picture.of.moral.progress.elaborated.by.Mill.at. the.end.of.Utilitarianism,.where.he.writes.the.following.words: The. entire. history. of. social. improvement. has. been. a. series. of. transitions. by. which. one. custom. or. institution. after. another,. from. being. a. supposed. primary.necessity.of.social.existence,.has.passed.into.the.rank.of.an.universally.stigmatized.injustice.and.tyranny ..So.it.has.been.with.the.distinctions. of.slaves.and.freemen,.nobles.and.serfs,.patricians.and.plebeians;.and.so.it. will.be,.and.in.part.already.is,.with.the.aristocracies.of.colour,.race,.and.sex .. (Utilitarianism,.in.CW.X,.p ..259) 157P. DONATELLI: Mill's Perfectionism III I.will.now.turn.to.Mill's.justification.of.the.principle.of.liberty ..Here.we. can.see.how. the. three. levels.are. interconnected,.and.also.examine.how. Mill.develops.his.distinctive.interpretation.of.perfectionism . Mill.treats.liberty.of.expression.in.the.second.chapter.of.On Liberty, and.liberty.of.conduct.in.the.third ..At.the.end.of.the.second.chapter,.Mill. makes.this.interesting.statement:."We.have.now.recognized.the.necessity. to.the.mental.well-being.of.mankind.(on.which.all.their.other.well-being. depends).of.freedom.of.opinion,.and.freedom.of.the.expression.of.opinion. [...]".(On Liberty,.in.CW.XVIII,.pp ..257–258) ..Of.course.this.is.no.surprise,.as.Mill's.goal.is.precisely.to.justify.the.principle.of.liberty.in.terms. of.his.distinctive.utilitarian.theory ..Rather,.what.is.really.noticeable.in.this. chapter. is. that.Mill. justifies. liberty.of.expression.on. the.grounds. that. it. favors.truth ..If.one.values.truth,.the.truths.of.scientific,.moral.and.religious. doctrines,.then.complete.freedom.of.expression.of.ideas.and.opinions.is. also.needed ..The.key.concept.in.this.chapter.is,.therefore,.not.that.of.utility. or. individual. perfection,. but. that. of. truth .. Let. us. examine. how. this. works . One.might.think.that.Mill.is.simply.pursuing.a.tactical.strategy.here,. one.which.involves.defending.liberty.based.on.a.concept.that.his.audience. already.accepts,. that. is,. the.existence.of. truths.and,.most.especially,. the. truths.of.the.Christian.doctrine .8.While.one.should.not.entirely.underestimate.the.tactical.element.in.Mill's.writing,.it.must.be.recognized.that.the. notion.of. truth. is.central. to.Mill's.project,.quite. independent.of. tactical. considerations ..Indeed,.we.know.that.Mill.conceives.of.happiness.as.the. development.and.improvement.of.higher.qualities,.among.them.truth ..This. clearly.emerges.from.his.discussion.of.the.necessity.of.error.for.truth . The.second.chapter.is.divided.into.three.parts ..In.the.first,.Mill.supposes.that.an.opinion.compelled.to.silence.is,.as.far.as.we.can.tell,.true;. in.the.second,.that.this.opinion.is.false;.and.in.the.third,.that.it.is.partly. true.and.partly.false ..I.am.interested.here.in.the.second.part ..He.claims. that.even.if.we.have.every.reason.to.believe.that.an.opinion.is.false,.it.is. essential.for.truth's.sake.that.it.be.expressed.and.defended ..Error.is.fundamental.to.truth.because.it.allows.true.opinions.to.be.defended.against.false. ones.and.thus.renewed.in.our.intellect.and.sentiments.so.that.they.do.not. become.dead.dogma.to.us . Mill. is.not. interested.here. in.a.notion.of. truth.which. is. simply. the. property.of.some.proposition,.but.rather.in.the.modality.whereby.someone. 8.G ..Kateb,."A.Reading.of.On Liberty",.in.J ..S ..Mill,.On Liberty,.eds ..D ..Bromwich. &.G ..Kateb.(New.Haven.–.London:.Yale.University.Press,.2003),.p ..42 . 158 Prolegomena 5 (2) 2006 holds.a. truth .9.The.notion.of. truth. is,. therefore,. related. to. the.personal,. inner.experience.of.holding.a.truth.in.one's.mind ..Mill.makes.two.points. here ..First,.he.argues.that.lack.of.knowledge.of.the.grounds.of.a.truth,.and. thus.the.inability.to.place.it.in.the.proper.context.of.reasons.that.can.defend. and.support. it,. transforms. it. into.a.mere.superstition ..His.second.point,. however,.is.that.a.lack.of.discussion.not.only.deprives.truth.of.its.proper. grounds,.but.often.empties.it.of.meaning:."Instead.of.a.vivid.conception. and.a.living.belief,.there.remain.only.a.few.phrases.retained.by.rote;.or,. if.any.part,.the.shell.and.husk.only.of.the.meaning.is.retained,.the.finer. essence.being.lost".(On Liberty,.in.CW.XVIII,.p ..247) ..Mill.discusses.all. sorts.of.truths.here,.scientific.as.well.as.moral,.yet.he.refers.especially.to. the.latter ..One.central.example.of.the.problem.he.is.diagnosing.is.Christian. doctrine,.whose.vital.force.had,.by.Mill's.time,.been.entirely.lost,.leaving. behind.formulas.devoid.of.any.meaning: [T]he.creed.remains.as.it.were.outside.the.mind,.incrusting.and.petrifying.it. against.all.other.influences.addressed.to.the.higher.parts.of.our.nature;.manifesting.its.power.by.not.suffering.any.fresh.and.living.conviction.to.get.in,. but.itself.doing.nothing.for.the.mind.or.heart.except.standing.sentinel.over. them.to.keep.them.vacant ..(On Liberty,.in.CW.XVIII,.p ..248) Mill.makes.his.point.here.using.nearly.the.same.words.as.in.his.writings. from.the.1830s.like.On Genius.(1832).and.Civilization,.and.a.similar.thesis.is.also.found.in.the.Logic.(see.Book.4,.Chapter.4) ..This.view,.which. connects.the.truth.of.a.doctrine.to.personal.improvement,.is.one.which.I. regard.as.characteristic.of.Mill's.notion.of.perfectionism . Let.us.now.return.for.a.moment.to.On Genius ..In.this.essay,.Mill.is.interested.in.showing.what.genius.is,.locating.it.in.the.active.mind's.capacity. to.discover.truths.by.itself ..A.person.of.genius.is.one.who.discovers.truths. on.his.own .."There.may.be.no.hidden.truths.left.for.him.to.find,".writes. Mill,.adding,.however,.that.in.another.sense.many.truths.discovered.earlier.may.be."hidden.to.him.as.those.which.are.still.unknown".(On Genius,. in.CW.I,.p ..332) ..If.knowledge.comes.from.within,.from.an.active.mind. capable.of.entering.into.the.spirit.of.a.truth.and.making.it.his.own,.there. can.be.no.knowledge.which.is.not.the.expression.of.a.higher.state.of.mind .. All.knowledge.decays.into.a.state.of.apparent.truth,.of.mere.formula,.if.it. is.not.directed.towards.elevating.the.mind.(On Genius,.in.CW.I,.p ..337) .. As.in.On Liberty,.Mill's.central.example.here.is.Christianity ..Mill.draws. up.a.speculative.history.of.epochs.and,.while.finding.a.true.capacity.for. knowledge.in.the.great.moments.of.the.Greek.mind,.he.registers.a.decay. taking.place.afterwards:."The.attempt.to.think.for.oneself.fell.into.disuse .". 9.C ..L ..Ten,.Mill on Liberty.(Oxford:.Clarendon.Press,.1980),.p ..127 . 159P. DONATELLI: Mill's Perfectionism It.was.in.this.spirit,.says.Mill,.that.the.teachings.of.Christ.were.adopted,. and."the.effect.was.fatal" . The.words.of.him.whose.speech.was.in.figures.and.parables.were.iron-bound. and.petrified.into.inanimate.and.inflexible.formulae ..Jesus.was.likened.to.a. logician,.framing.a.rule.to.meet.all.cases,.and.provide.against.all.possible. evasions,.instead.of.a.poet,.orator,.and.vates,.whose.object.was.to.purify.and. spiritualize.the.mind,.so.that,.under.the.guidance.of.its.purity,.its.own.lights. might.suffice.to.find.the.law.of.which.he.only.supplied.the.spirit,.and.suggested.the.general.scope ..(On Genius,.in.CW.I,.p ..337) What.interests.me.is.Mill's.understanding.of.these.two.states.of.the. mind:. the.difference.between. "the.man.who.knows. from. the.man.who. takes.upon.trust.–.the.man.who.can.feel.and.understand.truth,.from.the. man.who.merely.assents.to.it,.the.active.from.the.passive.mind".(On Ge- nius,.in.CW.I,.p ..334) ..Mill.distinguishes.the.apparent.understanding.of. a. truth. from. its. real.understanding;. there. is.a.difference.between. truths. which. remain. traditional,. truths. "which. we. have. only. been. taught. and. learnt,.but.have.not.been.known",.and.truths.which.one.has.really.made. one's.own.(On Genius,.in.CW.I,.p ..335) .10 In.On Liberty.Mill. returns. to. the.argument.set. forth. in.On Genius,. explaining.in.more.detail.what.was.already.suggested.there,.namely,.that. the.mind.can.be.in.a.state.of.apparent.knowledge,.in.which."a.dull.and. torpid.assent".is.given.to.a.truth,.but.there.is.no.real.entry.of.that.truth.into. our.imagination,.feelings.and.understanding.(On Liberty,. in.CW.XVIII,. p ..248) ..What.happens,.Mill.says,.is.that.we.retain.a.few.words,.but.the. meaning.is.lost . Mill.examines.the.way.in.which.words.become.connected.to.our.life. in. its. present. unsatisfactory. state,. in. contrast. to. the. point. of. view. of. a. higher.state.of.mind ..He.wants.us.to.see.what.a.truth.looks.like.when.its. meaning.has.been.regained.from.the.mere.illusion.of.such.meaning ..He. asks. us. to. consider. what. it. means. to. understand. a. truth,. rather. than. to. merely.retain.the.shell.and.husk.of.its.meaning ..With.regard.to.proverbs,. he.says.that."most.people.first. truly.learn.[their].meaning.when.experience,.generally.of.a.painful.kind,.has.made.it.a.reality.to.them",.adding. that. "the. full.meaning.cannot. be. realized.until.personal. experience.has. brought.it.home".(On Liberty,.in.CW.XVIII,.p ..250) ..There.is.a.contrast. here.between.the.self.that.has.learned.from.experience.what.words.mean,. and.the.mere.shell.of.meaning.that.impresses.itself.upon.a.mind.with.no. 10.For.a. reading.of. this. issue.connected.with.my.argument,. see.R ..H ..Haraldsson,. "'This.all.but.universal. illusion...' ..Remarks.on. the.Question:.Why.Did.Mill.Write.On Liberty?",.Sats – Nordic Journal of Philosophy.5,.2004,.pp ..83–109 . 160 Prolegomena 5 (2) 2006 experience ..Proverbs.can.be.striking.in.their.ability.to.show.us.the.sense. in.which.their.words.are.to.be.taken,.a.sense.which.destroys.the.previous. illusion.of.their.having.meant.anything.at.all,.and.which.is.connected.to. our.experience.and.gives.it.expression . In.this.way,.Mill.arrives.at.a.tension.between.the.fact.that.progress.is. measured,.as.he.writes,.by.the."number.and.the.gravity.of.the.truths.which. have.reached.the.point.of.being.uncontested".(On Liberty,.in.CW.XVIII,. p .. 250). and. the. realization. that. consolidation.of. an.opinion. contributes. to.a.loss.of.its.internal.life,.marking.the.first.step.towards.passive.acceptance ..While. Mill. is. interested. in. defending. the. idea. of. the. progress. of. knowledge,.he.also.emphasizes.that.there.can.be.no.progress.which.is.not. also.manifested.as.the.progress.of.the.individual.mind .11.Thus.all.truths. should.be.known.as.if.they.were.being.rescued.from.decay.and.corruption,. as.if.for.the.first.time,.as.the.opening.of.new.possibilities ..(Mill.had.also. expressed.this.view.in.the.Logic,.writing.that."there.is.a.perpetual.oscillation.in.spiritual.truths,.and.in.spiritual.doctrines.of.any.significance,.even. when.not. truths ..Their.meaning. is. almost. always. in.a.process.either.of. being.lost.or.of.being.recovered".(System of Logic,.in.CW.VIII,.p ..682) .. Spiritual.truths,.which.Mill.defines.a.few.lines.earlier.as."those.subjects. which.are.at.the.same.time.familiar.and.complicated,.and.especially.[...]. those.which.are.so.in.as.great.a.degree.as.moral.and.social.subjects.are",. are.always.in.the.process.of.being.lost,.since.they.fall.prey.to.an.everyday. use.that.retains.only.those.meanings.connected.to.habitual.experience.and. omits.whatever.associations.lie.outside.the.familiar ..The.capacity.of.words. to. awaken. the. mind. requires,. therefore,. an. understanding. of. neglected. meanings,.an.understanding.as.if.for.the.first.time .) IV In.the.third.chapter.of.On Liberty,.Mill.offers.a.similar.interpretation.of. freedom.of.conduct ..While.in.Chapter.2.Mill.defends.freedom.of.expression.by.virtue.of. its. internal. connection. to. the. concept. of. truth,. in. this. chapter.he.defends.freedom.of.conduct,.to.the.extent.that.it.does.not.harm. others,.by.virtue.of.its.internal.connection.to.the.concept.of.individuality . Freedom.of.conduct.is.justified.as.a.necessary.condition.for.the.flourishing. of. individuality ..The. "free. development. of. individuality,". writes. Mill,."is.one.of.the.leading.essentials.of.well-being": 11.C ..L ..Ten,.Mill on Liberty,.p ..128,.distinguishes."knowing.truth".from."having.true. opinions".in.order.to.connect.the.value.of.truth.in.Mill's.thought.to.the.progress.of.the.individual.mind ..The.tension.here.is.also.linked.to.the.internal.tension.in.Mill's.text.between. a.positivist.and.a.perfectionist.understanding.of.truth . 161P. DONATELLI: Mill's Perfectionism Where.not.the.person's.own.character.but.the.traditions.or.customs.of.other. people.are.the.rule.of.conduct,.there.is.wanting.one.of.the.principal.ingredients.of.human.happiness,.and.quite.the.chief.ingredient.of.individual.and. social.progress ..(On Liberty,.in.CW.XVIII,.p ..262) Thus.freedom.of.conduct.is.justified.insofar.as.it.promotes.individuality,.which.is.as.much.an.essential.ingredient.of.happiness.as.truth.is ..Once. again.Mill. advances.a.perfectionist. interpretation.of. the.utilitarian.doctrine ..Happiness.in.its.highest.degree.is.an.expression.of.the.achievement. of.individuality,.and.freedom.of.conduct.serves.this.end: The.human.faculties.of.perception,.judgment,.discriminative.feeling,.mental. activity,.and.even.moral.preference.are.exercised.only.in.making.a.choice .. He.who.does.anything.because.it.is.the.custom.makes.no.choice ..He.gains. no.practice.either.in.discerning.or.in.desiring.what.is.best ..(On Liberty,.in. CW.XVIII,.p ..262) Since. truth. requires. a. personal. transformation,. and. is. lost. in. mere. passive.assent.to.received.doctrines,.Mill.argues.here.that.we.are.really. ourselves.only.if.we.achieve.individuality.against.the.force.of.habit.and. custom ..We.must.be.able.to.become,.as.he.says,."more.individual.than.any. other".and.discover.our.own.desires: Not.only.in.what.concerns.others,.but.in.what.concerns.only.themselves,.the. individual.or.the.family.do.not.ask.themselves,.what.do.I.prefer?.or,.what. would.suit.my.character.and.disposition?.[...].They.ask.themselves,.what.is. suitable.to.my.position?.what.is.usually.done.by.persons.of.my.station.and. pecuniary.circumstances?.[...].It.does.not.occur.to.them.to.have.any.inclination.except.for.what.is.customary ..[...].[T]hey.like.in.crowds;.they.exercise. choice.only.among.things.commonly.done;.peculiarity.of.taste,.eccentricity. of.conduct.are.shunned.equally.with.crimes,.until.by.dint.of.not.following. their.own.nature.they.have.no.nature.to.follow:.their.human.capacities.are. withered.and.starved;.they.become.incapable.of.any.strong.wishes.or.native. pleasures,.and.are.generally.without.opinions.or.feelings.of.home.growth,.or. properly.their.own ..(On Liberty,.in.CW.XVIII,.p ..265) Mill.claims. that.people.do.not. realize. that. they.have. lost. their.capacity. for.desire,.pleasure,.choice,.and.their.own.life ..In.Chapter.2,.Mill.wished. to.show.that.truths.habitually.held.are.not.really.truths.in.people's.minds,. but.rather.only.the.shell.and.husk.of.a.lost.essence ..His.goal,.therefore,. was. to. awaken. people's. sense. of. truth. and. their. understanding,. and. to. make. them. realize. their. capacity. for. truth .. In.Chapter. 3,.Mill.wants. to. awaken.the.possibility.that.we.have.desires,12.that.we.have.pleasures.of. our. own. to. pursue .. Promoting. people's. happiness. becomes,. for. Mill,. a. 12.This.is.how.Cavell.puts.it.in.Cities of Words.(Cambridge,.Mass .:.Harvard.University.Press,.2004),.p ..97 . 162 Prolegomena 5 (2) 2006 matter.of.awakening.society.to.its.right.to.happiness,.instead.of.following. that.which.merely.appears.to.be.what.people.desire . Thus.we.find.in.this.chapter.a.movement.analogous.to.the.one.noted.in. the.second.chapter,.whereby.Mill.wishes.to.show.that.having.desires.is.not. to.be.taken.for.granted;.rather,.it.requires.a.personal.transformation ..The. possibility.of.having.desires.is.the.expression.of.an.achieved.individuality .. There.is.thus.a.dialectic.here.between.our.desire.and.our.own.self ..Our.desire.is.the.expression.of.a.cultivated.self.that.is.always.intrinsically.more. advanced,.as.it.results.from.a.constant.struggle.not.to.succumb.to.habitual. choice ..Knowing.truth.stands.in.a.similar.condition,.for.it.is.the.expression. of.a.higher.self.that.is.always.further.developed,.having.resulted.from.the. struggle.not.to.fall.prey.to.the.withering.force.of.habit . V I.shall.now.conclude.with.a.few.suggestions ..I.have.spoken.of.a.perfectionist.line.of.thought.in.Mill,.one.which.is.made.explicit.in.On Liberty,. for.example ..However,.the.notion.of.perfectionism.suggests.many.varied. philosophical.treatments ..In.one.important.strand.of.contemporary.ethical. and.political.theory,.perfectionism.refers.to.an.ideal.of.excellence.which. is.to.be.pursued.at.the.expense.of.other.values,.if.necessary;.one.such.example.is.John.Rawls's.position.in.A Theory of Justice.(§.50) .13.Although. I.cannot.enter.into.this.difficult.topic.here,.it.is.possible.to.see.how.Mill. proposes.a.notion.of.perfectionism.that.stands.apart.from.such.positions .. Mill's.notion.of.excellence.of.character.is.connected.with.the.sort.of.dialectic.that.we.have.observed.in.Chapters.2.and.3.of.On Liberty ..One's.ideal. of.perfection,.wherefrom.one.judges.the.insufficiency.of.a.present.state,. does.not.operate.from.the.outside,.as.it.were,.but.rather.works.inside.the. self,.as.the.realization.that.one's.sentiments,.beliefs.and.life.are,.in.fact,. lifeless.and.empty ..This.sort.of.realization,.this.awakening,.comes.from. within. the.self ..Thus.Mill.presents.perfection,. to.which.he.certainly.assigns.different.contents.(the.education.of.the.feelings,.whether.moral,.aesthetic,.sympathetic,.or.intellectual),.as.an.ideal.which.must.be.awakened. in.individuals ..An.ideal.of.excellence.imposed.upon.someone.would.be. the.negation.of.perfectionism.as.Mill.understands.it . It.might.be.said.that.this.involves.connecting.the.ideal.of.perfection. to. the. transformation.of. the. self;. and.Mill.does,. in.effect,.propose. this .. There.can.be.no.truth.or.choice. if. these.are.not. linked.to.a. transformation.of.the.self ..Knowing.the.truth.requires.such.a.transformation,.namely,. 13.J ..Rawls,.A Theory of Justice.(Cambridge,.Mass .:.Harvard.University.Press,.1971) .. In.this.regard,.see.T ..Hurka,.Perfectionism.(New.York:.Oxford.University.Press,.1993) . 163P. DONATELLI: Mill's Perfectionism developing.an.active.mind.that.fights.its.own.tendency.towards.passivity .. Likewise,.action.requires.individuality,.that.is,.a.transformation.of.the.self. from.one.that.feels.and.chooses.in.crowds.to.one.that.makes.an.authentic. choice.from.within . This. idea. of. linking. perfection. and. the. transformation. of. the. self. marks.a.distinctive.model.of.perfectionism.that.has.been.clearly.voiced.in. the.writings.of.Stanley.Cavell .14.It.is.not.easy.to.identify.all.the.different. uses.Cavell.makes.of.this.notion,.nor.the.various.authors.he.reads.in.this. regard ..Certainly.he.goes.back.to.a.certain.tradition.of.American.philosophy,.most.particularly.that.of.Emerson,.which.was,.one.might.say,.interested.in.defending.both.democracy.and.the.individual .15.Mill.also.seems. to.participate.in.this.line.of.thought ..He.defends.a.liberal.and.democratic. society,.but.conceives.of.such.a.society.as.one.in.which.people.driven.by. a.constant.urge.to.find.and.realize.themselves.would.wish.to.live ..Thus. perfectionism.works.as.a.force.defending.and.transforming.both.utilitarianism.and.liberalism ..Utilitarianism.is.defended.as.a.doctrine.that.locates. value.in.a.person's.pleasures.and.desires,.yet.is.transformed.by.the.perfectionist.perception.that.desire.can.be.falsified,.becoming.merely.what. others.think.we.should.desire ..Liberalism.is.likewise.defended.as.a.doctrine.that.asserts.the.freedom.to.form.one's.opinion.on.life.and.to.live.in. accordance.with.it,.but.is.transformed.by.a.perfectionist.attention.to.the. ways.in.which.liberalism.may.allow.individuality.to.weather.the.influence. of.crowds .16 References Anschutz,.R ..P ..1953 ..The Philosophy of J. S. Mill.(Oxford:.Clarendon,.2nd.ed ..1963) . Capaldi,.N ..2004 ..John Stuart Mill: A Biography.(Cambridge:.Cambridge.University.Press) . Cavell,. S .. 1990 .. Conditions Handsome and Unhandsome: The Constitution of Emersonian Perfectionism.(Chicago.–.London:.University.of.Chicago.Press) . –– ..2004 ..Cities of Words.(Cambridge,.Mass .:.Harvard.University.Press) . 14.S .. Cavell,. Conditions Handsome and Unhandsome: The Constitution of Emer- sonian Perfectionism.(Chicago.–.London:.University.of.Chicago.Press,.1990);.Cities of Words . 15.See.S ..Laugier,.Une autre pensée politique américaine: La démocratie radicale d'Emerson à Stanley Cavell.(Paris:.Michel.Houdiard,.2004) . 16.I.have.also.discussed.the.topics.featured.in.this.paper.in."Bringing.Truth.Home:. Mill,.Wittgenstein,.Cavell.and.Moral.Perfectionism",.in.A ..Norris.(ed .),.The Claim to Com- munity. Essays on Stanley Cavell and Political Philosophy.(Stanford:.Stanford.University. Press,.2006),.pp ..38-57;.and.in.Introduzione a Mill.(Roma.–.Bari:.Laterza,.2006) . 164 Prolegomena 5 (2) 2006 Devigne,.R ..2006 ..Reforming Liberalism: J. S. Mill's Use of Ancient, Religious, and Romantic Moralities.(New.Haven.–.London:.Yale.University.Press) . Donatelli,.P ..2006 . Introduzione a Mill.(Roma.–.Bari:.Laterza) . –– ..2006 .."Bringing.Truth.Home:.Mill,.Wittgenstein,.Cavell.and.Moral.Perfectionism",.in.A ..Norris.(ed .),.The Claim to Community: Essays on Stanley Cavell and Political Philosophy.(Stanford:.Stanford.University.Press),.pp ..38–57 . Halliday,.R ..J ..1976 ..John Stuart Mill.(London:.George.Allen.and.Unwin) . Haraldsson,. R .. H .. 2004 .. "'This. all. but. universal. illusion...' .. Remarks. on. the. Question:.Why.Did.Mill.Write.On Liberty?",.Sats – Nordic Journal of Philoso- phy.5:.83–109 . Hurka,.T ..1993 ..Perfectionism.(New.York:.Oxford.University.Press) . Irwin,. T .. H .. 1998 .. "Mill. and. the. Classical. World",. in. J .. Skorupski. (ed .),. The Cambridge Companion to Mill. (Cambridge:. Cambridge. University. Press),. pp .. 423–463 . Kateb,.G ..2003 .."A.Reading.of.On Liberty",. in.J ..S ..Mill,.On Liberty,.eds ..D .. Bromwich.&.G ..Kateb.(New.Haven.–.London:.Yale.University.Press) . Laugier,.S ..2004 ..Une autre pensée politique américaine: La démocratie radicale d'Emerson à Stanley Cavell.(Paris:.Michel.Houdiard) . Mill,. J .. S .. 1963–1991 .. Collected Works of John Stuart Mill,. general. editor. J .. M ..Robson,.I–XXXIII.(Toronto.–.London:.University.of.Toronto.Press.–.Routledge) . Rawls,. J .. 1971 .. A Theory of Justice. (Cambridge,. Mass .:. Harvard. University. Press) . Ryan,.A ..1974 ..J. S. Mill.(London:.Routledge.and.Kegan.Paul) . Skorupski,.J ..1989 ..John Stuart Mill.(London:.Routledge) . Ten,.C ..L ..1980 ..Mill on Liberty.(Oxford:.Clarendon) . Urbinati,.N ..2002 ..Mill on Democracy: From the Athenian Polis to Representa- tive Government (Chicago:.University.of.Chicago) .