Verifiche XLIII (1-3), 2014, pp. 41-76. HOLISM, ORGANICISM AND THE RISK OF BIOCHAU-1 VINISM 2 3 by Charles T. Wolfe 4 5 6 Abstract. In this essay I seek to critically evaluate some forms of holism 7 and organicism in biological thought, as a more deflationary echo to Gilbert 8 and Sarkar's reflection on the need for an 'umbrella' concept to convey the 9 new vitality of holistic concepts in biology (Gilbert and Sarkar 2000). Given 10 that some recent discussions in theoretical biology call for an organism concept 11 (from Moreno and Mossio's work on organization to Kirschner et al.'s 12 research paper in Cell, 2000, building on chemistry to articulate what they 13 called "molecular vitalism," studying the "vitalistic" properties of molecular, 14 cellular, and organismal function, and Pepper and Herron's suggestion in 15 their 2008 paper that organisms define a category that evolutionary biology 16 cannot do without), the question, what concept of organicism are they calling 17 for? To what extent are such claims philosophically committed to a non-18 naturalistic concept of organism as organizing centre, as a foundational rather 19 than heuristic concept – or possibly a "biochauvinism," to use Di Paolo's 20 term (Di Paolo 2009)? My aim in this paper is to conceptually clarify the 21 forms of holism and organicism that are involved in these cases (and I 22 acknowledge that the study of early 20th-century holisms [Peterson 2010] 23 indicates that not all of them were in fact 'organicist' or 'biologistic'). I suggest 24 that contemporary holists are still potentially beholden to a certain kind of 25 vitalism or "biochauvinism"; but that when they reduce their claims to mere 26 heuristics, conversely, they risk losing sight of a certain kind of organizational 27 "thickness", a "vital materiality" (Wheeler 2010) which is characteristic of 28 biological systems (Bechtel 2007). And I ask if it is possible to articulate a 29 concept of biological holism or organicism which is neither an empirical 30 'biochauvinism' nor a metaphysical 'vitalism'? 31 32 33 I. A question sometimes asked in recent reflections at the in-34 tersection of the philosophy of biology and so-called 'historical 35 epistemology' is, do organisms have an ontological status? Now, 36 we should note immediately that there are at least two very differ-37 ent ways to answer this question in the affirmative. One is more 38 Charles T. Wolfe Articles 40 philosophical, and seeks to provide criteria, e.g. of individuals 1 which organisms instantiate particularly well; from Aristotle to 2 Hegel and Jonas, this can be termed a strong holist option, but let 3 us again stress, in a philosophical context, for as we shall see, it is 4 possible to defend a holist claim for the ontological uniqueness of 5 organisms, on a biological basis as well (to be clear, I do not have 6 in mind a distinction between 'metaphysical' and 'experimental' 7 here). A philosophical defense of strong holism as regards biolog-8 ical individuals will tend to be more stipulative, appealing for 9 instance to the nature of whole/part relations and insisting that in 10 organisms, there is a special type of interrelation between parts. 11 In contrast, strong holism of the biological sort will typically 12 appeal to the empirical criteria defining actual organisms – but 13 which criteria?, would be the immediate retort, pointing to the 14 lack of any unifying concept for the diversity of actual organisms, 15 from drosophila to the Portuguese man-o-war1. 16 There are also diverse answers of the negative variety, which 17 I will be less interested in here. They include a kind of absolute 18 physicalism, which is more of an intellectual vue de l'esprit than a 19 position actually encountered amongst most working natural 20 philosophers: on this view, what is real is the entities specified in 21 fundamental physics, and since organisms do not belong to this 22 class of entities (however much some former physicists struggled 23 in the 1960s to find 'organismic laws', like Walter Elsasser2), they 24 can have nothing other than a 'folk', 'cultural' or perhaps 'psycho-25 logical' status. More common is a general dismissal of the very 26 question, in the favor of a kind of evolving, instrumentalist con-27 sensus, according to which there is no point in debating the 28 ultimate reality or ontological status of organisms, since what 29 matters is the theoretical terms science uses in its work, and these 30 constantly evolve (thus 'organism' gave way to 'gene', but even 31 'gene' now seems like a construct, since it can no longer be 32 1 J. PEPPER, M HERRON, Does biology need an organism concept? «Biological Reviews», 83, 2008, pp. 621–627. 2 W.M. ELSASSER, Quanta and the concept of organismic law, «Journal of Theoretical Biology», 1(1), 1961, pp. 27-58 ; Reflections on a Theory of Organisms. Holism in Biology, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1998. Articles The Risk of Biochauvinism 41 thought of as «an inherently stable, discrete stretch of DNA that 1 encodes information for producing a protein», which is copied 2 faithfully before being passed on; rather, we now know that 3 «stability lies in the system as a whole, not in the gene»3). 4 Closer to my general interests, although I will not explore 5 this option here, is a more 'historicized' approach, in which the 6 reality of organisms is neither bluntly asserted – as is predomi-7 nant in theoretical biology and most Continental 'biophilosophy'4 8 – or denied, in favor of atoms, molecules, or selfish genes. In-9 stead, it is examined in a diversity of historical régimes, contexts, 10 sometimes with an increased focus on the nature of the experi-11 mental scientific apparatus involved. For instance, Hans-Jörg 12 Rheinberger describes experimental systems while emphasizing a 13 cognitive, constructed level of the effectivity of scientific practic-14 es: experimental systems do not just inhabit a world of 'things' 15 but also, what he calls «graphematic spaces», capable of «differen-16 tial reproduction»5. Thus for our purposes, the reality of organ-17 isms for an embryologist in the school of Wilhelm Roux is not 18 the same, e.g., as that experienced by an eighteenth-century 19 Montpellier medical vitalist insisting on the difference between 20 medical mechanistic models of the body and the 'animal econo-21 3 E. JABLONKA, M.J. LAMB, Evolution in Four Dimensions: Genetic, Epigenetic, Behavioral and Symbolic Variation in the History of Life, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 2005, p. 7. 4 'Biophilosophy' is a term that was popular in the post-war decades in French 'épistémologie' (and to some extent also in the German versions, where authors like Kant and/or Hegel played a greater role, e.g. Gerhard Vollmer). It was often presented as not being guilty of the reductionist excesses of analytically oriented 'philosophy of biology'. My interest here is not to choose between the two but to judge the claims of certain forms of biological holism. On the emergence of philosophy of biology as a discipline in contrast to 'biophilosophy' see J. GAYON, La philosophie et la biologie, in Encyclopédie philosophique universelle, vol. IV, ed. J.-F. Mattéi, PUF, Paris, 1998, pp. 21522171, which he has reprised with the more specific focus of 'vitalism' in his Vitalisme et philosophie de la biologie, in Repenser le vitalisme, ed. P. Nouvel, PUF, Paris, 2011, pp. 15-31. 5 H. J. RHEINBERGER, Experimental Systems – Graphematic Spaces, in T. LENOIR, (ed.), Inscribing science: scientific texts and the materiality of communication, Stanford University Press, Stanford, 1998, p. 287. Thanks to Claudia Manta for suggesting this reference. Charles T. Wolfe Articles 42 my' (a term often used in that period to describe the functionally 1 interdependent, physiological system of the body, as distinct from 2 the mere machine). Curiously, both friends and foes of ho-3 lism/organicism6 ignore the potential resources the historical 4 view would afford them, being content instead to assert or deny 5 an ontological state of affairs. 6 Here I will not pursue this more historical route, as I shall be 7 concerned with some varieties of biological holism, mainly in the 8 twentieth and twenty-first centuries, which I will seek to evaluate, 9 primarily in the form of a brief internal critique. To be clear, I am 10 not arguing for one sharply delimited 'reductionist' or 'holist' 11 position, but rather, I am evaluating some of the tensions or 12 excessive commitments carried by various forms of holism, in 13 order to see what can be saved therein. My goal is to assess a 14 potential legitimacy of a certain kind of holism or organicism, 15 which, I shall suggest, needs to steer clear of a variety of wrong-16 headed, anti-naturalistic or otherwise excessively falsifiable an-17 swers to the initial question. To borrow an expression from 18 Daniel Dennett, the issue is: which varieties of organicism are 'worth 19 wanting'? Since Scott Gilbert and Sahotra Sarkar's reflection on 20 the need for an 'umbrella' or 'organizing' concept to convey the 21 new vitality of systemic or holistic concepts in biology7, seconded 22 by Manfred Laubichler's paper proclaiming the return of the 23 'organism' as such an organizing concept8, some scholarly work 24 has been done which dispels earlier prejudices and gives us a 25 more useful, nuanced sense both of these concepts in biological 26 science and their possible pertinence today9. 27 6 I'll refrain from using the potentially convenient two-letter acronym. 7 S. GILBERT, S. SARKAR, Embracing complexity: organicism for the 21st century, «Developmental Dynamics», 219, 2000, pp. 1-9. 8 M. LAUBICHLER, The Organism is dead. Long live the organism! «Perspectives on Science», 8 (3), 2000, pp. 286-315. 9 See e.g. P. HUNEMAN, C.T. WOLFE (eds.), The Concept of Organism: Historical, Philosophical, Scientific Perspectives, special issue of History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences, 32 (2-3), 2010 and T. CHEUNG, From the Organism of a Body to the Body of an Organism: occurrence and meaning of the word 'organism' from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries, «British Journal of the History of Science», 39, 2006, 319339, on the history and theory of organism. Articles The Risk of Biochauvinism 43 In addition, there has been some sustained work on these 1 concepts in current biology. To name three recent examples, (1) 2 in theoretical biology, the effort to articulate a model of «orga-3 nized systems» and «organizational closure», in Alvaro Moreno 4 and Matteo Mossio's research, alone or with collaborators10. A 5 question arising in reaction to this research is the extent to which 6 philosophically it is committed to a non-naturalistic concept of 7 organism as organizing centre, as a foundational rather than 8 heuristic concept – or possibly a «biochauvinism», to use Di 9 Paolo's term11. He does not define it, but we can imagine that 10 biochauvinism would be the present-day, naturalistic form of 11 what was attacked by the Vienna Circle and others as vitalism: no 12 longer the claim that there are immaterial vital forces which play a 13 causal role in the functioning of living beings, but simply the 14 claim that living beings, as distinct from tables, chairs and pro-15 tons, are ontologically specific, not to say special. This is not an 16 essay devoted to the work of Moreno et al. but I will state right 17 away that I find their work especially free of these more inflated 18 metaphysical claims that are characteristic of other, comparable 19 theorists (including Francisco Varela, Robert Rosen and Evan 20 Thompson). 21 (2) In biochemistry, Kirschner et al.'s research paper in Cell 22 (Kirschner et al. 2000) on what they called «molecular vitalism» : 23 they suggested that, faced with the limitations of genomics, re-24 searchers should investigate what the authors «whimsically» 25 termed the «vitalistic» properties of molecular, cellular, and organ-26 ismal function: «the organism has fashioned a very stable physiol-27 ogy and embryology [...] It is this robustness that suggested ʻvital 28 forcesʼ, and it is this robustness that we wish ultimately to under-29 10 M. MOSSIO, A MORENO, Organisational closure in biological organisms, «History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences», 32(2-3), 2010, pp. 269-288; A MORENO, M. MOSSIO, Biological autonomy. A Philosophical and theoretical enquiry, Springer, Dordrecht, forthcoming, and earlier, K. RUIZ-MIRAZO, A ETXEBERRIA, A MORENO, J. IBÁÑEZ, Organisms and their place in biology, «Theory Bioscience», 119, 2000, pp. 209-233. 11 E. DI PAOLO, Extended Life, «Topoi», 28, 2009, p. 10. Charles T. Wolfe Articles 44 stand in terms of chemistry. We will have such an opportunity in 1 this new century»12. 2 (3) In evolutionary biology, Pepper and Herron's 2008 paper 3 suggests that organisms define a category that evolutionary biolo-4 gy cannot do without, because it «relies heavily on the compara-5 tive method, and effective comparison requires that we first 6 define a class of comparable entities», and they seek to articulate a 7 «robust and general operational definition» of organism, which 8 should distinguish between «which biological entities are organ-9 isms and which are not», particularly from parts of organisms and 10 groups of organisms13. 11 The above examples indicate that different trends in biologi-12 cal theory are articulating – or calling for – an organism concept. 13 However, only the first of these three cases directly contributes to 14 an explicitly holistic and organismic framework, which is the main 15 focus of this essay. 16 My aim is to conceptually clarify these forms of holism and 17 organicism. I acknowledge that the study of early twentieth-18 century holisms indicates that not all of them were in fact 'organ-19 icist' or 'biologistic'. That is, some of the original forms of self-20 described holism (I am not speaking of purported holists who 21 include such diverse figures as Spinoza, Hegel and Whitehead) 22 were primarily interested in systems as such, although they waver 23 on the issue, sometimes even seeking to derive principles from 24 biological systems for the understanding of other systems, as in 25 Walter Cannon's suggestion that 26 27 It seems not impossible that the means employed by the more 28 highly evolved animals for preserving uniform and stable their 29 internal economy (i.e., for preserving homeostasis) may present 30 some general principles for the establishment, regulation and 31 control of steady states, that would be suggestive for other kinds 32 12 M. KIRSCHNER, J GERHART, T. MITCHISON, Molecular "Vitalism", «Cell», 100, 2000, p. 87. 13 J. PEPPER, M. HERRON, Does biology need an organism concept? , pp. 625, 621. For more on the issue of 'what units do biologists count?' see the original article by E. CLARKE, The Multiple Realizability of Biological Individuals, «The Journal of Philosophy», CX (8), 2013, pp. 413-435. Articles The Risk of Biochauvinism 45 of organization-even social and industrial-which suffer from 1 distressing perturbations14. 2 3 What is holism? As mentioned above, it is intimately bound 4 up with systems theory, and with formally driven methods which 5 sought to give a new kind of coherence to biology, although this 6 'systems' interest was not always specifically biological. The 7 person often presented as the first theorist of holism, the South 8 African segregationist statesman (and specialist of Walt Whitman) 9 Jan Christiaan Smuts, as well as John von Neumann and Ludwig 10 von Bertalanffy later, wavers between defining holism as a total 11 systemic standpoint (with no particular reference to a special 12 status for living entities) and holism as an approach or model 13 which sheds particular light on embryology and how organisms 14 are not mere machines (with reference to teleology and the "his-15 torical" or "learned" character of organisms). 16 Deliberately or inadvertently mirroring various other epi-17 sodes in the history of mechanistic and organismic theories (in-18 cluding the Leibniz-Stahl debate), these original holists also speci-19 fy abstract terms on which ʻmerely mechanical aggregatesʼ are 20 different from genuine wholes, including chemical compounds, 21 and then specify that biological organisms are the exemplars of 22 ʻcreative wholesʼ, as Smuts calls them, i.e., wholes which create 23 structures different from their constituents or parts15. Here I will 24 not be concerned with holism as a general systems theory, but 25 rather with holism/organicism as a claim to define what is unique 26 in biological systems, i.e., a kind of biochauvinism. 27 28 29 14 W.B. CANNON, The Wisdom of the Body (1932), revised and expanded edition, Norton, New York, 1963, p. 25 (thanks to Yelda Nasifoglu for help with this reference). 15 J.C. SMUTS, Holism and Evolution (1926), Sherman Oaks, CA, Sierra Sunrise Books, 1999, pp. 140–141. The best general analysis and reconstruction of holism and organicism in early twentieth-century biological thought is E. PETERSONS' dissertation, Finding Mind, Form, Organism, and Person in a Reductionist Age, PhD, 2 vols., Program in History and Philosophy of Science, University of Notre Dame, 2010. Charles T. Wolfe Articles 46 II. Two critical remarks on two strangely apposite pitfalls of 1 holist-organicist theory: 2 (1) There is a strange appeal of Kantianism for these schools 3 of thought, notably Varela's16. There is something deeply flawed 4 in a procedure which invokes the authority of the Kantian 'pro-5 jective' approach to organisms17 in order to assert a set of onto-6 logical specificities about organisms. First, because this is precise-7 ly what the Kantian regulative ideal concept was designed to 8 avoid, in explicit contrast to what he would have called 'rational 9 metaphysics'. To provide an empirical set of criteria for why 10 living beings are special and to claim that this supports or is 11 supported by a Kantian framework, is not a good idea if this 12 framework explicitly rejects the idea of giving empirical defini-13 tions of organism, inasmuch as Kant's organism concept is ex-14 plicitly built around his notion of regulative ideal18. For Kant, 15 organism is a «reflective» construct rather than a «constitutive» 16 feature of reality, and reflective judgments are «incapable of 17 justifying any objective assertions»19. 18 Second, because it is not clear in any case why it counts as an 19 argument against 'mechanistic science' or 'reductionism' to simply 20 produce a list of key definitory features of Life, most classically, 21 self-preservation, self-reproduction, self-reparation, and self-22 regulation20, or in a more updated form, «reproduction, life-23 cycles, genetics, sex, developmental bottlenecks, germ-soma 24 16 Instances of such confusions can be found in A. WEBER, F.J. VARELA, Life after Kant: Natural purposes and the autopoietic foundations of biological individuality. «Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences», 1, 2002, pp. 97-125; S. KAUFFMAN, G. LONGO, No Law Entails The Evolution Of The Biosphere, 2011, http://lifeboat.com/blog/2011/07/no-law-entails-theevolution-of-the-biosphere; G. LONGO, M. MONTÉVIL, S. KAUFMAN, No entailing laws, but enablement in the evolution of the biosphere, 2012, http://arxiv.org/pdf/1201.2069.pdf 17 P. HUNEMAN (ed.), Understanding Purpose: Collected Essays on Kant and the Philosophy of Biology, University of Rochester Press, North American Kant Society Publication Series, Rochester, 2007. 18 I. KANT, Critique of Judgment (1790), tr. W. Pluhar, Hackett, Indianapolis, 1987, § 73, p. 276. 19 I. KANT, Critique of Judgment, § 67, p. 259; § 73, p. 277. 20 Cf. J. SCHLANGER, Les métaphores de l'organisme, Vrin, Paris, 1971, p. 14. Articles The Risk of Biochauvinism 47 separation, policing mechanisms, spatial boundaries or contiguity, 1 immune response, fitness maximization, cooperation and/or 2 conflict, codispersal, adaptations, metabolic autonomy, and func-3 tional integration»21 (but precisely, the list is neither absolute nor 4 stable, which is why many thinkers, including prominent biolo-5 gists, have declared that «Life as such does not exist»22), including 6 because mechanistic explanations have shown themselves to be 7 far more flexible and capable of integrating inter-level relations 8 than the depiction of them as taking apart systems into compo-9 nent parts and leaving them there like broken toys. 10 Another puzzling feature of these projects in theoretical bi-11 ology that invoke Kant but primarily seek to defend versions of 12 self-organization, might be expressed as: why the need for phi-13 losophy? Why run the risk of lapsing into a kind of naïve, indeed 14 precritical metaphysics of selfhood and interiority, or of anti-15 materialism? How could a working natural scientist take on board 16 proclamations such as Thompson's: «Life is not physical in the 17 standard materialist sense of purely external structure and func-18 tion. Life realizes a kind of interiority, the interiority of selfhood 19 and sense-making. We accordingly need an expanded notion of 20 the physical to account for the organism or living being»23? This 21 opposition between materialism and interiority is reminiscent of 22 post-Kantian denunciations of attempts to find the ʻseat of the 23 soulʼ. Further, here Thompson is calling for an expanded notion 24 of the physical, but often these kinds of theories, as I discuss 25 below, end up explicitly recommending that we disregard materi-26 ality altogether – ironically given the desire on the part of, e.g., 27 developmental systems theorists to move away from a disembod-28 ied understanding of biological information, towards a kind of 29 vital materiality. More generally, if theoretical biology wants 30 21 E. CLARKE, The Multiple Realizability of Biological Individuals, cit., p. 415. 22 A. SZENT-GYÖRGI, The Living State: With Observations on Cancer, Academic Press, New York, 1972, p. 1 (thanks to Gil C. Santos for this reference). 23 E. THOMPSON, Mind in life: biology, phenomenology, and the sciences of mind, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 2007, p. 238. Would Thompson also endorse Hegel's assertion that « The spatiality of the organism has no truth whatsoever for the soul » (G.W.F. HEGEL, Philosophy of Nature, trans. A.V. Miller, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1970, § 248Z, p. 18)? Charles T. Wolfe Articles 48 organizational concepts, seeks to steer our attention away from 1 the sirens of genetic reductionism and the informational gene, 2 why should this entail being anti-materialists?) And I've noted 3 elsewhere24 that I think the appeal of Moreno, Mossio et al. is that 4 they dispense with the somewhat foundationalist metaphysical 5 appeals of these other forms of holism. 6 (2) the problem of seeking to justifying the autonomy and/or 7 ontological uniqueness of Life, organisms, biological agents in 8 terms of empirical criteria, of a laundry list of properties of Life (from 9 the classic, self-preservation, self-reproduction, etc. as mentioned 10 above, to organizational closure, autonomy and so on).25 As I 11 wrote a few years ago, one thinker's homeostasis will always end 12 up being another thinker's homeostat26; or, one theorist's dynam-13 ic equilibrium of hearts, kidneys, termite mounds or chemotaxis 14 will always end up being another theorist's dynamic equilibrium 15 of storms or traffic jams. Not that all attempts to understand 16 such systems have to fall prey to the problems of a foundational 17 or otherwise ontologized empirical set of core criteria for Life: 18 Moreno and Mossio do not, as noted, and speaking of termite 19 mounds, when Turner presents them as a case of «embodied 20 homeostasis»27, he avoids these pitfalls since he does not ontologize 21 the property. The interaction between individual termites, and 22 between the termites and the termite mound, is a form of organi-23 zation rather than a special substance, a point made brilliantly by the 24 systems theorist von Bertalanffy: 25 26 Organisms exhibit the properties of life not because of some 27 special peculiarity of these compounds, but on account of the 28 heterogeneous system into which these compounds are articu-29 24 C.T. WOLFE, Do organisms have an ontological status?, «History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences», 32 (2-3), 2010, pp. 195-232. 25 For a more detailed, and sophisticated attempt to delineate a set of features of 'biological autonomy', see B. ROSSLENBROICH, On the Origin of Autonomy – A new look at the major transitions in evolution, Springer, Dordrecht, 2014. 26 That is, one thinker's purportedly core biological feature can be artificially modeled by another. C.T. WOLFE, Do organisms have an ontological status?. Thanks to Olivier Surel for suggesting I clarify this. 27 J.S. TURNER, The Tinkerer's Accomplice: How Design Emerges From Life Itself, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 2007, p. 27. Articles The Risk of Biochauvinism 49 lated. There is no "living substance" because the characteristic 1 of life is the organization of substances28. 2 3 I note in passing, because that is a topic for a different paper, 4 that one worthwhile holist-organicist strategy that does not invoke 5 definitional properties of life (or barely), is Kurt Goldstein's, in 6 his suggestion that rather than say what is unique about the bio-7 logical, we look to the observer: to be an organism is to have a point 8 of view on organisms; one which produces intelligibility, which 9 reveals organisms as meaning-producing beings29. This approach 10 – which has Kantian antecedents – is further extended after 11 Goldstein, by Georges Canguilhem. 12 Either way, waving lists of properties is a poor way to coun-13 ter the power of reductionism. The reductionist can always reply, 14 in Pierre Duhem's words, that a body is «only provisionally simple; 15 it has remained undecomposed until now, but tomorrow may 16 yield to a new means of analysis»30. 17 18 19 III. Holism or organicism, if it seeks to ontologize or other-20 wise absolutize features of life (digestion, proprioception, inten-21 tionality ...) can run into some categorical problems, that is, 22 category mistakes, but also the danger of making empirical claims 23 to have identified absolute traits of life – à la Elsasser's organis-24 mic laws, or Varela's «autopoiesis is an explication of the auton-25 omy of the living»31, or Thompson's statement of what we might 26 call the vulgate of biological holism, «parts arise from the whole. 27 Part and whole co-emerge and mutually specify each other»32, 28 28 L.V. BERTALLANFY, Modern theories of development, trans. J.H. Woodger, Oxford University Press, H. Milford, London, 1933, p. 48. 29 J. STAROBINSKI, L'idée d'organisme, Centre de Documentation Universitaire/Collège philosophique, Paris, 1956. The field of biosemiotics tarries at the limit between this flexible, non-literal idea of organisms as meaning-makers or world-makers, and a more stubbornly literal program. 30 P. DUHEM Le mixte et la combinaison chimique. Essai sur l'évolution d'une idée (1902); reprint, Fayard-Corpus, Paris 1985, p. 50. 31 F. VARELA, Autonomy and Autopoiesis, in G. Roth and H. Schwegler, eds., SelfOrganizing Systems, Campus Verlag, Frankfurt 1981, p. 14. 32 E. THOMPSON, Mind in life, cit., p. 38. Charles T. Wolfe Articles 50 itself not really an argument – which may in the end go up in 1 smoke, when it emerges that scientists cannot agree on a defini-2 tion of life, and thus find it more helpful to eliminate the concept. 3 If the concept of Life is rejected, as in Albert Szent-György's 4 «Life as such does not exist» or better-known, the partly per-5 formative statement by François Jacob, «On n'interroge plus la 6 vie aujourd'hui dans les laboratoires»33, claims to have found its 7 essential characteristics lose their foundation. 8 Further, sometimes the (former and current) holist and or-9 ganicist insistence on opposing the systems they lovingly study to 10 some apparently inferior opposed entity, whether matter itself, 11 machines, corpses or the dehumanized world of Scientific Revo-12 lution science, starts to sound ideological rather than scientific or 13 philosophically exploratory, even when it is put in deceptively 14 plain terms, such as here in Alva Noë's recent book Out of our 15 heads: «to do biology we need the resources to take up a non-16 mechanistic attitude to the organism»34. What would the mecha-17 nistic attitude be? That of Descartes (who wrote, «the preserva-18 tion of health has always been the principal end of my studies»35)? 19 Of Claude Bernard (for whom «what distinguishes a living ma-20 chine is not the nature of its physico-chemical properties, com-21 plex as they may be, but rather the creation of the machine which 22 develops under our eyes in conditions proper to itself and accord-23 ing to a definite idea which expresses the living being's nature and 24 the very essence of life»36)? Of the contemporary 'mechanist' 25 William Bechtel, for whom mechanism and organization stand in 26 33 F. JACOB, La logique du vivant, Gallimard, Paris, 1970, p. 320. See the interesting reflections on this issue in Michel Morange's review essay M. MORANGE Un retour du vitalisme ?, Histoire de la recherche contemporaine 2(2), 2013, pp. 150-155). 34 A. NOË, Out of Our Heads; Why You Are Not Your Brain, and Other Lessons from the Biology of Consciousness, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York, 2009, p. 41. 35 In a letter to the Marquess of Newcastle, October 1645, in R. DESCARTES, OEuvres, eds. C. Adam and P. Tannery, 11 vols., Vrin, Paris 1964-1976, vol. IV, p. 329; The Philosophical Writings of Descartes, vol. 3: The correspondence, trans. J. Cottingham, R. Stoothoff, D. Murdoch and A. Kenny, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1985, p. 275. 36 C. BERNARD, An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine (1865), Henry Schuman, New York, 1927, p. 93. Articles The Risk of Biochauvinism 51 a complex and fruitful interaction? Mechanism, Bechtel suggests, 1 can provide an adequate account of organization by «placing as 2 much emphasis on understanding the particular ways in which 3 biological mechanisms are organized as it has on discovering the 4 component parts of the mechanisms and their operations»37. But 5 this does not reduce to some pure mechanist ontology. In fact, 6 the holist/organicist standpoint minimally «remind[s] mechanists 7 of the shortfalls of the mechanistic accounts on offer», for ideas 8 such as «negative feedback, self-organizing positive feedback, and 9 cyclic organization are critical to explaining the phenomena 10 exhibited by living organism»38. 11 I say sometimes, since biochauvinism, or some weaker form of 12 it, need not be so ideological or oppositional. When it is not, it 13 can be appealing as a stubbornly realist or materialist-friendly 14 emphasis on genuine biological constraints. Consider the (some-15 what restrictive) opposition Andy Clark proposes, between two 16 arguments for embodiment (and here for 'embodiment' we could 17 substitute 'biochauvinism', 'organismicity', etc.): 18 19 One of those strands depicts the body as special, and the fine 20 details of a creature's embodiment as a major constraint on the 21 nature of its mind: a kind of new-wave body-centrism. The oth-22 er depicts the body as just one element in a kind of equal-23 partners dance between brain, body and world, with the nature 24 of the mind fixed by the overall balance thus achieved: a kind of 25 extended functionalism (now with an even broader canvas for 26 multiple realizability than ever before)39. 27 28 I daresay most materialists except ones especially enamored 29 of pure physics would want to say that «the fine details of a crea-30 ture's embodiment» count as «a major constraint on the nature of 31 its mind»; yet these fine details by no means imply that « the body 32 37 W. BECHTEL, Biological mechanisms: Organized to maintain autonomy, in F. BOOGERD, F.J. BRUGGEMAN, J-H.S. HOFMEYER, AND H.V. WESTERHOFF (eds.), Systems Biology: Philosophical Foundations, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2007, p. 270. 38 Ivi, pp. 296-297. 39 A. CLARCK, Pressing the flesh: a tension in the study of the embodied embedded mind ?, Philos. Phenomenol. Res., 76(1), 2008, p. 56. Charles T. Wolfe Articles 52 is special» in any way, especially not that of an embodied or 1 enactivist phenomenology founding itself on a claim of a founda-2 tional interiority – recall, again, Thompson's «Life is not physical 3 in the standard materialist sense of purely external structure and 4 function. Life realizes a kind of interiority, the interiority of 5 selfhood and sense-making», to which we can add Varela's claim 6 in a late paper that his project is to «reintroduce the subject into 7 biology»40. Now, I am not rejecting as anti-naturalistic the latter 8 part of Thompson's claim – namely, that organisms are engaged 9 in 'sense-making', an idea we could fill in either 'biosemiotically' 10 (with Uexküll's analysis of Umwelt, in which «even the simplest 11 living organism creates a set of preferential partitions of the 12 world, converting interactions with their surrounding media into 13 elementary norms or values, as we will explain more extensively 14 below. And here is where the nature of living systems as autono-15 mous agents, as inventors of worlds with meaning, becomes 16 manifest»41) or in 'constructivist' terms, appealing to Kurt Gold-17 stein's idea that an organism, unlike a skeleton or a watch, is an 18 meaning-producing entity. But these attempts to integrate 'sense-19 making' or 'world-making' into the province of biology have 20 nothing to do with appeals to «the interiority of selfhood» or a 21 «reintroduction of the subject into biology». 22 Selfhood or subjectivity is not a useful biological concept, 23 any more than the soul was a useful medical concept (thus in the 24 eighteenth century, the Montpellier vitalist physician Ménuret de 25 Chambaud could seek to 'eliminate' soul from medical discourse, 26 in an entry on «Death» in the Encyclopédie42). There is too much 27 reliance here on an appeal to interiority, as if it was an unchal-28 lengeable philosophical concept. As Jean-Marie Schaeffer says, 29 «In phenomenology, the problematic of embodiment (corporéité) is 30 part of an approach that continues to accept the epistemic privi-31 40 A. WEBER, F.J. VARELA, Life after Kant, cit., p. 117. 41 K. RUIZ-MIRAZO, A. MORENO, Autonomy in evolution: from minimal to complex life, Synthese, 185 (1), 2012, p. 28. 42 J-J. Menuret de Chambaud, Mort, «Encyclopédie», vol. X, Briasson, Paris, 1765, p. 718b. Articles The Risk of Biochauvinism 53 lege of consciousness's self-investigation as axiomatic»43. From a 1 naturalistic standpoint, 2 3 there are no intrinsically subjective or perspectival facts that are 4 either the special objects of self-regarding attitudes or facts of 5 "what it is like". There are only states of subjects that both 6 function in a particularly intimate way within those subjects and 7 have the subjects themselves and their other states as inevitable 8 referents. And that is all there is to "subjectivity"44. 9 10 No one prevents philosophers from meditating on the inner 11 life, subjectivity or interiority. Thinkers from Augustine to Paul 12 Ricoeur have done so brilliantly45. But again, not only is selfhood 13 or interiority not a recognized biological concept; it is unclear 14 how it could play even a heuristic role therein (as opposed, e.g., 15 to that of organization). To say it more positively, even if one is 16 interested, not in living systems in general, but in 'minded' living 17 systems, it remains the case that «things have a cognitive life 18 because intelligence exists primarily as an enactive relation be-19 tween and among people and things, not as a within-intracranial 20 representation»46. We are better off thinking in terms of relations, 21 systems and interaction than in terms of a substantival life-force, 22 selfhood or interiority. But focusing on relations and networks 23 should not mean leaving out the materiality: «system thinking does 24 not imply forgetting about the material mechanisms that are 25 crucial to trigger off a biological type of phenomenon/behavior; 26 43 J.-M. SCHAEFFER, La fin de l'exception humaine, Gallimard, Paris, 2007, p. 118. 44 W.G. LYCAN, What is the 'Subjectivity' of the Mental? Philosophical Perspectives 4: Action Theory and the Philosophy of Mind, 1990, p. 126. 45 For a critique, see C.T. WOLFE, « Éléments pour une théorie matérialiste du soi », in F. Pépin, ed., La Circulation entre les savoirs au siècle des Lumières, Hermann, Paris, 2011, pp. 123-149. 46 L. MALAFOURIS, C. RENFREW (eds.), The cognitive life of things: recasting the boundaries of the mind, McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research Publications, Cambridge, 2008, Introduction, p. 4. One can also be more charitable to Thompson's enactivism, as he is not always unhappily insisting on a foundational interiority (what some would call 'internalism'); he also describes living interiority as «compris[ing] the self-production of an inside that specifies an outside to which that inside is constitutively and normatively related» (E. THOMPSON, Mind in life, p. 225). Charles T. Wolfe Articles 54 rather, it means putting the emphasis on the interactive processes 1 that make it up, that is, on the dynamic organization in which 2 biomolecules (or, rather, their precursors) actually get integrat-3 ed»47. 4 5 6 IV. In sum, holism/organicism can succumb to two major 7 kinds of temptation: it can present itself as an empirical theory, 8 providing the key empirical characteristics of organisms, over and 9 against the rest of the natural world. Or, conversely, there is what 10 one might call the transcendental problem, in the sense of a 11 transcendentalizing of organism, or the flesh, or embodiment. 12 One can indeed be reluctant to conceive of the organism in 13 purely computational terms without invoking a mysticism of the 14 flesh (from Merleau-Ponty's appeals to transubstantiation in 15 seeking to highlight what is unique in the sensation of an embod-16 ied being48 to Thompson's denial that «life is physical in the 17 materialist sense»). Here, a third problem emerges: the addiction 18 to formalisms at the expense of materiality. 19 Faced with certain holistic excesses, I am not, to repeat, ad-20 vocating the extreme prudence of instrumentalism, in which the 21 moral when it comes to the material realization of biological 22 systems might be 'handsome is as handsome does'. Contempo-23 rary holists are often still potentially beholden to a certain kind of 24 vitalism or «biochauvinism»49; but when, out of extreme caution, 25 47 K. RUIZ-MIRAZO, A. MORENO Basic Autonomy as a Fundamental Step in the Synthesis of Life. Artificial Life, 10, 2004, p. 238. 48 « Just as the sacrament not only symbolizes . . . an operation of Grace, but is also the real presence of God . . . in the same way the sensible has not only a motor and vital significance but is nothing other than a way of being in the world that our body takes over [...] sensation is literally a communion » (M. MERLEAU-PONTY, Phénoménologie de la perception, Gallimard, Paris, 1945, p. 245). 49 Again, this is not an essay in the historical epistemology of organisms, or a suggestion in how to rethink our presuppositions about vitalism, e.g. by revisiting its history. For some efforts in this direction, see C.T. WOLFE, From substantival to functional vitalism and beyond, or from Stahlian animas to Canguilhemian attitudes. Eidos, 14, 2011, pp. 212-235 ; S. NORMANDIN, C.T. WOLFE (eds.), Vitalism and the scientific image in post-Enlightenment life science, 1800-2010, Springer, Dordrecht, 2013. Articles The Risk of Biochauvinism 55 they reduce their claims to mere heuristics, conversely, they risk 1 losing sight of a certain kind of organizational « thickness », a 2 «vital materiality» in Wheeler's terms50; he opposes vital to imple-3 mentational materiality, without really fleshing out the distinction, so 4 to speak, but I assume it is similar to what an earlier, perhaps the 5 first theorist of vital materiality, Denis Diderot, expressed in a 6 nice metaphor: «What a difference there is, between a sensing, 7 living watch and a golden, iron, silver or copper watch!»51. 8 If there was only implementational materiality, (i) we would 9 fail to grasp any meaningful difference between a living watch 10 and a silver or copper watch – and please note, this difference 11 need not be justified in terms of a vital force, an entelechy, an élan 12 vital, a centralizing soul or self, an irreducible intentionality or 13 first-personness52 – and (ii) we would lapse into a kind of lazy 14 multiple realizability position53 which disregards the material in 15 which a system is realized, of the sort classically stated by Varela 16 and later, Robert Rosen. Here is Varela: 17 18 We are thus saying that what defines a machine's organization is 19 relations, and hence that the organization of a machine has no 20 connection with materiality, that is, with the properties of the 21 components that define them as physical entities. In the organi-22 zation of a machine, materiality is implied but does not enter per 23 se.54 24 25 50 M. WHEELER, Mind, things and materiality, in L. MALAFOURIS, C. RENFREW (eds.), The cognitive life of things, pp. 29-37. 51 D. DIDEROT, Éléments de physiologie, in OEuvres complètes, dir. H. Dieckmann, J. Proust, J. Varloot, Éditions Hermann, Paris, 1975-, XVII, p. 335. 52 Contra the Varela first-person business (e.g. F.J. VARELA, J. SHEAR, Firstperson methodologies: why, when and how, Journal of Consciousness Studies, 6(2-3) 1999, pp. 1-14). 53 See the excellent history and analysis of multiple realizability arguments in J. BICKLE, Multiple Realizability. In E. ZALTA (ed.), Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/multiple-realizability/, 1998; updated 2013. 54 F.J. VARELA, Principles of Biological Autonomy, Elsevier North Holland, New York, 1979, p. 9, cit. in W. BECHETEL, Biological mechanisms, cit., p. 294. To be fair, in context Varela is not calling for multiple realizability, but it is not clear why or how he is not. Charles T. Wolfe Articles 56 Using much the same language, Rosen describes his ap-1 proach as «relational», which we might think of as congenial to 2 the study of specific biological forms of organization, but no: he 3 adds that the relational approach aims to «throw away the matter 4 and keep the underlying organization»55. This is like the central 5 dogma of functionalism, i.e., multiple realizability, by virtue of 6 which the materiality of systems is held to be irrelevant: as ex-7 pressed classically by the arch-functionalist Hilary Putnam, «we 8 could be made of Swiss cheese and it wouldn't matter»56. 9 To conclude, there is something endearing about vitalist 10 claims especially when they don't invoke or rely on a foundational 11 subjectivity, including because they don't revert to explaining 12 biological systems (embodied agents) in fully systemic, formalized 13 terms. So is a small amount of biochauvinism acceptable, or even 14 desirable? If it means the effort to grasp the kind of vital material-15 ity characteristic of biological systems – their organization, in the 16 language of Moreno, and also Bechtel, who, like Scott Turner, 17 invokes Claude Bernard as an important predecessor of this 18 view57. Recall that for Bernard, «In order to study the phenomena 19 pertaining to living beings and discover the laws that govern 20 them, it is not necessary to know the essence of life itself»58. We 21 could enlist Bernard in support of the view that an investigation 22 of vital materiality need not transcendentalize Life or organism. 23 But is this materiality «substance» or «organization»? It is not 24 quite a biochauvinism, or very weakly, because it does not posit a 25 vital substance, a foundational interiority or an absolute set of 26 criteria for Life: recall von Bertalanffy's observation, «There is no 27 55 R. ROSEN, Life Itself, Columbia University Press, New York, 1991, p. 119; cf. «throwing away the physics and keeping the underlying organization» (p. 280). 56 H. PUTNAM, Philosophy and our Mental Life, in Putnam, Mind, Language, and Reality. Philosophical Papers, vol. 2, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1975, p. 291. 57 J. S. TURNER, cit., chapter 2 (on Bernard machines); idem, Homeostasis and the forgotten vitalist roots of adaptation, in S. NORMANDIN, C.T. WOLFE (eds.), Vitalism and the scientific image, cit. 58 C. BERNARD, Histoire de l'expérimentation physiologique – l'art d'expérimenter sur les êtres vivants, Revue des cours scientifiques de la France et de l'étranger, 6e année, Germer Baillière, Paris, 1869, p. 194. Articles The Risk of Biochauvinism 57 "living substance" because the characteristic of life is the organi-1 zation of substances»59. However, as I've said earlier, a focus on 2 organization and relations need not imply that we sacrifice its 3 materiality in favour of 'Swiss cheese' multiple realizability. A 4 biochauvinism implies a degree of ontological commitment (what 5 I termed a «weakly ontological» view of organism in my earlier 6 reflection on the topic60). A tangibility, implicit in what I above 7 pointed to – that most materialists can accept a degree of embod-8 iment (a.k.a. biochauvinism), granting that facts about bodies can 9 act as ʻmajor constraintsʼ on facts about minds. Yet this tangibil-10 ity, this embodiment appeal to no foundational interiority, no 11 special inner life. 12 My suggestion then is that it should be possible to articulate 13 a concept of biological holism or organicism (whether it is locat-14 ed in systems biology, theoretical biology, evolutionary biology or 15 a philosophical reconstruction of several of these) which dispens-16 es with the first-person obsession or the transubstantiation-17 friendly invocation of an ontology of the body as corps propre, 18 although this is not the same as Clark's, Wheeler's or Malafouris' 19 attention to vital materiality. Such a view is neither an empirical, 20 laundry list 'biochauvinism' nor a metaphysical 'vitalism'. 21 22 Acknowledgments 23 Earlier versions of this paper were presented at the Embod-24 iment and Adaptation Workshop, University of Pittsburgh, Cen-25 ter for Philosophy of Science (March 2011) and ISHPSSB, Mont-26 pellier (July 2013). Thanks in particular to Matteo Mossio for his 27 comments, although he would not endorse the contents of the 28 paper. 29 30 59 L.V. BERTALLANFY, Modern theories of development, trans. J.H. Woodger, Oxford University Press, H. Milford, London, 1933, p. 48. 60 C.T. WOLFE, Do organisms have an ontological status?, cit.