Commentationes Humanarum Litterarum 132 2015 SECOND SAILING: Alternative Perspectives on Plato Edited by Debra Nails and Harold Tarrant in Collaboration with Mika Kajava and Eero Salmenkivi Societas Scientiarum Fennica The Finnish Society of Sciences and Letters Commentationes Humanarun Litterarum is part of the publishing cooperation between the Finnish Society of Sciences and Letters and the Finnish Academy of Science and Letters ISSN 0069-6587 ISBN 978-951-653-409-4 Copyright © 2015 by Societas Scientiarum Fennica Layout by Maija Holappa Printed by Wellprint Oy, Espoo 2015 Contents Preface i Mika Kajava, Pauliina Remes and Eero Salmenkivi Introduction iii Harold Tarrant and Debra Nails Paradigmatic Method and Platonic Epistemology 1 Dimitri El Murr Pseudo-Archytas' Protreptics? On Wisdom in its Contexts 21 Phillip Sidney Horky Plato and the Variety of Literary Production 41 Mauro Tulli The Meaning of 'Ἄπολλον ... δαιμονίας ὑπερβολῆς' in 53 Plato's Republic 6,509b6–c4: A New Hypothesis A. Gabrièle Wersinger-Taylor Dangerous Sailing: [Plato] Second Alcibiades 147a1–4 59 Harold Tarrant Bad Luck to Take a Woman Aboard 73 Debra Nails Argument and Context: Adaption and Recasting of Positions in 91 Plato's Dialogues Michael Erler Listening to Socrates in the Theaetetus: Recovering a Lost Narrator 107 Anne-Marie Schultz The Mask of Dialogue: On the Unity of Socrates' Characterization in 125 Plato's Dialogues Mario Regali Plato, Socrates, and the genei gennaia sophistikē of Sophist 231b 149 Christopher Rowe Erōs and Dialectic in Plato's Phaedrus: 169 Questioning the Value of Chronology Francisco J. Gonzalez Changing Course in Plato Studies 187 Gerald A. Press Is the Idea of the Good Beyond Being? 197 Plato's epekeina tēs ousias Revisited (Republic 6,509b8–10) Rafael Ferber and Gregor Damschen Like Being Nothing: Death and Anaesthesia in Plato Apology 40c 205 Rick Benitez Ideas of Good? 225 Lloyd P. Gerson Are There Deliberately Left Gaps in Plato's Dialogues? 243 Thomas Alexander Szlezák Plato's Putative Mouthpiece and Ancient Authorial Practice: 257 The Case of Homer J. J. Mulhern Translating Plato 279 Jan Stolpe 'Making New Gods'? A Reflection on the Gift of the Symposium 285 Mitchell Miller A Horse is a Horse, of Course, of Course, but What about Horseness? 307 Necip Fikri Alican Works Cited 325 Index Locorum 347 General Index 359 Bad Luck to Take a Woman Aboard* Debra Nails Despite Diotima's irresistible virtues and attractiveness across the millennia, she spells trouble for philosophy. It is not her fault that she has been misunderstood, nor is it Plato's. Rather, I suspect, each era has made of Diotima what it desired her to be. Her malleability is related to the assumption that Plato invented her, that she is a mere literary fiction, licensing the imagination to do what it will. In the first part of my paper, I argue against three contemporary 'majority views' about Diotima that I regard as false. The first is that we can be certain she is fictional;1 a second is that Diotima is our best evidence for Plato's feminism; the third, that she is Plato's mouthpiece for the higher mysteries in the Symposium. After I have set aside what I regard as false, I proceed in the second half of my paper to develop Diotima's positive contribution to philosophical psychology, her naturalistic account of the psyche2 as mortal, unified, and developmental. Whether the view Plato assigns to her is one that he held I do not pretend to know; but it is a powerful, defensible, and coherent view that inspired positive aspects of Freudian psychology in the twentieth century. Freud's insight, in fact, makes clear how erōs can be developed in relation to the bad as well as the good. 1. Diotima of Mantinea: Three Assumptions to Discard 1.1 That Plato created Diotima ex nihilo is widely assumed and deeply puzzling. I hold, on the contrary, that the reasons to regard a Mantinean priestess known to Socrates as having actually existed outweigh those for treating her as Plato's invention. Her fictionality is typically stated without reasons or, when reasons are offered, provided in glancing strokes.3 They are not particularly good reasons in any case. I have encountered three. 1 For the case that Diotima was assumed to have been an actual person until the modern period, see Ausland 2000, 185–86 with abundant references. 2 The least laden term I can identify for ψυχή is the ordinary English 'psyche', in use since 1590. 3 For example, Thesleff (1967, 135 and 1982, 135)-usually careful about such matters-says, 'Diotima is very probably a transformation of the Aspasia of Socratic legends who had taught Socrates "erotics"', citing Dittmar (1912, 40–41), who emphasizes that the title 'Aspasia' is attributed to works by other Socratics as well. NAILS, Bad Luck to Take a Woman Aboard74 The first is that Plato could never have met this foreign woman, otherwise absent from the historical record, who is purported to have known Socrates before Plato was born. That he could not have met her is an especially weak defense of fictionality, and not only because it is a fallacious argument from silence, especially so when applied to a non-Athenian female. Plato writes vivid accounts of others he could only have known by reputation: e.g., Parmenides, Zeno, his great-grandfather Critias. The preponderance of the evidence is that the characters in Plato's dialogues were flesh-and-blood human beings, people who show up in histories and commentaries, the epigraphical record, court speeches, and plays. Unlike the woman Socrates sees in a dream (Crito 44a10–b3) or the Eleatic visitor, Plato gives Diotima a geographical location, Mantinea, in the Arcadian interior of the Peloponnesus. She has the vocation of mystagogue, priestess of the Eleusinian Mysteries, and is credited with service to Athens. These details matter in the context of Plato's own method of composition: he mentions about six hundred people in his dialogues and letters,4 of whom 124 are present in dialogues, and 84 speak in direct or indirect discourse. Of those who speak, only two are otherwise unknown: Diotima and Philebus.5 Whereas there are no hints about who Philebus was (the name itself is not attested in Greece in ancient times), we are more fortunate in the case of Mantinean priestesses, albeit without names for more than a handful of individuals. If Plato fabricated Diotima-she who postponed the Athenian plague for ten years-he did so with abundant resources at his disposal. The unique and highly feminized religious customs of Mantinea were legendary. According to Herodotus (2.171), Egyptian rites were taught by the daughters of Danaus to women of the Peloponnese; later, Dorians drove all but the Mantineans from Arcadia, so the rites survived only there.6 Further, there is a tradition of Athenians seeking help from diviners when anticipating pestilence. In pseudo-Aristotle's Constitution of Athens 1, Epimenides of Crete purifies Athens on the condition that Alcmaeonids be banished forever, following a guilty verdict against them for sacrilege. The three-sentence account is embroidered in a number of later sources. Yet when Epimenides is mentioned in the Laws (1,642d3–e4), he is moved forward by a 4 Dubia and spuria make exact calculations otiose. 5 Protarchus, son of Callias, yields a handful of possible matches to known Athenians with the name; and transcription errors have complicated the identification Callicles of Acharnae with two contemporaries. 6 Inscriptions and later textual sources are collected in Fougères (1898, 325–26). Comm. Hum. Litt. Vol. 132 75 hundred years to postpone the Persian invasion by ten years.7 Moreover, a marble votive statue of a priestess standing beside a palm and holding a divining liver was excavated in 1887 in Mantinea, dated 425–400. Slightly smaller than lifesized, it is now displayed in the National Museum of Athens and labeled 'Stele of Diotima' though the statue's identification as Diotima is entirely speculative (Möbius 1934). A second reason proffered for Diotima's fictionality is that Plato, probably writing after 385,8 sets Diotima in about 440, alluding to the speech Aristophanes made in 416, the dramatic date of the Symposium-decades after she alludes to it. There is no such anachronism. As Kenneth Dover argues (1966, 45), neither the playwright nor the philosopher should be credited with originality: 'Plato means us to regard the theme and the framework of Aristophanes' story as characteristic not of comedy but of unsophisticated, subliterate folklore'.9 Reason number three is literary: that is, Plato-by creating Diotima-is paying homage to awesome Parmenides:10 Diotima plays the guiding role to Socrates that the goddess played in Parmenides' poem. Further, Plato embeds her so deeply-stories within stories-to signal the fact that she is removed from reality. But Socrates is not the only person in the dialogue to report a flashback, and few want to claim that Alcibiades' recollections never took place, so I discount the third reason. While I do not conclude that Diotima existed, I think the jury should still be out and, on balance, I think Plato developed the character from something Socrates reported. 7 Levin (1975, 235–37) adduces the ten-year postponement and other evidence to undermine the view that Diotima was fictitious. I thank Tony Preus for pointing me to Levin. 8 Although Dover (1966, 45) takes Aristophanes' remark about the Spartan dissolution of Mantinea (193a2–3) in 385 (Xen. Hell. 5.2.1–7) as establishing the likely date of composition of the Smp., Mattingly (1958) revived and augmented Wilamowitz's (1897, 102 n. 1) view that Plato's Aristophanes referred to a Spartan action in Mantinea in 418 instead. 9 Pace Thesleff's (1978, 140) characteristically bold examination of Plato's and Xenophon's compositions of symposia pieces, Plato does not treat Aristophanes with respect in the Smp. The revival of Nub. in about 418 would have been recent to the dramatic date. Besides, Aristophanes' criticism of Socrates continued in 414 and 405. Other reasons to think Plato belittles Aristophanes are the playwright's behaviour during Eryximachus' speech, and the pairings of the males at Agathon's victory party, which leaves Aristophanes to be coupled with his fellow demesman, the runt Aristodemus of Cydathenaeum. 10 Mitchell Miller has compared the end of Diotima's speech to Parm., fragment B8. NAILS, Bad Luck to Take a Woman Aboard76 1.2 Diotima is our best evidence for Plato's feminism-so the second falsehood goes. Diotima has been on the feminist pedestal for a while. In the 1994 Feminist Interpretations of Plato, for example, Diotima has twenty-six entries in the index, some of several pages, while the uncontested living woman who speaks in Plato's dialogues, Xanthippe, has none; and the other woman Socrates claimed as a teacher, Aspasia of Miletus, has a modest three. I take this as an example of a phenomenon I mentioned above: each era makes of Diotima what it wishes her to be. I don't disagree that Diotima says admirable things, and that admirable things spoken by a woman, especially one identified as a teacher of Socrates, are evidence that Plato's regard for women's intellects was more reasonable than that of most Greek males; and it is further noteworthy that her estimable remarks are estimable independently of her relationship to Socrates. However, stronger evidence for Plato's feminism, if the term is not anachronistic, emerges from the consistency of his theorized discussion, his arguments in the dialogues, and what we know of his life. Undeniably, he sometimes uses the dismissive language of fifth-century Athenians about 'womanish' behaviour-but such nods to realism are offset by Socrates' acknowledging men and women, priests and priestesses, instead of limiting his circle to Athenians and other males.11 Much of the gender bias attributed to Plato should rather be laid at the door of translators who make no distinction between ἄνθρωπος and ἀνήρ. But all such incidental remarks are overwhelmed in Plato by his set of arguments in Republic 5 that men and women should be trained and educated together (451e4–5) because the intellects of women, their psyches, are not different in nature from those of men (454e1–4); and the polis deserves the best guardians (456e4–5) not just the best male guardians. Republic 5 has sometimes been taken as comedy; and it has also been said that Plato allows women guardians only because the best men cannot be reproduced without them. I note, however, that Plato's Socrates could easily have stipulated that the generally weaker bodies of women (455e1) should relegate them to some subset of guardians' duties. It was not lack of imagination on Plato's part, but lack of a principled reason, that prevented it. The Republic is not our only source; at Laws 7,804d6–805b2 women and men must have the same training and education (with none of the banter of Republic 5). By that late date, there were two women in Plato's Academy, albeit foreign women.12 11 Some have taken Socrates' reference to priestesses at Men. 81a10 as an allusion to Diotima. 12 Lasthenia of Mantinea, and Axiothea of Phlius (D. L. 3.46 and 4.2). Comm. Hum. Litt. Vol. 132 77 1.3 The third falsehood is that Diotima speaks for Plato, that her advice that Socrates attempt to climb the ladder of love and enter into a life of contemplating the beautiful and the good is philosophical advice. It is not philosophical advice, and Diotima does not speak for Plato. Although she focuses narrowly on the proper ascent that goes along with paiderastia, inspiring us with the goal of the permanent possession of the good, we would do well to recall that that mature ideal is anything but permanent. By the time we reach the ladder of love, she has already established that, with age, we lose bits of knowledge we once possessed (207e5–208a4). As the Phaedrus is to rhetoric, and the Theaetetus is to mathematics, so the Symposium is to mystery religion. For all Diotima's wisdom, so admirable in the eyes of the young Socrates, what she outlines is 'a radical new vision of piety- one that utterly trumps all prior accounts', as Mark McPherran (2006, 91) put it: piety. Perhaps it was a similar inference that led David Sedley (1999, 310) to mark the Symposium as 'Plato's probable debut' on the topic of becoming like god, insofar as a human being can. For centuries after Plato's death, Platonists of antiquity almost universally considered becoming like god to be the end toward which all the striving of a philosopher properly aimed.13 Although the issue usually emerges from the Theaetetus, where the philosopher of the digression actually uses the expression (ὁμοίωσις θεῷ, 176b1), Diotima's religious ascent has evident similarities: she describes the pinnacle as divine (τὸ θεῖον καλὸν, Symposium 211e3) and the climber, 'when he has given birth to and nurtured true virtue', as 'loved by the gods' and as having such erōs as a human being can have (212a5–7).14 Both the philosopher of the digression and Diotima's climber represent idealizations-neither Socrates, nor Plato, nor any embodied philosopher. The climber eschews what is human, 'seeing beauty itself, pure, clean, unmixed, and not contaminated with things like flesh, and colour, and much other mortal nonsense' (Symposium 211d8–e4, φλυαρίας at e3), and the philosopher of the digression eschews what humans value-gossip, political power, wealth, and breeding (Theaetetus 174d3–175b4). This raises the question whether any flesh-and-blood philosopher-Socrates, or Plato, or any one of us-experiences erotic longing for permanent intellectual intercourse with the forms, something that sounds more like a mystical experience or religious rapture than anything 13 See Sedley (1999) and Annas (1999, ch. 3) for ancient attributions of the view to Plato; and Gerson (2005, ch. 8) who shows why Neoplatonists (so-called) attributed the view to both Plato and Aristotle. 14 I use the Burnet text, and Rowe's 1998 translation. ' NAILS, Bad Luck to Take a Woman Aboard78 related to philosophy. Diotima gives us what we expect from an expert in mystery religion: the good as piety, the good life as the ascetic life, communion, contemplating rather than doing, words not deeds.15 One might argue, however, that Diotima specifies a productive outcome beyond the vision itself and, in one sense, she does: 'he will succeed in bringing to birth, not phantoms (εἴδωλα) of virtue ... but true virtue, because he is grasping the truth' (Symposium 212a4–5).16 There is a literature urging that we take virtue to be knowledge, which seems particularly appropriate when, as in this case, one is grasping truth. Perhaps the ultimate vision of beauty enables the initiate to infer the implications of the form, much as having an unhypothetical first principle would be useful in revisiting what one previously grasped only hypothetically. As I argue below, there is better reason to suppose that, as Diotima suspected (209e5–210a2), Socrates did not follow her to be initiated into the higher mysteries, into her version of the permanent possession of the beautiful and the good. He was a philosopher-not a mystic, a magician, a prophet, or a priest-who examined his life by reasoning about it. Diotima's domain, 'sacrifices, rites, spells, and the whole realm of the seer and of magic' (202e7–203a1), is not the domain of philosophy. As the philosopher of the digression is not Socrates, the Socrates of the Symposium is everywhere and nowhere on Diotima's ladder of love-as Ruby Blondell has argued in telling detail.17 Both Socrates and Plato chose to conduct their lives as engaged philosophers, guiding actual human beings where they had the opportunity to do so, and creating further opportunities when they could. Socrates and Plato chose to live examined lives. How should a human being live? Socrates says 'the unexamined life is not worth living for a human being' (Apology 38a6: ὁ δὲ ἀνεξέταστος βίος οὐ βιωτὸς ἀνθρώπῳ), but Diotima says, 'life is worth living for a human being, in contemplation of beauty itself ' (Symposium 211d1–3: τοῦ βίου ... βιωτὸν ἀνθρώπῳ, θεωμένῳ αὐτὸ καλόν).18 These are not obviously compatible because no one's examined life, no matter how beautiful and good, is the contemplated 15 Within the nine character types ranging from philosopher to tyrant, the expert in mystery religion is fifth, after the physician, at Phdr. 248d3–4 (cf. R. 9,587d3–e4). 16 I thank Henry Dyson for this argument and for sending me back to Patterson 1993. 17 For the digression in Tht., see Blondell 2002, 251–313, especially 289–300; and her 2006 for the Smp. 18 Alcibiades echoes the remark at 215e7–216a2, saying of his experiences with Socrates, 'I was frequently reduced to thinking that it wasn't worth my living, in the condition I'm in'. Comm. Hum. Litt. Vol. 132 79 eternal form of beauty. But perhaps I am being over-literal. Perhaps the suggestion is that one should contemplate those things that are beautiful and good in one's life because they are expressions of beauty and the good. After all, Socrates doesn't say, Tell me, Laches, what is cowardice? Perhaps. On the other hand, what is examined in the dialogues is all manner of good and bad instances as the characters make their way toward deeper understanding of some particular virtue. To contemplate only the good apparently inhibits the dialectical process. Besides, contemplating beautiful and good things is not the same as contemplating the forms. Perhaps 'beauty' is metaphorical for a perfect mathematical proportion, implying that an examined life, well lived, resembles that ratio. Whatever the appropriate explanation for the two approaches to living, identity is not available. The evidence of how Socrates lived his own life supports the notion of an examined life: openly and constantly questioning others-even the poor, women, and old men (215d3–6)-and encouraging them to care for their psyches, while denying that he himself was wise. One might object, recalling his periods of oblivion, his daimonion, and Alcibiades' description of Socrates-imperviousness to winter cold, to alcohol, to fear, and to the wiles of the young Alcibiades. Perhaps Socrates was unworldly wise, a sage-contemplating the forms in his trances (175b1–3, 220c3–d5). That view plays havoc with the corpus: we would need to imagine a Socrates seeking permanent possession of something (the beautiful and the good) he already possessed intermittently after his initiation, despite his protests that he didn't have the knowledge he helped others to acquire. It is difficult to imagine what would motivate the maintenance of such a deception for Plato's Socrates. The conceit of the dialogue is that, as a young man, Socrates was persuaded by Diotima's words (212b1–4); perhaps the goal, however impossible, served its purpose so well that he later sought to motivate others with it, and Plato later did likewise. An advantage of taking the text in this straightforward way is that it implies neither failure nor pretense to lead an examined life. Diotima tells Socrates, 'I don't know whether you would be capable of initiation into them', the final revelations (209e5–210a2). Commenting on that passage, Cornford (1949, 125) remarks, 'I incline to agree with those scholars who have seen in this sentence Plato's intention to mark the limit reached by the philosophy of his master'. In other words, from that point, Diotima, not Socrates, is Plato's mouthpiece. Vlastos followed suit (1991, 73–74) when he identified Diotima's words as those of Socrates. The implication is that Plato saw himself as the contemplator of beauty and the other forms, saw himself as imitating the divine. If that were so, why then would Plato establish the Academy? Why attempt to reform the tyranny in Sicily despite the hardships it caused him? It is not as NAILS, Bad Luck to Take a Woman Aboard80 if there are city-founders in Athens, forcing Plato back down into the cave. One answer that comports with the texts is that Plato was motivated by knowledge and the same desire to lead an examined life that motivated Socrates.19 Plato, like Socrates, was determined to turn psyches toward the good, and no initiation into higher mysteries was required to generate that commitment. An argument against my view that Socrates does not follow Diotima to pure contemplation of the beautiful and the good (is not initiated into the higher mysteries), is that Diotima-mystic, priestess, prophetess, and mystagogue-instructs young Socrates after her initiation into the higher mysteries, implying that Socrates could go on 'giving birth to the sorts of words ... that will make young men into better men' (210c1–3).20 Diotima blocks that move almost immediately, explaining that making young men better is a preliminary stage, after which there is the initiate's sudden (ἐξαίφνης, 210e4) vision of beauty itself, when the life worth living for a human being (211d1–3), contemplating beauty uncontaminated by the human distractions of previous stages, is reached. There is another reason to doubt that we should view Diotima's exhibition as an expression of the kind of engaged philosophical commitment that Socrates and Plato showed throughout their lives: she plays the role of sage and instructor, not that of elenctic guide. I concede that Socrates prepares us for his parallel to Diotima, soothing the confused Agathon: 'I myself was saying to her other things of pretty much the very sort that Agathon was saying to me just now, that Love was a great god, and was of beautiful things; and she then set about examining me by means of the very arguments I was using with Agathon' (201e3–5).21 The content of the two conversations overlaps, but their form does not.22 Whereas Agathon asks not a single question of Socrates, Socrates turns Diotima's statements and questions into questions of his own fifteen times. Often, she simply 19 In Ep. 7,328c, explaining why he returned to Sicily a second time, despite the disastrous end to his first visit, he says he would be ashamed if he proved to be a man of words who cowered at deeds. 20 Rowe's commentary on 210a6–7 takes Socrates' initiation to be a philosophical one. On the other hand, he points to the conditional at 211e1, 'if someone succeeded', as evidence against simply assuming that anyone succeeds. Phd. 69c–d on philosopher mystics may perhaps be taken as a defense of the notion that Diotima was a philosopher; I pursue this issue from the question of where the tragedy of the Smp. lies in Nails 2006, 187–200. 21 Rowe translates 'examining' for ἀνακρίνουσα, which also has the sense of 'interrogating'; the adjective translated 'unexamined' from Socrates' famous assertion at Ap. 38a5–6 is ἀνεξέταστος- but I would nevertheless credit Diotima with encouraging Socrates to examine his own life. 22 For a very different account of the conversation from the one I present, see Wersinger 2012. Comm. Hum. Litt. Vol. 132 81 gives him the answers he seeks; to some questions, however, she replies with long didactic speeches (203b1–204a7; 207c8–208b6; 208c1–212a7); sometimes she pummels Socrates with questions without waiting for any answer (four in a row at 207a5–c1, three in a row at the end, 211d8–212a7); and sometimes she answers her own rhetorical questions without a pause (208d2–e1). Diotima needs little encouragement to dissert: Socrates says, 'If I could [answer you], Diotima ... I wouldn't be admiring you for your wisdom, and visiting you to learn just these very things', so she just obliges him (206b7–8). When Socrates cannot answer why unreasoning animals are strongly affected by love (207c2), she chides him, but when he protests that he has come to her because he needs teachers, she immediately sets off on twenty-nine more lines-'like an accomplished sophist', says Socrates (208c1). What I have just described is not like Socrates' conversation with Agathon, and not like Socrates' usual conversations with respondents. In fact, from Diotima's behaviour at argument, one might be reminded that Agathon wanted Socrates to recline beside him, prompting Socrates to say, 'It would be a good thing, Agathon, if wisdom were the kind of thing that flowed from what is fuller into what is emptier' (175d4–6). Unlike Plato's Socrates, Diotima has a kind of wisdom, and employs a didactic method, making it difficult to see her as illustrating someone's living in contemplation of beauty while also leading the examined life of the philosopher. Nevertheless, a younger Socrates might have been dazzled and motivated by her, by the prospect of such a permanent state of the psyche. If one suspends disbelief momentarily, and imagines a young man's desire to be initiated into the higher mysteries, it would be difficult to avoid asking just how essential it is to proceed exactly 'in order and in the correct way' stipulated by Diotima (210e3; cf. 211b6). After all, she herself could not have been initiated by the procedure she recommends because paiderastia was an Athenian institution for socializing males; and Diotima was not Athenian-or male. On the other hand, one cannot be a mystagogue without having been initiated. Perhaps, again, I am being too literal. The prospect of pure communion with forms might seem possible from a great distance, the distance of youth perhaps; but Socrates may have found later that the more one pursues such a goal, the more it recedes, and the more one recognizes one's own inescapable humanity and specificity. One's knowledge is shed like one's hair and skin, though that is no reason not to use the beautiful and the good to attract others into aspiring to improve their psyches. Thus far, I have been swimming against the current of contemporary views of Diotima, arguing that we have been too quick to claim that she is fictional, NAILS, Bad Luck to Take a Woman Aboard82 that Plato has better feminist credentials than Diotima's mere presence gives him, and that Diotima is no philosopher though she may point toward philosophy. Socrates and Plato were philosophers, not priests. I now turn to Diotima's positive contribution to philosophy. 2. A Naturalistic Account of the Psyche As the psyche matures in differentiation and complexity, its psychic energy, erōs, seeks greater varieties of happiness: so Plato and Freud.23 The developmental theory of the psyche-as articulated in Plato's Symposium, and explicitly appropriated by Freud-moves from the primitive erotic state of pure appetitive desire to a complex intellectual culmination. Plato's Symposium is explicitly about erōs, and most of the literature devoted to the dialogue concerns what we now label 'erotic' or sexual desire. I make a case for the role of Diotima's more generic sense of erōs,24 a sense that fits the unified and developmental nature of the psyche that tends to be overshadowed by the popular tripartite version from the Republic. Our easy contemporary separation of cognitive from conative desires-intellectual curiosity from lust, for example-is not so easy to discern or maintain in dialogues where the psyche is a cohesive whole. While the theory of human motivation in the Symposium may be rudimentary by the contemporary standards of cognitive science, it has greater explanatory power than, say, tripartition, for such situations as are encountered in the dialogues, and it has the added advantage of leaving Socratic intellectualism intact.25 I say 'advantage' not only because I consider it true that human beings seek the good, but because Plato (or the Platonists of the Academy who were working on the law code while he was spending much of his time in Sicily26) was still defending Socratic intellectualism, no one does wrong voluntarily, in the Laws (9,860d1). The psychic-pregnancy account of epistemology in Plato's Symposium (206c1–212a7) is decidedly naturalistic, comporting with other positions Diotima articulates that are equally naturalistic: (i) there is no personal immortality (206e7–8, 207d1–2), thus no appeal to anamnēsis conceived as the recall of prena23 More specifically, so Freud before the Great War and flu epidemic, so Plato of the Smp. 24 For the controversy over when exactly Diotima discusses generic and when specific erōs, see Sheffield 2006 and Rowe 1999. 25 See Christopher Rowe's contribution to this volume. 26 Nails and Thesleff 2003. Comm. Hum. Litt. Vol. 132 83 tal knowledge of Platonic forms;27 (ii) human 'pieces of knowledge' (ἐπιστῆμαι, 207e5) are forgotten and have to be studied anew (μελετᾶν, 208a4) in the course of a lifetime; and (iii) human beings occupy the continuum with other animals, passing from childhood to old age, constantly replacing their 'hair, or flesh, or bones, or blood' (207d4–e1) and, indeed, (iv) on the continuum with the single related whole of nature (210c4–5). Diotima's general description of the psyche is developmental in that an individual's psyche increases in complexity in a context of general change. Consistently, however, to be alive, to have a psyche, is to have erōs, to desire; the psyche's function is erōs. Plato's most deliberate, sustained, and independent account of desire is the developmental theory of the psyche found in the Symposium: from brute instinct to the cosmic level, and from the primitive erotic state of pure appetitive desire to its complex intellectual culmination at the end of Diotima of Mantinea's instruction.28 The distinctions we now make or observe, and often invoke, between conative and cognitive desires can obscure their origin in the same one reservoir of psychic energy, erōs, so it behooves us to take seriously the challenge that the developmental model of the Symposium poses for the tripartite model.29 After setting out the account of human psychological motivation proposed in the Symposium and clarifying Freud's explicit use of it, I argue that mystery religion cannot be more than a hydraulic lift toward philosophical satisfaction: like rhetoric and mathematics, it may be useful as a stepping stone, but the philosopher's examined life is distinct from Diotima's in two essential ways: in its attention to embodied particulars, and in its ultimate object of erotic desire, the good. The most general account of erōs in the Symposium is that of the physician, Eryximachus, according to whom everything is moved, energized, by erōs; the planets owe their motion, and the seasons their changes, to erōs; plant and animal 27 Anamnēsis conceived as learning by inference, as Leibniz describes in his Discourse on Metaphysics 26 is still in play, however: valid inference about the world is possible because the forms are present in us. Leibniz dispenses with the 'error of preexistence', as he calls it, arguing that the human intellect 'already thinks confusedly about everything it will ever think about distinctly' because each intellect expresses all forms from all time-invoking Socrates' statement that 'the whole of nature is akin' (tr. Garber and Ariew). 28 Cf. Phd. 66e2–3 where, as Dodds (1959, 261) puts it, 'wisdom as an object of passion' (καί φαμεν ἐρασταὶ εἶναι, φρονήσεως) appears. 29 Tripartition is described and supported in R. 2–5 and 8–9, and the 'continuation' of R. in Ti.; it is strongly suggested by the charioteer myth of Phdr. as well. Nevertheless, the psyche-as-stream analogy in the R. (6,485d6–8) shows at the very least that there is no fundamental incompatibility between the tripartite and developmental models of the psyche. NAILS, Bad Luck to Take a Woman Aboard84 growth, disease, and even meteorological events such as hail are all 'erotic things' (188a1–b6). Picking up on Pausanias' theme that erōs is two-one heavenly and one vulgar-Eryximachus' account of 'double Love' (διπλοῦν Ἔρωτα, 186b4) belies the notion of separation into two discrete drives. Instead, the physician emphasizes continua (hot-cold, wet-dry, the musical scale) with each extreme seeking the other to effect what medical expertise assists in producing: balance and harmony, achieved through 'knowledge of the erotic affairs of the body in relation to filling up and emptying' (186c5–7). Eryximachus, at his most grand, says erōs 'as a whole has all power' and that, when it is developed in relation to what is good, it results in 'all happiness' (188d4–e2).30 This cosmic psychology, beginning with unconscious processes,31 provides a basis for, and complements, what will be Diotima's more focused account. She considers the motivation of animals including humans briefly (206a5–208b6) then limits her discussion to specifically human motivation, not mentioning cosmic erōs or even the erōs of nonliving things explicitly, but leaving wider possibilities open: 'all of this is mutually related' (210c4–5).32 Only Eryximachus' view that erōs can be developed in relation to what is bad and, indeed, that disease and unhappiness occur under just that circumstance, may appear incompatible with Diotima's view. It is not. Diotima agrees that all desires whatever are erotic: and it is only we who 'separate off one kind of love and apply to it the name which belongs to the whole' (205b4–6). That is, we human beings fix on sexual passion, to which we apply the term 'erotic' exclusively, although erōs actually includes all wanting, loving, longing, wishing, or craving, whether irrational or rational, unconscious or conscious. In a similar move, Freud invokes 'the divine Plato'33 against critics who claim that psychoanalysis is obsessed with sex: 'What psycho-analysis called sexuality was by no means identical with the impulsion towards a union of the two 30 This description of the physician's skill is similar to that of the midwife who knows how to bring on labor pains or diminish them, how to birth and how to abort, and which matches will produce the best offspring (Tht. 148e–151d). In other respects, as has often been noted, the physical theory of Empedocles is invoked. 31 See Rowe 1998, 147. 32 Cf. Men. 81c10–d1, 'The whole of nature is akin'. Harold Tarrant objects that the Smp. text at 210c4–5 is more naturally understood as referring to the beauty in laws and customs. Kamtekar (2008) argues that the account of the powers of the psyche in the Phdr., mentioning Anaxagoras at 270a4, takes the whole cosmos into account (not just the whole psyche, and not just the psyche plus its environment, as the previous literature argues); she suggests that Cra. 400a–b may provide another parallel. 33 1920: SE 7, 134. Comm. Hum. Litt. Vol. 132 85 sexes or towards producing a pleasurable sensation in the genitals; it had far more resemblance to the all-inclusive and all-preserving Eros of Plato's Symposium'.34 Desire is initially unconscious, non-rational, and appetitive, which is only to say that desire at its most primitive is a brute fact of being alive and as true for a single-celled organism as for baby Einstein. Initially, all desire is for the avoidance of pain and the increase of pleasure. A human newborn, feeling the pain of deprivation-hunger or cold, say-desires first of all the absence of pain. Later, specific desires can be differentiated, desires for things such as food, warmth, and human contact, each of which delivers a distinct corresponding pleasure. There are unconscious desires as well. So long as there is air to breathe, an infant feels no pain of asphyxia, but it will be a long time before the recognition of oxygen as a distinct object of desire kicks in. So far, for the human infant, as for most living things permanently, the crude approximation of pleasure-good and pain-bad delivers its evolutionary advantages. The priestess leaves no doubt that, for animals including humans, erōs is the mover, the motivator, between subject and object;35 everyone is in love (205a9), and 'there is nothing else that people are in love with except the good' (205e7–206a1).36 When a pine sapling turns toward the sun, it loves the good. When an amoeba extends its pseudopod in search of the nutrition that will benefit it, it loves the good. When a toddler reaches for a bright, pretty object, she too loves the good. None can be said to have a concept of the good, so the love of the good is a love of its expression in light, air, food, warmth and so on. Eryximachus' view, that erōs can be developed in relation to what is bad, needs to be understood against Diotima's view that we love only the good. When the amoeba's pseudopod finds food, but the food is subtly toxic, the doctor's description is that the amoeba's erōs, seeking something good, nutrition, encountered something bad, toxins. If the toxins cannot be detected, then the amoeba keeps eating, developing its erōs in relation to the bad. If the bright, pretty object grasped by the good-loving toddler is an open flame, the explanation is similar: she reached for something good (bright and pretty) and encountered something bad, pain. She does not yet have the concepts of light-implying-heat or potentialpain, but those concepts will be acquired through just such experiences as this one. What were undetectable 'toxins' before the experience can afterwards be 34 1925a: SE 14, 218. In my interpretation of Freud's remark I differ from Santas 1988, 154. 35 In her mythic introduction, Diotima makes erōs an intermediary spirit between gods and human beings (202e3–203a8), wisdom and ignorance (203e5), but she then attributes erōs to animals as well (206c6–8, 207a6–208b6). 36 ὡς οὐδέν γε ἄλλο ἐστὶν οὗ ἐρῶσιν ἄνθρωποι ἢ τοῦ ἀγαθοῦ; cf. R. 6,505d5–9. NAILS, Bad Luck to Take a Woman Aboard86 avoided. If the toddler-let's call her Philia-has caregivers who know good from bad nutrition, then they offer her yummy rice, spinach, beets, and other healthy foods, smiling and praising her every bite. Philia's erōs develops in relation to what is good and she sets out on the path to happiness. Philia's cousin Sophia's development proceeds by the same principle. If her caregivers are ignorant, they feed her fast foods and sugary puddings for which she quickly develops a taste, which pleases them all mightily. The doctor says Sophia's teeth are decaying and she's overweight; as her erōs develops in relation to what is bad, she's on the path to misery. There's the rub. Do we really want to say that, despite appearances, Sophia loves the good? Yes, insofar as Sophia seeks happiness (Symposium 204e6–205a3, 205d1–3). Her wanting to be happy and wanting the good are a far cry from her having them. Crucially, one must learn that there is no necessary correlation between pleasure and good, or pain and bad. If Sophia someday learns about good nutrition, then she will struggle against the tastes she has long since cultivated in relation to what is bad.37 This is at the very root of the view that no one does wrong voluntarily.38 It is why Diotima points out that, for love of the good, people willingly amputate diseased limbs (205e3–5). For Plato and Freud, the education of erotic desire begins very early indeed. What delights one in infancy and early childhood, even before one is old enough to know the reason (Republic 3,402a1–4), affects one's later physical and psychological health.39 If little Bartholomew feels pleasure when pleasing his adored older brother and sensing his approval, then Bartholomew will enjoy and desire to repeat activities that his brother has set for him-music and books, games, puzzles, wooden blocks-all contributing in their different ways to the psyche's 'growth' in conative and cognitive features. This interaction-our being influenced and changed by contact with those we love-is something Diotima picks out as important (209c2–3). The beloved or the beautiful causes in us an increase in desire. The human psyche of the Symposium develops under the influence of need and desire, adding more complicated and convoluted expressions of its single 37 We might recall the story from Phaedo's Zopyrus that Socrates defeated his natural tendency to stupidity and lust through his efforts at reason. 38 Cf. Sph. 228c7–8, with its explicit connection to knowledge. 39 I do not mean to overestimate the malleability of infants and small children-I mean rather to keep my discussion short. One's physiological inheritance is more than just a limiting factor, and not easily controlled. Moreover, children do not automatically like the activities that give their parents pleasure. In both those senses, I am aware of my oversimplification of the interaction that results in the development of tastes. Comm. Hum. Litt. Vol. 132 87 primitive erōs. That is what it is to mature psychologically, emotionally and intellectually, and this specialization of psychic labor occurs naturally; it would fail to occur if the right stimuli were not present.40 Cognitive desires likewise have a trajectory of development.41 Just as a body needs nourishment and exercise for healthy growth and strong limbs, the embryonic capacity to learn and to reason requires stimulation through the senses and practice to grow into a healthy, mature intellect. All humans, females and males alike, are pregnant with capacities, innate ideas, that are nourished and grow under certain conditions-by Diotima's lights, in the presence of the beautiful. The psychic-pregnancy account of the Symposium (206c1–212a7) is not unique to the dialogue,42 but it is richly detailed, and it does the work managed elsewhere by anamnēsis. It explains why we learn under questioning, i.e., upon the stimulation of capacities formerly dormant; the value of figuring things out, which is rather like exercising the body; and how our holding false beliefs prevents our seeking true ones. Agathon, under the influence of Socrates' questioning, for example, is purged of his false beliefs and becomes eager to learn, much as Meno's attendant needed first to recognize that he didn't know what he thought he knew. Sometimes, as in the case of philosophical learning, the midwifery of a dialectician is needed as well. For both Diotima and Freud, the psyche responds to its environment by developing increasingly complex, finer varieties of erōs: mature intellectual curiosity manifested as scientific research into the recoil of atomic nuclei, for example, or a connoisseur's appreciation of a 1989 Amarone. Erōs is the source, the reservoir, from which all the streams of psychic energy emanate toward their many objects of desire and into which they recede. Freud's economic model of the psyche recalls Plato's metaphor of psyche-as-stream.43 Freud too emphasizes development, 40 By featuring Plato's view of the early training of the desires, Brown 2004 uncovers the deep and far-reaching similarity between Plato's R. and Lg., something even more important than explaining why there is no gap in the R. between psychological and practical justice. 41 Reason (deliberative desire), for example, is explicitly identified as a type of desire at R. 9,580d6–7, its object proving most true and permanent, and thus providing the greatest possibility for happiness. As Eryximachus promotes his expertise at filling and emptying, the argument at 9,585a–586e promotes filling the psyche with truth: a greater fulfillment (happiness) than such food and drink as fill the body. 42 The accounts in the Tht. (148d4–151d3) and the R. (6,490a8–b7) are broadly similar. While everyone can learn (R. 7,518c4–6), not everyone can learn philosophy; Socrates suggests other teachers to some would-be pupils (Damon and Prodicus in La., Prodicus in Tht. and Ap.). 43 'When the desires set strongly in one direction, we know they flow more weakly by the same amount in others, like a stream diverted into another bed', R. 6,485d6–8. See Freud's metapsychoNAILS, Bad Luck to Take a Woman Aboard88 a topographic overlay from primitive, undifferentiated instinctual desire (psyche as id, ruled by the pleasure principle), to the environment's impinging on one's ability to achieve pleasure directly (the reality principle confining the pleasure principle as ego emerges); finally, as one starts to internalize the cruel and often impossible demands of others, the superego restricts satisfaction further. We might pause to note that the tripartition of Republic is like one frame of psychic structure in the developmental movie. In her account of the higher mysteries, after she has expressed her uncertainty about whether Socrates will be able to make the climb, Diotima focuses in tightly on one segment of a lifetime, the psyche's development from adolescence (νέον, 210a5) to maturity, putting aside childhood and the aging process she countenanced earlier. The desire for happiness is the desire for permanent possession of the good, most likely to be achieved in the presence of beauty. Beauty attracts, moves, changes us.44 For the few who come under the appropriate kinds of intellectual influence, who obtain the proper nourishment during their intellectual pregnancies, and the services of a good dialectical midwife when ready to give birth, contemplation of forms yields knowledge that does not supplant their earlier experiences and learning-not if those experiences were developed in relation to the good. Rather, the increasingly competent and skilled psyche becomes more adept at achieving goals that are more likely to bring happiness in more ways. A human being-nurtured and loved in infancy and childhood by caregivers with the inclinations and information required to rear a child in good health and happiness-is a human being with fellow-feeling, empathy, and concern for the lives of others, especially others in the local environment. Training and education in rhetoric, mathematics, mystery religion, and philosophy do not remove these profound effects of early childhood on the psyche.45 One can describe a god so ethereally-or the philosopher of the digression, or Diotima's initiate into the higher mysteries-but if a psyche has developed in relation to the good, then Diotima's metaphor of the amputation of diseased limbs betrays an inadequacy in her account of the psyche: it is the wrong metaphor for abandoning the healthy objects of one's desires (logoi, youths, et al.). Yes, the economic model of the logical works, e.g., 1911, SE 12, 222; 1915, SE 14, 180–182; the reservoir metaphor has been the subject of some controversy. 44 Gabriel Richardson Lear (2006, 107) expresses the process more clearly and in greater detail. 45 Brown 2004, 286 develops this point in relation to the higher education of the guardians in R. 7, an overlay, but not a replacement of, what they learned in the description of R. 2–3. Comm. Hum. Litt. Vol. 132 89 psyche implies that the exertion of the intellect toward one objective results in diminished exertion toward other objectives, but the most productive exertion of the intellect, dialectic, requires a great variety of other objects of desire, beginning with air and gravity, and including other human beings, along with thinking. Life itself is impossible on intellect alone. In the Symposium, where personal immortality is denied (206e7–8, 207d1–2), the philosopher's death is the personal end of the story, so the question becomes, How should a human being live? The second sense in which I see the mystagogue's description of the psyche to be inadequate is in her neglect of what is unique to philosophy. Although it is unusual now to write of philosophers as if they differ in any way from other human beings, Plato regularly distinguished philosophers from others, most especially in his passages of ascent.46 What characterizes the reflecting subject as a philosopher is the insatiable desire for truths lying beyond the subject's grasp, hence love of wisdom; in Plato's dialogues, philosophers are not sages (Symposium 203e4–204b5).47 Certainties or facts, once attained, are quickly assigned to some other discipline (physics, psychology, theory of x); they cease to motivate, and lose their attractiveness, compared to what is still out of reach; at best, facts are rungs to what remains attractive. The reflecting subject's desire is so unique to the philosophical endeavor that Alcibiades calls it madness (218b3–4),48 and it has been called worse. If the developmental model of the psyche is correct, then philosophical practice increases philosophical success which, in turn, has the double effect of draining energy from the pursuit of other goals while honing the intellect of the reflecting subject, making it gradually more suitable for its pursuit of its object (at least until one reaches the age when the slipping away of 'pieces of knowledge' begins to require returning to one's earlier studies). The philosopher's interest in proximate objects-whether physical, mathematical, human, fictional, or other-is in their actual, not their merely apparent, natures, i.e., in their structure, their formal principles;49 the philosopher has no interest in making predictions à la cave dwellers. This is no less true of the contemporary philosopher of x (e.g., art, medicine, mathematics, physics) than of the metaphysician; each seeks 46 Smp. 204b4–5, R. 5–7, and Phdr. 248d2–4, 248e5–249d3. 47 R. 6,485a10–b3, 494a3, 496a11–497b7, et al. 48 Cf. Phdr. 249d4–250b2. 49 See Smp. 205e3 where x must be good (ἀγαθὸν ὄν), and more explicitly at R. 6,505d5– 506a2. NAILS, Bad Luck to Take a Woman Aboard90 as universal and fundamental an understanding of its object as possible, not just what is good about the object.50 To explain human motivation satisfactorily for the entire lifetime of a human being, from infancy to old age, Plato's developmental account of the psyche, or something very like it, is required. The unified psyche of the Symposium desires happiness and pursues a wide variety of proximate objects of desire; that no one does wrong voluntarily remains intact. Psychic conflict develops as soon as Sophia, say, wants both to binge on pudding and to refrain for her better health. According to the developmental model, all desires originate from exactly the same reservoir of psychic energy,51 and they naturally adapt to a vast array of available objects. However, because adult human beings can accurately describe the psyche's appetition and its rationality without overlap, that is, because they can distinguish the psyche's solving (as in solving for x in an equation) from its striving (as in striving to win a race), they then make the mistake of inferring that these are in fact separate and independent psychic functions. As the physician Eryximachus gave support to Diotima's psychology, Freud supports the Platonic psychology of the Symposium by isolating its essential features and imbedding them in a therapeutic program requiring analysis of the psyche-knowing oneself. Michigan State University * It was Holger Thesleff who dragged me into awareness of the material conditions of ancient academic labour. Because he sails by the stars, our many and profound disagreements have been as delightful as our collaborations, so it is a joy to honor him with this chapter. Parts of this paper were sharpened by the comments of audiences at meetings of the Ancient Philosophy Society in 2009, the International Plato Society in 2013, and the Society for Ancient Greek Philosophy in 2014. 50 More accurately, the philosopher's interest in any object is in its instan ti a tion or expres sion of forms. 51 As late as 1938, Freud wrote of 'the great reservoir, from which libidinal cathexes are sent out to objects and into which they are also once more withdrawn' (1940: SE 23, 150); echoing, 'All through the subject's life the ego remains the great reservoir of the libido, from which objectcathexes are sent out and into which the libido can stream back again from the objects' (1925b: SE 20, 56). Works Cited Adam, Adela Marion (ed.). 1914. The Apology of Socrates, Cambridge. Adam, James (ed.). 1886. Platonis Apologia Socratis, Cambridge. --- (tr.). 1965 (c. 1902). The Republic of Plato, 2nd edition, Cambridge. Ahbel-Rappe, Sara and Rachana Kamtekar (eds.). 2006. A Companion to Socrates, Malden. Alican, Necip F. 2012. Rethinking Plato: A Cartesian Quest for the Real Plato, Amsterdam-New York. ---. 2014. "Rethought Forms: How Do They Work?", Arctos 48, 15–45. Alican, Necip F. and Holger Thesleff. 2013. "Rethinking Plato's Forms", Arctos 47, 11–47. Allen, Reginald E. 1965. Studies in Plato's Metaphysics, London-New York. --- (tr.). 1984–1997. The Dialogues of Plato, 4 vols., New Haven. Alt, Karin. 1982. "Diesseits und Jenseits in Platons Mythen von der Seele (Teil 1)", Hermes 110, 278–99. Altman, William H. F. 2012. Plato the Teacher: The Crisis of The Republic, Lanham. Anastaplo, George. 1975. Human Being and Citizen: Essays on Virtue, Freedom and the Common Good, Chicago. Annas, Julia. 1981. An Introduction to Plato's Republic, Oxford. ---. 1999. Platonic Ethics: Old and New, Ithaca. Armleder, Paul. 1966. "Death in Plato's Apologia", Classical Bulletin 42, 46. Aronadio, Francesco (ed.). 2008. Dialoghi spuri di Platone, Torino. Ast, Friedrich. 1835–1838. Lexicon Platonicum, New York. Reprinted 1956. Aumann, T. 2008. Kierkegaard on the Need for Indirect Communication, PhD dissertation, Indiana University. Ausland, Hayden W. 2000. "Who Speaks for Whom in the Timaeus-Critias?", in Press (ed.), 183– 98. ---. 2006. "Socrates' Definitional Inquiries and the History of Philosophy", in Ahbel-Rappe and Kamtekar (eds.), 493–510. Austin, Emily A. 2010. "Prudence and the Fear of Death in Plato's Apology", Ancient Philosophy 30, 39–55. Baltes, Matthias. 1997. "Is the Idea of the Good in Plato's Republic Beyond Being?", in Mark Joyal (ed.), Studies in Plato and the Platonic Tradition, London, 1–23. Reprinted in Matthias Baltes, Dianoémata. Kleine Schriften zu Platon und zum Platonismus, Stuttgart-Leipzig (1999, 351–71). Barnes, Jonathan. 1995. [review of ] "Harold Cherniss, L'énigme de l'ancienne Académie, tr. L. Boulakia, Paris, 1993", Classical Review 45, 178. --- (ed.). 1984. The Complete Works of Aristotle, the Revised Oxford Translation, Princeton. WORKS CITED326 Barnes, Jonathan and Miriam T. Griffin (eds.). 1997. Philosophia Togata II: Plato and Aristotle, Oxford. Bastianini, Guido and David N. Sedley (eds.). 1995. [edition of the anonymous In Theaetetum in] Corpus dei papiri filosofici greci e latini, Commentari, 3, Firenze, 227–562. Beckman, James. 1979. The Religious Dimension of Socrates' Thought, Waterloo. Benardete, Seth. 1984. The Being of the Beautiful, Chicago. ---. 1986. "On Interpreting Plato's Charmides", Graduate Faculty Philosophy Journal 11, 9–16. ---. 1997. "Plato's 'Theaetetus': On the Way of the Logos", The Review of Metaphysics 51, 25–53. --- (tr.). 1993. Plato's Symposium, Chicago. Berger, Harry, Jr. 1984. "Facing Sophists: Socrates' Charismatic Bondage in Protagoras", Representations 5, 66–91. Berlin, Isaiah. 1953. The Hedgehog and the Fox: An Essay on Tolstoy's View of History, London. Bett, Richard. 2011. "Socratic Ignorance", in Morrison (ed.), 215–36. Beversluis, John. 2000. Cross-Examining Socrates: A Defense of Interlocutors in Plato's Early Dialogues, Cambridge. Blössner, Norbert. 1997. Dialogform und Argument, Studien zu Platons "Politeia", Stuttgart. Blondell, Ruby. 2002. The Play of Character in Plato's Dialogues, Cambridge. ---. 2006. "Where is Socrates on the 'Ladder of Love'?", in Lesher et al. (eds.), 147–78. Bloom, Allan. 1993. Love and Friendship, New York. --- (tr.). 1968. The Republic of Plato, New York. Bluck, R. S. 1975. Plato's Sophist: A Commentary. G. C. Neal (ed.), Manchester. Bobonich, Christopher (ed.). 2010. Plato's Laws: A Critical Guide, Cambridge. Bonazzi, Mauro. 2012. "Theōria and Praxis: On Plutarch's Platonism", in T. Bénatouïl and M. Bonazzi (eds.), Theōria, Praxis and the Contemplative Life after Plato and Aristotle, Leiden, 139–61. Bonitz, Hermann. 1870. Index Aristotelicus, Berolini. Bowery, Anne-Marie. 2007. "Socratic Reason and Emotion, Revisiting the Intellectualist Socrates in Plato's Protagoras", in Ann Ward (ed.), Socrates: Reason or Unreason as the Foundation of European Identity, Cambridge, 1–29. Boys-Stones, George, Dimitri El Murr, and Christopher Gill (eds.). 2013. The Platonic Art of Philosophy, Cambridge. Brancacci, Aldo, Dimitri El Murr, and Daniela Patrizia Taormina (eds.). 2010. Aglaïa: Autour de Platon. Mélanges offerts à Monique Dixsaut, Paris. Brickhouse, Thomas C. and Nicholas D. Smith 1986. "'The Divine Sign Did Not Oppose Me': A Problem in Plato's Apology", Canadian Journal of Philosophy 16, 511–26. ---. 1989. Socrates on Trial, Princeton. ---. 1994. Plato's Socrates, New York-Oxford. Comm. Hum. Litt. Vol. 132 327 ---. 2004. Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Plato and the Trial of Socrates, New York-London, 175–81. ---. 2008. "A Matter of Life and Death in Socratic Philosophy", Ancient Philosophy 9, 155–65. Brisson, Luc. 2000. Lectures de Platon, Paris. ---. 2000–2014. Plato Bibliography. International Plato Society <http://platosociety.org/platobibliography>. ---. 2002. "L'approche traditionnelle de Platon par H. F. Cherniss", in Giovanni Reale and Samuel Scolnicov (eds.), New Images of Plato: Dialogues on the Idea of the Good, Sankt Augustin, 85–97. ---. 2011. "Vingt ans après", in Jean-Luc Périllié (ed.), Oralité et écriture chez Platon, Bruxelles, 51–62. ---. 2012. "Chapter 18 of the De communi mathematica scientia: Translation and Commentary", in E. Afonasin, J. Dillon, and J. F. Finamore (eds.), Iamblichus and the Foundations of Late Platonism, Leiden, 37–50. --- (ed.). 2004. Platon: Phèdre, Paris. --- (ed.). 2008. Platon: OEuvres complètes, Paris. Nouvelle édition, 2011. Brown, Eric. 2004. "Minding the Gap in Plato's Republic", Philosophical Studies 117, 275–302. Brown, Lesley (ed.). 2009. Aristotle: The Nicomachean Ethics, revision of Ross 1925, Oxford. Brucker, Jacob. 1731. Kurtze Fragen Aus der Philosophischen Historie, Von Anfang der Welt, Biss auf die Geburt Christi, mit Ausführlichen Anmerkungen erläutert, 2 vols., Ulm. Burger, Ronna. 1984. The Phaedo: A Platonic Labyrinth, New Haven. Burkert, Walter. 1960. "Platon oder Pythagoras? Zum Ursprung des Wortes 'Philosophie'", Hermes 88, 159–77. ---. 1972. Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism, Cambridge. Burnet, John (ed.). 1900–1907. Platonis Opera, 5 vols., Oxford. --- (ed.). 1911. Plato's Phaedo, Oxford. --- (ed.). 1924. Plato's Euthyphro, Apology of Socrates, and Crito, Oxford. Burtt, J. O. 1954. Minor Attic Orators, vol. 2: Lycurgus, Dinarchus, Demades, Hyperides, Cambridge. Bussanich, John. 2006. "Socrates and Religious Experience", in Ahbel-Rappe and Kamtekar (eds.), 200–13. ---. 2013. "Socrates' Religious Experiences", in Bussanich and Smith (eds.), 276–300. Bussanich, John and Nicholas D. Smith (eds.). 2013. The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates, London-New York. Byrd, Miriam. 2007. "The Summoner Approach: A New Method of Plato Interpretation", Journal of the History of Philosophy 45, 365–81. Bywater, Ingram. 1892. Contributions to the Textual Criticism of Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics, Oxford. Calef, Scott W. 1992. "Why is Annihilation a Great Gain for Socrates?", Ancient Philosophy 12, 285–97. WORKS CITED328 Campbell, Lewis (ed.). 1867. The Sophistes and Politicus of Plato, Oxford. Reprinted New York 1973. Capra, Andrea. 2014. Plato's Four Muses: The Phaedrus and the Poetics of Philosophy, Washington. Capuccino, Carlotta. 2014. Phaedrus: ΑΡΧΗ ΛΟΓΟΥ: Sui proemi platonici e il loro significato filosofico, Firenze. Carlini, Antonio. 1962. "Alcuni dialoghi pseudo-platonici e l'Accademia di Arcesilao", Annali della Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, Classe di Lettere e di Filosofia 31, 33–63. --- (ed.). 1964. Platone: Alcibiade, Alcibiade secondo, Ipparco, Rivali, Torino. Carron, Paul and Anne-Marie Schultz. 2014. "The Virtuous Ensemble: Socratic Harmony and Psychological Authenticity", Southwest Philosophy Review 30, 127–36. Centrone, Bruno. 1990. Pseudopythagorica Ethica: I trattati morali di Archita, Metopo, Teage, Eurifamo, Napoli. ---. 2000a. "La letteratura pseudopitagorica: origine, diffusione, finalità", in G. Cerri (ed.), La letteratura pseudepigrafa nella cultura greca e romana, Napoli, 429–52. ---. 2000b. "Platonism and Pythagoreanism in the Early Empire", in Christopher J. Rowe and Malcolm Schofield (eds.), The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Political Thought, Cambridge, 559–84. ---. 2014. "The pseudo-Pythagorean Writings", in Huffman (ed.), 315–40. Chambry, Émile (tr.). 1933. Platon. OEuvres complètes, 7.1: La République: Livres 4–7, Paris. Chance, Thomas H. 1992. Plato's Euthydemus, Berkeley. Charalabopoulos, Nikos G. 2012. Platonic Drama and its Ancient Reception, Cambridge. Chen, Ludwig C. H. 1992. Acquiring Knowledge of the Ideas, Stuttgart. Cherniss, Harold F. 1932. "On Plato's Republic X 597B", American Journal of Philology 53, 233–42. ---. 1944. Aristotle's Criticism of Plato and the Academy, Baltimore. Classen, Carl Joachim. 1959. Sprachliche Deutung als Triebkraft platonischen und sokratischen Philosophierens, München. Clay, Diskin. 2000. Platonic Questions: Dialogues with the Silent Philosopher, University Park. Coby, Patrick. 1987. Socrates and the Sophistic Enlightenment, A Commentary on Plato's Protagoras, Lewisburg. Collins, James Henderson, II. 2015. Exhortations to Philosophy: The Protreptics of Plato, Isocrates, and Aristotle, Oxford. Cooper, John M. (ed.). 1997. Plato: Complete Works, Indianapolis. Cornelli, Gabriele. 2013. In Search of Pythagoreanism, Berlin. Cornelli, Gabriele, Richard McKirahan, and Constantinos Macris (eds.). 2013. On Pythagoreanism, Berlin. Cornford, Francis McDonald. 1971 (c. 1949). "The Doctrine of Eros in Plato's Symposium", in Gregory Vlastos (ed.), Plato II: A Collection of Critical Essays, Notre Dame, 119–31. --- (tr.). 1937. Plato's Cosmology: The Timaeus of Plato, London. --- (tr.). 1941. The Republic of Plato, London. Comm. Hum. Litt. Vol. 132 329 Croiset, Maurice. 1953. Platon, Oeuvres complètes, Tome 1, Paris. Crombie, Ian MacHattie. 1963. An Examination of Plato's Doctrines, vol. 2: Plato on Knowledge and Reality, London-New York. Cross, R. C. and A. D. Woozley. 1964. Plato's Republic, A Philosophical Commentary, London. Curd, Patricia. 2004. The Legacy of Parmenides: Eleatic Monism and Later Presocratic Thought, Las Vegas. Curley, Edwin (tr.). 1985. The Collected Works of Spinoza, vol. 1, Princeton. Dalfen, Joachim. 1974. Polis und Poiesis, München. Damschen, Gregor. 2003. "Grenzen des Gesprächs über Ideen. Die Formen des Wissens und die Notwendigkeit der Ideen in Platons Parmenides", in Gregor Damschen, Rainer Enskat, and Alejandro G. Vigo (eds.), Platon und Aristoteles-sub ratione veritatis, Göttingen, 31–75. Dancy, Russell M. 2004. Plato's Introduction of Forms, Cambridge. De Lacy, Phillip H. and Benedict Seneca Einarson (tr.). 1967. Plutarch, Moralia, vol. XIV, Cambridge-London. Delcomminette, Sylvain. 2000. L'inventivité dialectique dans le Politique de Platon, Bruxelles. Déniz, Alcorac Alonso. 2011. "An Arcadian Toast (Harmod. FGrH 319F1)", Mnemosyne 64, 232– 48. Denyer, Nicholas. 1983. "Plato's Theory of Stuffs", Philosophy 58, 315–27. ---. 2007. "Sun and Line: The Role of the Good", in Ferrari (ed.), 284–309. Derrida, Jacques. 2004. "La Pharmacie de Platon", in Brisson (ed.), 257–387. De Sanctis, Dino. 2015. "Le scene d'incontro nel dialogo di Platone", in Mauro Tulli (ed.), Testo e forme del testo. Ricerche di filologia filosofica, Pisa-Roma, 49–88. Des Places, Édouard. 1966. Jamblique. Les mystères d'Égypte, Paris. Destrée, Pierre and Fritz-Gregor Herrmann (eds.). 2011. Plato and the Poets, Leiden. de Strycker, Émile and Simon Roelof Slings. 1994. Plato's Apology of Socrates. A Literary and Philosophical Study with a Running Commentary, Leiden-New York-Köln. Détienne, Marcel (ed.). 1988. Les Savoirs de l'écriture en Grèce Ancienne, Villeneuve-d'Ascq. Dillon, John. 1977. The Middle Platonists: A Study of Platonism 80 BC to AD 220, London. ---. 1990. The Golden Chain. Studies in the Development of Platonism and Christianity, Aldershot. ---. 1996. The Middle Platonists: 80 B.C. to A.D. 220, London. ---. 2003. The Heirs of Plato: A Study of the Old Academy, Oxford. ---. 2012. "Dubia and Spuria", in Gerald A. Press (ed.), The Continuum Companion to Plato, London-New York, 49–52. ---. 2014. "Pythagoreanism in the Academic Tradition: The Early Academy to Numenius", in Huffman (ed.), 250–73. Dirlmeier, Franz. 1962. Merkwürdige Zitate in der Eudemischen Ethik des Aristoteles, Heidelberg. WORKS CITED330 Dittmar, Heinrich. 1912. Aischines von Sphettos: Studien zur Literaturgeschichte der Sokratiker. Untersuchungen und Fragmente, Berlin. Dixsaut, Monique. 2000. Platon et la question de la pensée, Paris. ---. 2001. Métamorphoses de la dialectique dans les Dialogues de Platon, Paris. ---. 2013. "Macrology and Digression", in Boys-Stones et al. (eds.), 10–26. Dixsaut, Monique (tr.). 1991, Platon: Phédon, Paris. Dodds, E. R. (ed.). 1959. Plato: Gorgias: A Revised Text with Introduction and Commentary, Oxford. Revised edition, 1966. Dorion, Louis-André. 2010. "L'impossible autarcie du Socrate de Platon", in L. Rossetti and A. Stavru (eds.), Socratica 2008: Studies in Ancient Socratic Literature, Bari, 137–58. ---. 2011. "The Rise and Fall of the Socratic Problem", in Morrison (ed.), 1–23. Dorter, Kenneth. 1982. Plato's Phaedo: An Interpretation, Toronto. ---. 1990. "Diaeresis and the tripartite soul in the Sophist", Ancient Philosophy 10, 41–61. ---. 2006. "The Method of Division and the Division of the Phaedrus", Ancient Philosophy 26, 259–73. Duke, E. A., W. F. Hicken, W. S. M. Nicoll, D. B. Robinson, and J. C. G. Strachan (eds.). 1995. Platonis Opera, vol. 1, Euthyphro, Apologia Socratis, Crito, Phaedo, Cratylus, Sophista, Politicus, Theaetetus, Oxford. Ebert, Theodor. 2003. "The Role of the Frame Dialogue in Plato's Protagoras", in Aleš Havliček and Filip Karfík (eds.), Proceedings of the Third Symposium Platonicum Pragense, Prague, 9–20. Ehnmark, Erland. 1946. "Socrates and the Immortality of the Soul", Eranos Rudbergianus 44, 105–22. Eisner, Robert. 1982. "Socrates as Hero", Philosophy and Literature 6, 106–18. El Murr, Dimitri. 2002. "La symplokè politikè: le paradigme du tissage dans le Politique de Platon, ou les raisons d'un paradigme arbitraire", Kairos 19, 49–95. ---. 2013a. "Reflective commentary (2): appearance, reality and the desire for the good", in Boys-Stones et al. (eds.), 122–9. ---. 2013b. "Desmos et logos: de l'opinion droite à la connaissance (Ménon, 97e–98a et Théétète, 201c–210b)", in D. El Murr (ed.), La Mesure du savoir: Études sur le Théétète, Paris, 151–71. ---. 2014. Savoir et gouverner: Essai sur la science politique platonicienne, Paris. Emlyn-Jones, C. J. and William Preddy (tr.). 2013. Republic Books 6–10, Cambridge. Erler, Michael. 1987. Der Sinn der Aporien in den Dialogen Platons, Berlin-New York. ---. 2003a. [review of ] "N. Blössner, Dialogform und Argument, Studien zu Platons 'Politeia', Stuttgart, 1997", Gnomon 75, 392–5. ---. 2003b. "To Hear the Right Thing and to Miss the Point: Plato's Implicit Poetics", in Michelini (ed.), 153–73. ---. 2006. Platon, München. Comm. Hum. Litt. Vol. 132 331 ---. 2007. "Platon", in H. Flashar (ed.), Die Philosophie der Antike Bd. 2,2. Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophie. Begründet von Friedrich Ueberweg. Völlig neu bearbeitete Ausgabe, Basel. ---. 2009. "The Fox Knoweth Many Things, the Hedgehog One Great Thing: the Relation of Philosophical Concepts and Historical Contexts in Plato's Dialogues", Hermathena 187, 5–26. ---. 2012. "'Vieles weiss der Fuchs, aber eine grosse Sache der Igel': zum Verhältnis von philosophischer Einheit und literarischer Poikilia bei Platon", in U. Bruchmüller (ed.), Platons Hermeneutik und Prinzipiendenken im Licht der Dialoge und der antiken Tradition: Festschrift für Thomas Alexander Szlezák zum 70. Geburtstag, Hildesheim, 99–120. ---. 2013a. "Argument im Kontext: Das dritte Argument für die Eudaimonie des Gerechten in der Politeia (583b ff.) und der 'Griesgram' im Philebos (42c–44d)", in Noburu Notomi and Luc Brisson (eds.), Dialogues on Plato's Politeia (Republic): Selected Papers from the Ninth Symposium Platonicum, Sankt Augustin, 76–81. ---. 2013b. "Plasma und Historie: Platon über die Poetizität seiner Dialoge", in M. Erler and J. E. Hessler (eds.), Argument und literarische Form in antiker Philosophie. Akten des 3. Kongresses der Gesellschaft für antike Philosophie 2010, Berlin-Boston, 59–84. ---. forthcoming. "Crying for Help: Socrates as papposilenus in the Euthydemus", in F. de Luise, C. Moore, and A. Stavru (eds.), A Companion to Socrates and the Socratic Dialogue, Leiden. Ferber, Rafael. 1989 (c. 1984). Platos Idee des Guten, 2nd edition, Sankt Augustin. ---. 1995. "Für eine propädeutische Lektüre des Politicus", in Christopher Rowe (ed.), III Symposium Platonicum, Sankt Augustin, 63–74. ---. 2003a. Philosophische Grundbegriffe 2, München. ---. 2003b. "L'idea del bene è o non è trascendente. Ancora su epekeina tēs ousias", in M. Bonazzi and F. Trabattoni (eds.), Platone e la tradizione platonica. Studi di filosofia antica, Milano, 127–49. ---. 2005. "Ist die Idee des Guten nicht transzendent oder ist sie es doch? Nochmals Platons EPEKEINA TES OUSIAS", in Damir Barbarić (ed.), Platon über das Gute und die Gerechtigkeit / Plato on Goodness and Justice / Platone sul Bene e sulla Giustizia, Würzburg, 149–74. ---. 2013. "Was jede Seele sucht und worumwillen sie alles tut", Elenchos 34, 5–31. ---. 2015a. "Le Bien de Platon et le problème de la transcendance du Principe", in A. Gabrièle Wersinger (ed.), Séminaire de recherches sur "Les Principes: philosophie et pensée rituelle", ENS Ulm, séance du 28 Janvier. ---. 2015b. Platos Idee des Guten, 3rd edition, Sankt Augustin. Ferrari, G. R. F. 1992. "Platonic Love", in Richard Kraut (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Plato, Cambridge, 248–76. --- (ed.). 2007. The Cambridge Companion to Plato's Republic, Cambridge. Festa, Nicola (ed.). 1891. Iamblichi De communi mathematica scientia liber, Lipsiae. Festugière, André-Jean (tr.). 1970. Proclus, Commentaires sur la République de Platon, Paris. WORKS CITED332 Findlay, John N. 1974. "Appendix 1: Translated Passages Illustrating Plato's Unwritten Doctrines", in Plato: The Written and the Unwritten Doctrines, London 1974, 413–54. Fine, Gail. 2008. "Does Socrates Claim to Know That He Knows Nothing?", Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy 35, 49–88. Fougères, Gustave. 1898. Mantinée et l'Arcadie orientale, Paris. Franklin, Lee. 2005. "Recollection and Philosophical Reflection in Plato's Phaedo", Phronesis 50, 289–314. Frede, Dorothea. 1996. "The hedonist's conversion", in Christopher Gill and M. M. McCabe (eds.), Form and Argument in Late Plato, Oxford. ---. 1999. Phaidon: Der Traum von der Unsterblichkeit der Seele, Darmstadt. --- (tr.). 1993. Plato, Philebus, Indianapolis. --- (tr.). 1997. Platon, Philebos, Göttingen. Freud, Sigmund. 1911. Formulations on the Two Principles of Mental Functioning, Standard Edition vol. 12, New York, 213–26. ---. 1915. The Unconscious, Standard Edition vol. 14, 159–215. ---. 1920. Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality, preface to the 4th edition, Standard Edition vol. 7, 123–245. ---. 1925. An Autobiographical Study, Standard Edition vol. 20, 1–74. ---. 1940. An Outline of Psycho-analysis, Standard Edition vol. 23, 139–207. Fuhrmann, Manfred (tr.). 1986. Apologie des Sokrates, Stuttgart. Gadamer, Hans-Georg. 1969. "Schleiermacher als Platoniker", in Gesammelte Werke 4, Tübingen 1987, 374–83. Gaiser, Konrad. 1968 (c. 1963). "Testimonia Platonica. Quellentexte zur Schule und mündlichen Lehre Platons", in Platons ungeschriebene Lehre, 2nd edition, Stuttgart, 441–557. ---. 1984. Platone come scrittore filosofico. Saggi sull'ermeneutica dei dialoghi platonici, Napoli. Reprinted in Gesammelte Schriften, Sankt Augustin 2004, 3-72. Gallop, David. 1963. "Plato and the Alphabet", Philosophical Review, 72, 364–76. Garber, Daniel and Roger Ariew (tr.). 1989. [G. W. Leibniz] Philosophical Essays, Indianapolis. Geach, Peter. 1956. "Good and Evil", Analysis 17, 32–42. Geier, Alfred. 2002. Plato's Erotic Thought: The Tree of the Unknown, Rochester. Gerson, Lloyd P. 2004. "Platonism and the Invention of the Problem of Universals", Archiv für Geschichte der Philosophie 86, 233–56. ---. 2005. Aristotle and Other Platonists, Ithaca. ---. 2013. From Plato to Platonism, Ithaca. Giannantoni, Gabriele. 1990 (c. 1983). Socratis et Socraticorum Reliquiae. 4 vols., Napoli. Giannopoulou, Zina. 2001. "The 'Sophist of Noble Lineage' Revisited: Plato's Sophist 226b1– 231b8", Illinois Classical Studies 26, 101–24. Gilead, A. 1994. The Platonic Odyssey: A Philosophical-Literary Inquiry into the Phaedo, Amsterdam. Comm. Hum. Litt. Vol. 132 333 Gill, Christopher. 1980. The Atlantis Story, Bristol. Gill, Mary Louise. 2012. Philosophos: Plato's Missing Dialogue, Oxford. Giuliano, Fabio Massimo. 2005. Platone e la poesia: teoria della composizione e prassi della ricezione, Sankt Augustin. Godel, R. 1954. "Socrate et Diotime", Bulletin de l'Association Guillaume Budé 13, 3–30. Goldschmidt, Victor. 1985 (c. 1947). Le paradigme dans la dialectique platonicienne, Paris. Gómez Robledo, Antonio (tr.). 1971. Platón, República, México City. Gonzalez, Francisco J. 1995. "Plato's Lysis: An Enactment of Philosophical Kinship", Ancient Philosophy 15, 69–90. ---. 2003a. "How to Read a Platonic Prologue: Lysis 203a–207d", in Michelini (ed.), 15–44. ---. 2003b. "Plato's Dialectic of Forms", in William Welton (ed.), Plato's Forms: Varieties of Interpretation, Lanham, 31–83. Griffin, Michael J. 2015. Aristotle's Categories in the Early Roman Empire, Oxford. Griswold, Charles L. 1986. Self-Knowledge in Plato's Phaedrus, New Haven. ---. 2011. "Socrates' Political Philosophy", in Morrison (ed.), 333–54. Groden, Suzy (tr.). 1970. The Symposium of Plato, John Brentlinger (ed.), Amherst. Grube, G. M. A. (tr.). 1997. Apology, in Cooper (ed.), 18–36. --- (tr.). 1997 (c. 1928). Republic, revised by C. D. C. Reeve, Indianapolis. Reprinted in Cooper (ed.), 972–1,223. Guéraud, Octave and Pierre Jouguet (eds.). 1938. Un livre d'écolier du IIIe siècle avant J.-C., Le Caire. Gundert, Hermann. 1952. "Die Simonides-Interpretation in Platons Protagoras", in Hermeneia: Festschrift für Otto Regenbogen zum 60. Geburtstag, Heidelberg, 71–93. ---. 1971. Dialog und Dialektik: Zur Struktur des Platonischen Dialogs, Amsterdam. Hackforth, R. 1945. Plato's Examination of Pleasure, Cambridge. Haden, James. 1997. "On the Hippias Minor: Achilles, Odysseus, Socrates", in Hart and Tejera (eds.), 143–68. Halliwell, Stephen. 2002. The Aesthetics of Mimesis, Princeton. Halperin, David. 1992. "Plato and the Erotics of Narrativity", in J. C. Klagge and Nicholas D. Smith (eds.), Methods of Interpreting Plato and His Dialogues. Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy, suppl. vol., Oxford, 93–129. Hart, Richard and Victorino Tejera (eds.). 1997. Plato's Dialogues-The Dialogical Approach, Lewiston. Heidegger, Martin. 2012. Seminare: Platon-Aristoteles-Augustinus, Frankfurt am Main. Heindorf, Ludwig Friedrich (ed.). 1809. Platonis Phaedo, Berolini. Heitsch, Ernst (tr.). 1997. Phaidros, Platon Werke 3.4, 2nd edition, Göttingen. Hicks, R. D. (tr.). 1925. [Diogenes Laertius] Lives of Eminent Philosophers, 2 vols., Cambridge. WORKS CITED334 Horky, Phillip Sidney. 2011. "Herennius Pontius: The Construction of a Samnite Philosopher", Classical Antiquity 30, 119–47. ---. 2013. Plato and Pythagoreanism, Oxford. ---. 2014. "The Peripatetics on the Pythagoreans", in Huffman (ed.), 274–95. Horky, Phillip Sidney and Monte Ransome Johnson. forthcoming. "On Law and Justice Attributed to Archytas of Tarentum", in David C. Wolfsdorf (ed.), Early Greek Ethics, Oxford. Horneffer, August (tr.). 1955. Platon: Der Staat, Stuttgart. Hose, Martin. 1998. "Fragment und Kontext, zwei Methoden der Interpretation in der griechischen Literatur", in J. Holzhausen (ed.), Psyche-Seele-Anima: Festschrift für Karin Alt zum 7. Mai 1998, Stuttgart-Leipzig, 89–112. Howland, Jacob. 1991. "Re-Reading Plato: The Problem of Platonic Chronology", Phoenix 45, 189–214. ---. 1998. The Paradox of Political Philosophy, Lanham. Huffman, Carl A. 2005. Archytas of Tarentum: Pythagorean, Philosopher, and Mathematician King, Cambridge. --- (ed.). 2014. A History of Pythagoreanism, Cambridge. Humbert, Jean. 1960. Syntaxe grecque, Paris. Hunter, Richard. 2006. "Plato's Symposium and the Traditions of Ancient Fiction", in Lesher et al. (eds.), 295–312. Hutchinson, Douglas S. (tr.). 1997. Second Alcibiades, in Cooper (ed.), 596–608. Hutchinson, Douglas S. and Monte Ransome Johnson. forthcoming. Iamblichus: Protrepticus, Cambridge. Prepublication version available at www.protrepticus.info/ protreprecon2015i20.pdf. Hyland, Drew A. 1981. The Virtue of Philosophy: An Interpretation of Plato's Charmides, Athens. Inglis, Kristen. 2015. [review of ] "James Warren and Frisbee C. C. Sheffield, Routledge Companion to Ancient Philosophy, 2014", Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews <https://ndpr.nd.edu/ news/56011-the-routledge-companion-to-ancient-philosophy/>. Ionescu, Cristina. 2007. "The Unity of the Philebus: Metaphysical Assumptions of the Good Human Life", Ancient Philosophy 27, 55–7. ---. 2012. "Recollection and the Method of Collection and Division in the Phaedrus", Journal of Philosophical Research 37, 1–24. ---. 2013. "Dialectic in Plato's Sophist: Division and the Communion of Kinds", Arethusa 46, 41–64. Ioppolo, Anna Maria. 1986. Opinione e scienza. Il dibattito tra Stoici e Accademici nel III e nel II secolo a.C., Napoli. Irwin, Terence H. 1977. Plato's Moral Theory, Oxford. ---. 1995. Plato's Ethics, New York. Johnson, David M. (tr.). 2003. Socrates and Alcibiades: Four Texts, Newburyport. Comm. Hum. Litt. Vol. 132 335 Johnson, Marguerite and Harold Tarrant (eds.). 2012. Alcibiades and the Socratic Lover-educator, London. Johnson, Monte Ransome. 2005. Aristotle on Teleology, Oxford. ---. 2008. "Sources for the Philosophy of Archytas", Ancient Philosophy 28, 173–99. Joly, Henri. 1986. "Platon entre le maître d'école et le fabricant de mots: remarques sur les grammata", in H. Joly (ed.), Philosophie du langage et grammaire dans l'Antiquité, BruxellesGrenoble, 105–36. Jowett, Benjamin (tr.). 1892. The Dialogues of Plato, Oxford. Joyce, Michael (tr.). 1961. Symposium, in Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns (eds.), The Collected Dialogues of Plato, Princeton. Kahn, Charles. 1990. "Plato as a Socratic", in Hommage à Henri Joly. Recherches sur la philosophie et le langage 12, 233–58. ---. 1996. Plato and the Socratic Dialogue: The Philosophical Use of a Literary Form, Cambridge. ---. 2010. "L'importance philosophique de la forme du dialogue pour Platon", in Brancacci et al. (eds.), 69–81. ---. 2013. Plato and the Post-Socratic Dialogue: The Return to the Philosophy of Nature, Cambridge. Kalbfleisch, C. (ed.). 1907. Commentaria in Aristotelem Graeca, vol. 8, Berlin. English tr. 2000– 2003, Ancient Commentators on Aristotle, 4 vols., London. Kamtekar, Rachana. 1997. "Philosophical Rule from the Republic to the Laws: Commentary on Schofield", in John J. Cleary and Gary M. Gurtler (eds.), Proceedings of the Boston Area Colloquium in Ancient Philosophy 13, 242–52. ---. 2006. "Plato on the Attribution of Conative Attitudes", Archiv für Geschichte der Philosophie 88, 127–62. Kannicht, Richard and Bruno Snell (ed.). 1971–2004. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta, 5 vols., Göttingen. Karamanolis, George E. 2006. Plato and Aristotle in Agreement? Platonists on Aristotle from Antiochus to Porphyry, Oxford. Kerferd, G. B. 1954. "Plato's Noble Art of Sophistry (Sophist 226a–231b)", Classical Quarterly n.s. 4, 84–90. ---. 1986. "Le sophiste vu par Platon: un philosophe imparfait", in Barbara Cassin (ed.), Positions de la sophistique, Paris, 63–85. Ketchum, Jonathan. 1981. The Structure of the Platonic Dialogue, PhD dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo. King, J. E. (ed.). 1927. Cicero. Tusculan Disputations, Cambridge. Klonoski, Richard J. 1986. "The Portico of the Archon Basileus: On the Significance of the Setting of Plato's Euthyphro", Classical Journal 81, 130–7. Krämer, Hans Joachim. 1959. Arete bei Platon und Aristoteles, Heidelberg. ---. 1964. Der Ursprung der Geistmetaphysik: Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des Platonismus zwischen Platon und Plotin, Amsterdam. 2nd edition, 1967. WORKS CITED336 ---. 2014. "Platons Definition des Guten", in H. Krämer, Gesammelte Aufsätze zu Platon, Dagmar Mirbach (ed.), Berlin, 236–40. Originally published in Denken-Gedanken- Andenken. Zum 90. Geburtstag von Elsbeth Büchin, Messkirch (2009, 135–40). Kraut, Richard (ed.). 1992. The Cambridge Companion to Plato, Cambridge. Kroll, Wilhelm (ed.). 1899–1901. Procli Diadochi in Platonis Rem publicam commentarii, 2 vols., Leipzig. Reprinted Amsterdam 1965. Kühn, Wilfried. 2010. "L'utilisation rhétorique de la dialectique dans le Phédre", in Brancacci et al. (eds.), 259–73. Lafrance, Yvon. 1987. Pour interpréter Platon: la Ligne en République VI 509d–511e; bilan analytique des études (1804–1984), Montréal. Lamb, W. R. M. (tr.). 1955. Charmides; Alcibiades 1 and 2; Hipparchus; the Lovers; Theages; Minos; Epinomis, London. Landy, Tucker. 1998. "Limitations of Political Philosophy: An Interpretation of Plato's Charmides", Interpretation 26, 183–99. Lane, Melissa S. 1998. Method and Politics in Plato's Statesman, Cambridge. Lasserre, François (ed.). 1954. "Fragments de l'Aréopagitique de Damon d'Athènes", in [Plutarch] De la Musique, Lausanne. Lattimore, Richard (tr.). 1961. The Iliad of Homer, Chicago. Lear, Gabriel Richardson. 2006. "Permanent Beauty and Becoming Happy in Plato's Symposium", in Lesher et al. (eds.), 96–123. Leroux, Georges (tr.). 2002. Platon, La République, Paris. Lesher, J. H., Debra Nails, and Frisbee C. C. Sheffield (eds.). 2006. Plato's Symposium: Issues in Interpretation and Reception, Cambridge. Lesser, Harry. 1982. "Style and Pedagogy in Plato and Aristotle", Philosophy 57, 388–94. Levett, F. M. Jane (tr.). 1990 (c. 1928). The Theaetetus of Plato, revised by Myles Burnyeat, Indianapolis. Reprinted in Cooper (ed.), 158–234. Levin, Saul. 1975. "Diotima's Visit and Service to Athens", Grazer Beiträge 4, 223–40. Löwenclau, Ilse von. 1961. Der platonische Menexenos, Stuttgart. Lombardo, Stanley (tr.). 1997. Lysis, in Cooper (ed.), 687–707. Lombardo, Stanley and Karen Bell (tr.). 1997. Protagoras, in Cooper (ed.), 746–90. Long, A. A. 2013. "The eclectic Pythagoreanism of Alexander Polyhistor", in Malcolm Schofield (ed.), Aristotle, Plato, and Pythagoreanism in the First Century BC: New Directions for Philosophy, Cambridge, 139–59. Long, Alex (tr.). 2010. Meno and Phaedo, Cambridge. Loraux, Nicole. 1981. L'invention d'Athènes: Histoire de l'oraison funèbre dans la "cité classique", Paris. Nouvelle édition abrégée, augmentée d'une préface, 1993. ---. 1985. "Socrate, Platon, Héraklès: sur un paradigme héroïque du philosophe", in Jacques Brunschwig, Claude Imbert, and Alain Roger (eds.), Histoire et Structure: à la mémoire de Victor Goldschmidt, Paris, 93–106. Comm. Hum. Litt. Vol. 132 337 Lucarini, Carlo M. and Claudio Moreschini (eds.). 2012. [Hermias Alexandrinus] In Platonis Phaedrum scholia, Berlin. Luther, Wilhelm. 1961. "Die Schwäche des geschriebenen Logos, ein Beispiel humanistischer Interpretation, versucht am sogenannten Schriftmythos in Platons Phaidros (274b6ff)", Gymnasium 68, 526–48. Macris, Constantinos. 2002. "Jamblique et la littérature pseudo-pythagoricienne", in S. C. Mimouni (ed.), Apocryphité, Turnhout, 77–129. Magris, Aldo. 1992. "Der Zweite Alkibiades, ein Wendepunkt in der Geschichte der Akademie", Grazer Beiträge 18, 47–64. Malcolm, John. 1991. Plato on the Self-Predication of Forms: Early and Middle Dialogues, Oxford. Manuwald, Bernd. 1999. Platon, Protagoras. Übersetzung und Kommentar, Göttingen. Marrou, Henri-Irénée. 1981 (c. 1948). Histoire de l'éducation dans l'Antiquité, vol. 1: Le monde grec, Paris. Matthews, G. B. 2013. "Death in Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle", in Ben Bradley and Fred Feldman (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Death, New York, 186–99. Mattingly, Harold B. 1958. "The Date of Plato's Symposium", Phronesis 3, 31–9. McCabe, M. M. 2002. "Developing the Good itself by itself: Critical Strategies in Plato's Euthydemus", Plato: The Internet Journal of the International Plato Society 2. http://gramata. univ-paris1.fr/Plato/article20.html?lang=en. McCoy, Marina. 2008. Plato on the Rhetoric of Philosophers and Sophists, Cambridge. McDonald, William. 2012. "Søren Kierkegaard", in Edward N. Zalta (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy <http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kierkegaard/>. McPartland, Keith. 2013. "Socratic Ignorance and Types of Knowledge", in Bussanich and Smith (eds.), 94–135. McPherran, Mark. L. 1996. The Religion of Socrates, University Park. ---. 2006. "Medicine, Magic, and Religion in Plato's Symposium", in Lesher et al. (eds.), 71–95. --- (ed.). 2010. Plato's Republic: A Critical Guide, Cambridge. Menn, Stephen. 1998. "Collecting the Letters", Phronesis, 43, 291–305. Michelini, Ann N. (ed.). 2003. Plato as Author: The Rhetoric of Philosophy, Leiden. Miller, Mitchell. 1991. Plato's Parmenides: The Conversion of the Soul, University Park. ---. 1999. "Platonic Mimesis", in Thomas Falkner, Nancy Felson, and David Konstan (eds.), Contextualizing Classics: Ideology, Performance, Dialogue, Lanham, 253–66. ---. 2007. "Beginning the 'Longer Way'", in G. R. F. Ferrari (ed.), 310–44. ---. 2010. "A More 'Exact Grasp' of the Soul? Tripartition in Republic IV and Dialectic in the Philebus", in Kurt Pritzl (ed.), Truth, Washington, 57–135. Möbius, Hans. 1934. "Diotima", Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts 49, 46–58. Monro, David B. and Thomas W. Allen (eds.). 1920. Homeri Opera, 2 vols., 3rd edition, Oxford. Moorhouse, A. C. 1965. "A Use of ΟΥΔΕΙΣ and ΜΗΔΕΙΣ", Classical Quarterly, n.s. 15, 31–40. Moraux, Paul. 1984. Der Aristotelismus bei den Griechen. Von Andronikos bis Alexander von WORKS CITED338 Aphrodisias, Bd. 2: Der Aristotelismus im I. und II. Jh. n. Chr. Berlin. Morgan, K. A. 2004. "Plato", in Irene de Jong, René Nünlist, and Angus Bowie (eds.), Narrators, Narratees, and Narratives in Ancient Greek Literature: Studies in Ancient Greek Narrative, vol. 1, Leiden. Morrison, Donald R. (ed.). 2011. The Cambridge Companion to Socrates, Cambridge. Moss, Jessica. 2014. "Right Reason in Plato and Aristotle: On the Meaning of Logos", Phronesis 59, 181–230. Most, Glenn W. 1994. "Simonides' Ode to Scopas in Contexts", in I. J. F. de Jong and J. P. Sullivan (eds.), Modern Critical Theory and Classical Literature, Leiden, 127–52. Mourelatos, Alexander P. D. 1983. "'Nothing' as 'Not–Being': Some Literary Contexts that Bear on Plato", in J. P. Anton and A. Preuss (eds.), Essays in Ancient Greek Philosophy, vol. 2, Albany, 59–69. Müller, G. 1975. "Das sokratische Wissen des Nichtwissens in den platonischen Dialogen", in K. Vourveris and A. Skiadas (eds.), Dorema: Hans Diller zum 70. Geburtstag, Athens, 147–73. Reprinted in Platonische Studien, Heidelberg 1986, 7–33. Mulhern, John J. 1968. "ΤΡΟΠΟΣ and ΠΟΛΥΤΡΟΠΙΑ in Plato's Hippias Minor", Phoenix 22, 283–88. ---. 2000. "Interpreting the Platonic Dialogues: What Can One Say?" in Press (ed.), 221–34. Murley, Clyde, 1955. "Techniques of Modern Fiction in Plato", Classical Journal 50, 281–7. Murphy, David. 2010. "Do Plato's Characters Commit the 'Plato Says Fallacy'? With Apologies to J. J. Mulhern", Annual Meeting, Society for Ancient Greek Philosophy, New York, October 17, 2010. Nails, Debra. 1993. "Problems with Vlastos' Developmentalism", Ancient Philosophy 13, 273–91. ---. 1995. Agora, Academy, and the Conduct of Philosophy, Dordrecht. ---. 2002. The People of Plato, a Prosopography of Plato and Other Socratics, Indianapolis. ---. 2006. "Tragedy Off-Stage", in Lesher et al. (eds.), 179–207. Nails, Debra and Holger Thesleff. 2003. "Early Academic Editing: Plato's Laws", in Samuel Scolnicov and Luc Brisson (eds.), Plato's Laws: From Theory into Practice, Sankt Augustin, 14–29. Nehamas, Alexander. 1992. "What Did Socrates Teach and to Whom Did He Teach It?", Review of Metaphysics 46, 279–306. Nehamas, Alexander and Paul Woodruff (tr.). 1997 (c. 1989). Symposium, in Cooper (ed.), 457– 505. Neschke-Hentschke, Ada. 2012. "Platonexegese und allgemeine Hermeneutik (mit einem Methodenbeispiel zu Platon, Politeia VI, 509b8-b10: ... epekeina tês ousias presbeia kai dynamei hyperechontos)", in M. Erler and A. Neschke-Hentschke (eds.), Argumenta in Dialogos Platonis 2: Platoninterpretation und ihre Hermeneutik vom 19. bis zum 21. Jahrhundert. Akten des Internationalen Kolloquiums vom 7. bis 9. Februar 2008 im Istituto Svizzero di Roma, Basel, 1-49. Comm. Hum. Litt. Vol. 132 339 Nesselrath, Heinz-Günther. 2006. Platon: Kritias, Göttingen. Nietzsche, Friedrich. 1994. "Über das Verhältniss der Rede des Alcibiades zu den übrigen Reden des platonischen Symposions", in Hans Joachim Mette (ed.), Frühe Schriften 2: Jugendschriften 1861–1864, München, 421–24. ---. 1995. "Vorlesungsaufzeichnungen (WS 1871/72–WS 1874/75)", in Fritz Bornmann and Mario Carpitella (eds.), Kritische Gesamtausgabe 2.4, Berlin. Nightingale, Andrea W. 1995. Genres in Dialogue, Plato and the Construct of Philosophy, Cambridge. Notomi, Noburu. 1999. The Unity of Plato's Sophist: Between the Sophist and the Philosopher, Cambridge. Nussbaum, Martha C. 1986. Fragility of Goodness: Luck and Ethics in Greek Tragedy and Philosophy, Cambridge. ---. 1997. Cultivating Humanity, Cambridge. Oscanyan, Frederick S. 1973. "On Six Definitions of the Sophist: Sophist 221c–231e", Philosophical Forum 4, 241–59. Ostenfeld, Erik. 2000. "Who Speaks for Plato? Everyone!", in Press (ed.), 211–20. Pachet, Pierre (tr.). 1993. République: du régime politique, Paris. Painter, Corinne. 2005. "In Defense of Socrates: The Stranger's Role in Plato's Sophist", Epoché: A Journal for the History of Philosophy 9, 317–33. Pangle, Thomas L. (ed.). 1987. The Roots of Political Philosophy: Ten Forgotten Socratic Dialogues, Ithaca. Partenie, Catalin (ed.). 2009. Plato's Myths, Cambridge. Paton, H. J. (tr.). 1948. [Immanuel Kant] Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, London-New York. Patterson, Richard. 1993. "The Ascent in Plato's Symposium", in John J. Cleary (ed.), Proceedings of the Boston Area Colloquium in Ancient Philosophy 7, 193–214. Pender, Elizabeth E. 2000. Images of Persons Unseen: Plato's Metaphors for the Gods and the Soul, Sankt Augustin. ---. 2003. "Plato on Metaphors and Models", in George R. Boys-Stones (ed.), Metaphor, Allegory, and the Classical Tradition, Oxford. Penner, Terry. 2006. "The Forms and the Sciences in Socrates and Plato", in Hugh H. Benson (ed.), A Companion to Plato, Oxford, 184–98. Peterson, Sandra. 2011. Socrates and Philosophy in the Dialogues of Plato, Cambridge. Petraki, Zacharoula. 2011. The Poetics of Philosophical Language, Berlin. Pistelli, H. (ed.). 1888. Iamblichus, Protrepticus, Lipsiae. Plax, Martin J. 2000. "Crito in Plato's Euthydemus: The Lover of Family and of Money", Polis 17, 35–59. Pomeroy, Sarah B. 2013. Pythagorean Women: their History and their Writings, Baltimore. Popper, Karl R. 1966 (c. 1945). The Open Society and Its Enemies, vol. 1: The Spell of Plato, London. WORKS CITED340 Poster, Carol. 1998. "The Idea(s) of Order", Phoenix 53, 282–98. Press, Gerald A. 1996. "The State of the Question in the Study of Plato", Southern Journal of Philosophy 34, 507–32. ---. 2012. "Early, Middle, and Late Platonic Provocation: Comments on Miriam Byrd's 'When the Middle Comes Early'", in Gary M. Gurtler and William Wians (eds.), Proceedings of the Boston Area Colloquium in Ancient Philosophy 28, 210–16. --- (ed.). 1993. Plato's Dialogues: New Studies and Interpretations, Lanham. --- (ed.). 2000. Who Speaks for Plato? Studies in Platonic Anonymity, Lanham. Raeder, Hans. 1905. Platons philosophische Entwickelung, Leipzig. Reale, Giovanni. 1990. The Schools of the Imperial Age: A History of Ancient Philosophy, J. R. Catan (ed.), Albany. Reeve, C. D. C. 2010. "Blindness and Reorientation: Education and the Acquisition of Knowledge in the Republic", in McPherran (ed.), 209–28. --- (tr.). 2004. Plato, Republic, Indianapolis. Renaud, François. 2001. "La rhétorique socratico-platonicienne dans le Gorgias (447a–461b)", Philosophie Antique 1, 65–86. Renaud, François and Harold Tarrant. 2015. The Platonic Alcibiades 1: the Dialogue and its Ancient Reception, Cambridge. Richard, Marie-Dominique. 2005 (c. 1986). "Témoignages", in L'enseignement oral de Platon, 2nd edition, Paris, 243–380. Rickless, Samuel C. 2010. "Plato's Definitions of Sophistry", Ancient Philosophy 30, 289–98. Riddell, James (ed.). 1867. The Apology of Plato, Oxford. Riedweg, Christoph. 2002. Pythagoras. Leben, Lehre, Nachwirkung, München. Robin, Léon. 1908. La théorie platonicienne des idées et des nombres d'après Aristote, Paris. Reprinted Hildesheim 1963. ---. 1950. Platon, Oeuvres complètes, Paris. Robinson, Richard. 1953 (c. 1941). Plato's Earlier Dialectic, Oxford. Rodier, Georges. 1926. Études de philosophie grecque, Paris. Romano, Francesco (ed.). 1995. Il numero e il divino, Milano. Roochnik, David L. 1985. "Apology 40c4–41e7: Is Death Really a Gain?", Classical Journal 80, 212–20. ---. 1990. "The Serious Play of Plato's Euthydemus", Interpretation 18, 211–32. Rosen, Stanley. 1995. Plato's Statesman: The Web of Politics, New Haven. Ross, David. 1922. "Fitzgerald's Canon", Classical Review 36, 194–5. --- (ed.). 1957. Aristotelis Politica, Oxford. --- (tr.). 1925. The Nicomachean Ethics of Aristotle, London. Rossetti, Livio (ed.). 1992. Understanding the Phaedrus. Proceedings of the Second Symposium Platonicum, Berlin. Comm. Hum. Litt. Vol. 132 341 Rowe, Christopher J. 1992. "La data relativa del Fedro", in Rossetti (ed.), 31–39. ---. 1997. "Why is the Ideal Athens of the 'Timaeus–Critias' not ruled by Philosophers?", Méthexis 10, 51–7. ---. 1999. "Socrates and Diotima: Eros, Immortality, and Creativity", in John J. Cleary and Gary M. Gurtler (eds.), Proceedings of the Boston Area Colloquium in Ancient Philosophy 14, 239–59. --- . 2001. "The Concept of Philosophy ('philosophia')", in A. Havliček and F. Karfík (eds.), Plato's Phaedo: Proceedings of the Second Symposium Platonicum Pragense, Praha, 34–47. ---. 2004. "The Case of the Missing Philosophers in Plato's Timaeus–Critias", Würzburger Jahrbücher für die Altertumswissenschaft 28b, 57–70. ---. 2007a. Plato and the Art of Philosophical Writing, Cambridge. ---. 2007b. "La concezione dell'anima in Repubblica IV. Che cosa manca esattamente alla 'via più breve' (435c–d)?", in Maurizio Migliori et al. (eds.), Interiorità e anima. La psychè in Platone, Milano, 245–53. ---. forthcoming. "The Four Republics", in Suzanne Husson and Isabelle Koch (eds.), The Three Republics: Plato, Diogenes, Zeno. --- (ed.). 1993. Plato: Phaedo, Cambridge. --- (tr.). 1986. Plato: Phaedrus, Warminster. --- (tr.). 1995. Plato: Statesman, Indianapolis. --- (tr.). 1998. Plato: Symposium, Warminster. --- (tr.). 2015. Plato: Theaetetus and Sophist, Cambridge. Rudebusch, George. 1999. Socrates, Pleasure, and Value, New York-Oxford. Ryle, Gilbert. 1960. "Letters and Syllables in Plato", Philosophical Review 69, 431–51. Sánchez-Elvira, Mariño, Salvador Mas Torres, and Fernando García Romero (eds.). 2009. Platón: La República, Madrid. Santa Cruz, María Isabel. 1992. "Division et Dialectique dans le Phèdre", in Rossetti (ed.), 253–6. Santas, Gerasimos. 1988. Plato and Freud: Two Theories of Love, Oxford. ---. 2010. Understanding Plato's Republic, Malden. Saunders, Trevor J. (tr.). 1970. The Laws, Harmondsworth. Sauppe, Hermann. 1839. "Appendix Critica", in G. Baiter et al. (eds.), Platonis opera quae feruntur omnia, Zürich. Schleiermacher, Friedrich. 1804. "Einleitung", in Platons Werke 1.1, Berlin, 5–36. ---. 1836. Introductions to the Dialogues of Plato. Tr. William Dobson, London. Reprinted New York 1973. ---. 1862 (c. 1828). Platons Werke 3.1: Der Staat, 2nd edition, Berlin. --- (tr.). 1957 (c. 1925). Platons sämtliche Werke in zwei Bänden, Hamburg. Schlosser, Joel A. 2014. What Would Socrates Do? Self-Examination, Civic Engagement, and the Politics of Philosophy, Cambridge. WORKS CITED342 Schönberger, Otto (ed.). 1984. Aufruf zur Philosophie. Erste deutsche Gesamtübersetzung. Mit zweisprachiger Ausg. von Ciceros Hortensius, Würzburg. Schofield, Malcolm. 1999. "The Disappearing Philosopher-King", in M. Schofield, Saving the City, London-New York, 31–50. Revision of "The Disappearance of the Philosopher King", in John J. Cleary and Gary M. Gurtler (eds.), Proceedings of the Boston Area Colloquium in Ancient Philosophy 15, 213–41. Schultz, Anne-Marie. 2013. Plato's Socrates as Narrator: A Philosophical Muse, Lanham. ---. 2015. "Socrates on Socrates: Looking Back to Bring Philosophy Forward", in William Wians and Gary M. Gurtler, (eds.), Proceedings of the Boston Area Colloquium in Ancient Philosophy 30, 123–41. Scodel, Harvey Ronald. 1987. Diaeresis and Myth in Plato's Statesman, Göttingen. Scott, Gary Alan. 2000. Plato's Socrates as Educator, Albany. --- (ed.). 2007. Philosophy in Dialogue: Plato's Many Devices, Evanston. Sedley, David. 1995. "The Dramatis Personae of Plato's Phaedo", in T. Smiley (ed.), Philosophical dialogues: Plato, Hume, Wittgenstein, Oxford, 3–26. ---. 1997. "Plato's Auctoritas and the Rebirth of the Commentary Tradition", in Barnes and Griffin (eds.), 110–29. ---. 1999. "The Ideal of Godlikeness", in Gail Fine (ed.), Plato 2. Ethics, Politics, Religion, and the Soul, Oxford, 309–28. ---. 2004. The Midwife of Platonism, Text and Subtext in Plato's Theaetetus, Oxford. ---. 2012. "The theoretikos bios in Alcinous", in T. Bénatouïl and M. Bonazzi (eds.), Theōria, Praxis and the Contemplative Life after Plato and Aristotle, Leiden, 163–81. ---. 2013. "Socratic Intellectualism in the Republic's Central Digression", in Boys-Stones et al. (eds.), 70–89. Sharpe, Matthew. 2012. "Revaluing Megalopsuchia: Reflections on the Alcibiades II", in Johnson and Tarrant (eds.), 134–46. Sheffield, Frisbee C. C. 2006. Plato's Symposium, Oxford. Shorey, Paul (tr.). 1970 (c. 1935). Plato, The Republic, Cambridge-London. Smyth, Herbert Weir. 1963 (c. 1920). Greek Grammar, Cambridge. Solmsen, Friedrich (ed.). 1970. Hesiodi Theogonia [and] Opera et Dies [and] Scutum, Oxford. Souilhé, Jean (tr.). 1930. Platon, Oeuvres complètes, Paris. Sprague, Rosamond Kent. 1962. Plato's Use of Fallacy, London. ---. 1995. "Platonic Jokes and Philosophical Points", in Sigfried Jäkel and Asko Timonen (eds.), Laughter Down the Centuries, vol. 1, Turku, 53–58. --- (tr.). 1997. Charmides, in Cooper (ed.), 630–63. --- (tr.). 1997. Euthydemus, in Cooper (ed.), 708–45. Stallbaum, Gottfried. 1834. Platonis Opera Omnia, vol. V sect. I continens Lachetem, Charmidem, Alcibiadem utrumque, Gothae. ---. 1858. Platonis Apologia et Crito, Gothae. Comm. Hum. Litt. Vol. 132 343 Stanford, William Bedell (ed.). 2003 (c. 1958, 1959). Homer: Odyssey, 2 vols., London. Starr, David E. 1974. "The Sixth Sophist: Comments Oscanyan 1973", Philosophical Forum 5, 486–92. Stavru, Alessandro. 2013, "The Present State of Socratic Studies: An Overview", in Fulvia de Luise and A. Stavru (eds.), Socratica III, Sankt Augustin, 11–26. Stavru, Alessandro and Livio Rossetti. 2010. "Introduction", in L. Rossetti and A. Stavru (eds.), Socratica 2008: Studies in Ancient Socratic Literature, Bari, 137–58. Steinbock, Bernd. 2013. Social Memory in Athenian Public Discourse: Uses and Meanings of the Past, Ann Arbor. Stokes, Michael. C. (tr.) 1997. Plato. Apology of Socrates, Warminster. Stolpe, Jan (tr.). 1992. Om kärleken och döden (Gästabudet, Sokrates försvarstal, Faidon), Lund. --- (tr.). 2000–2009. Platon: Skrifter 1–6, Stockholm. Strauss, Leo 1970. "On the Euthydemus", Interpretation 1, 1–20. Svenbro, Jesper. 1988. Phrasikleia: Anthropologie de la Lecture en Grèce ancienne, Paris. Szlezák, Thomas Alexander. 1972. Pseudo-Archytas über Die Kategorien: Texte zur griechischen Aristoteles-Exegese, Berlin. ---. 1978. "Dialogform und Esoterik. Zur Deutung des platonischen Dialogs Phaidros", Museum Helveticum 35, 18–32. ---. 1992 (c. 1985). Platon und die Schriftlichkeit der Philosophie. 3rd edition, Milano. First edition, Berlin-New York. ---. 1997. "Schleiermachers 'Einleitung' zur Übersetzung von 1804. Ein Vergleich mit Tiedemann und Tennemann", Antike und Abendland 43, 46–62. ---. 2001. "L'Idée du Bien en tant qu'archē dans la République de Platon", in Michel Fattal (ed.), La Philosophie de Platon, Paris, 345–74. ---. 2004a. "Friedrich Schleiermacher und das Platonbild des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts", in Jan Rohls and Gunther Wenz (eds.), Protestantismus und deutsche Literatur, Göttingen, 125–44. ---. 2004b. Platon und die Schriftlichkeit der Philosophie, vol. 2: Das Bild des Dialektikers in Platons späten Dialogen, Berlin-New York. ---. 2005. "Platonische Dialektik. Der Weg und das Ziel", Perspektiven der Philosophie, Neues Jahrbuch 31, 289–319. ---. 2008. "Platons Gründe für philosophische Zurückhaltung in der Schrift", in Francesca Alesse et al. (eds.), Anthropine sophia. Studi di filologia e storiografia filosofica in memoria di Gabriele Giannantoni, Napoli, 227–36. ---. 2010. "Von Brucker über Tennemann zu Schleiermacher. 'Eine folgenreiche Umwälzung in der Geschichte der neuzeitlichen Platondeutung'", in Ada Neschke-Hentschke (ed.), Argumenta in dialogos Platonis, Teil 1, Basel, 412–33. Tarrant, Harold. 1985. Scepticism or Platonism? The Philosophy of the Fourth Academy, Cambridge. ---. 1993. Thrasyllan Platonism, Ithaca. ---. 1996. "Orality and Plato's Narrative Dialogues", in Ian Worthington (ed.), Voice into Text, WORKS CITED344 Leiden, 129–47. ---. 2000. Plato's First Interpreters, Ithaca. ---. 2003. "Plato's Euthydemus and a Platonist Education Program", Dionysius 21, 7–22. ---. 2010. "The Theaetetus as a Narrative Dialogue", Australian Society for Classical Studies Proceedings 31, 1–17. Tarrant, Harold and Terry Roberts. 2012. "Appendix 2: Report of the Working Vocabulary of the Doubtful Dialogues", in Johnson and Tarrant (eds.), 223–36. Taylor, Alfred Edward (tr.). 1961. Plato: The Sophist and the Statesman, London-New York. Taylor, C. C. W. 1998. Socrates, Oxford. Tegnér, Esaias. 1913. "Plato och poesien", Filosofiska och estetiska skrifter, A. Nilsson and B. Möller (eds.), Stockholm, 409–23. Tejera, Victorino. 1984. Plato's Dialogues One by One. A Structural Interpretation, New York. Tennemann, Wilhelm Gottlieb. 1792–1795. System der Platonischen Philosophie, 4 vols., Leipzig. ---. 1799. Geschichte der Philosophie, vol. 2, Leipzig. Thesleff, Holger 1961. An Introduction to the Pythagorean Writings of the Hellenistic Period, Åbo. ---. 1965. The Pythagorean Texts of the Hellenistic Period, Åbo. ---. 1967. Studies in the Styles of Plato, Helsinki. Reprinted in Thesleff 2009, 1–142. ---. 1976, "The Date of the Pseudo-Platonic Hippias Major", Arctos 10, 105–17. ---. 1978. "The Interrelation and Date of the Symposia of Plato and Xenophon", Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 25, 157–70. ---. 1982. Studies in Platonic Chronology, Helsinki. Reprinted in Thesleff 2009, 143–382. ---. 1989. "Platonic Chronology", Phronesis 34, 1–26. ---. 1993. "Looking for Clues: An Interpretation of Some Literary Aspects of Plato's 'TwoLevel Model'", in Press (ed.), 17–45. ---. 1997. "The Early Version of Plato's Republic", Arctos 31, 149–74. Reprinted in Thesleff 2009, 519–40. ---. 1999. Studies in Plato's Two-Level Model, Helsinki. Reprinted in Thesleff 2009, 383–506. ---. 2002. "Plato and His Public", in B. Amden et al. (eds.), Noctes Atticae, Copenhagen, 289–301. Reprinted in Thesleff 2009, 541–50. ---. 2003. "A Symptomatic Text Corruption: Plato, Gorgias 448a5", Arctos 37, 251–7. Reprinted in Thesleff 2009, 551–6. ---. 2009. Platonic Patterns: A Collection of Studies by Holger Thesleff, Las Vegas. Tiedemann, Dieterich. 1791. Geist der spekulativen Philosophie, Bd. 2, Marburg. Tietzel, Heinrich. 1894. "Die Idee des Guten in Platos Staat und der Gottesbegriff", in Programm des Königlichen Gymnasiums zu Wetzlar für das Schuljahr von Ostern 1893 bis Ostern 1894, Wetzlar. Tigerstedt, E. N. 1974. The Decline and Fall of the Neoplatonic Interpretation of Plato, Helsinki. ---. 1977. Interpreting Plato, Stockholm. Comm. Hum. Litt. Vol. 132 345 Tomin, Julius. 1997. "Plato's First Dialogue", Ancient Philosophy 17, 31–45. Tredennick, Hugh and Harold Tarrant (eds.). 1993. The Last Days of Socrates, London-New York. Trevaskis, J. R. 1955. "The Sophistry of Noble Lineage (Sophist 230a5–232b9)", Phronesis 1, 36–49. Tuana, Nancy (ed.). 1994. Feminist Interpretations of Plato, University Park. Tulli, Mauro. 2007. "Il Gorgia e la lira di Anfione", in Michael Erler and Luc Brisson (eds.), GorgiasMenon: Selected Papers from the Seventh Symposium Platonicum, Sankt Augustin, 72–77. ---. 2011. "Platone, il proemio del Teeteto e la poetica del dialogo", in M. Tulli (ed.), L'autore pensoso: un seminario per Graziano Arrighetti sulla coscienza letteraria dei Greci, Pisa-Roma, 121–33. Tuozzo, Thomas A. 2011. Plato's Charmides: Positive Elenchus in a "Socratic" Dialogue, Cambridge. Ulacco, Angela. forthcoming. "The Creation of Authority in Pseudo-Pythagorean Texts and their Reception in Late Ancient Philosophy", in J. Papy and E. Gielen (eds.), Falsifications and Authority in Antiquity, the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, Leuven. Usacheva, Anna. 2010. "Concerning the Date of Plato's Phaedrus", Hermathena 189, 53–70. Valgimigli, Manara (tr.). 2012 (c. 1931). Apologia di Socrate, Critone, Bari. Van Harten, A. 2011. "Socrates on Life and Death (Plato, Apology 40c5–41c7)", The Cambridge Classical Journal n.s. 57, 165–83. van Lennep, Joannes Daniel. 1777. Phalaridos Epistolai, Groningae. Vegetti, Mario. 1999. "L'autocritica di Platone: il Timeo e le Leggi", in M. Vegetti and M. Abbate (eds.), La Repubblica di Platone nella tradizione antica, Napoli, 13–27. ---. 2007. "Glaucone e i misteri della dialettica", in Francisco L. Lisi (ed.), The Ascent to the Good, Sankt Augustin, 161–71. --- (tr.). 2007. Platone, Repubblica, Milano. Vlastos, Gregory. 1954. "The Third Man Argument in the Parmenides", Philosophical Review 64, 319–49. ---. 1956. Introduction to Plato's Protagoras. Tr. Benjamin Jowett, rev. Martin Ostwald, New York. ---. 1983. "The Socratic Elenchus", Ancient Philosophy 1, 27–58. ---. 1991. Socrates: Ironist and Moral Philosopher, Cambridge. ---. 1994. Socratic Studies, Cambridge. Wardy, Robert. 1996. The Birth of Rhetoric: Gorgias, Plato, and their Successors, New York. Wareh, Tarik. 2012. The Theory and Practice of Life: Isocrates and the Philosophers, Cambridge. Waterfield, Robin. 2013. "The Quest for the Historical Socrates", in Bussanich and Smith (eds.), 1–19. Weinstein, Joshua I. 2009. "The Market in Plato's Republic", Classical Philology 104, 439–58. Weiss, Roslyn. 1998. Socrates Dissatisfied: An Analysis of Plato's Crito. Oxford ---. 2006. The Socratic Paradox and Its Enemies, Chicago. Welton, William A. (ed.). 2002. Plato's Forms: Varieties of Interpretation, Lanham. WORKS CITED346 Werner, Daniel. 2007. "Plato's Phaedrus and the Problem of Unity", Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy 32, 91–137. Wersinger, Anne-Gabrièle. 2012. "La voix d'une 'savante': Diotime de Mantinée dans le Banquet de Platon (201d–212b)", Cahiers "Mondes Anciens" 3 <http://mondesanciens.revues. org/816>. West, Martin L. (ed.). 1971, 1972. Iambi et elegi Graeci ante Alexandrum cantati, 2 vols., Oxford. White, Nicholas P. 1979. A Companion to Plato's Republic, Indianapolis. --- (tr.). 1993. Sophist. Reprinted in Cooper (ed.), 236–93. Whiting, Jennifer. 2011. "Psychic Contingency in the Republic", in Rachel Barney, Tad Brennan, and Charles Brittain (eds.), Plato and the Divided Self, New York, 174–208. Wieland, Wolfgang. 1982. Platon und die Formen des Wissens, Göttingen. Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Ulrich von. 1897. "Die Xenophontische Apologie", Hermes 32, 99– 106. Wolfsdorf, David C. forthcoming. "The Historical Socrates", in Cambridge Companion to Ancient Ethics, Cambridge. Woolf, Raphael. 2014. "Plato on Philosophical Method: Enquiry and Definition", in Frisbee C. C. Sheffield and James Warren (eds.), The Routledge Companion to Ancient Philosophy, New York, 143–56. Yunis, Harvey (ed.). 2011. Plato: Phaedrus, Cambridge. Zhmud, Leonid. 2012. Pythagoras and the Early Pythagoreans, Oxford. Zuckert, Catherine. 2009. Plato's Philosophers: The Coherence of the Dialogues, Chicago.