Prolegomena 5 (2) 2006: 179–191 Mill's liberal Feminism: its legacy and Current Criticism MARIANA SZAPUOVÁ Comenius University in Bratislava – Faculty of Arts Department of Philosophy and the History of Philosophy Gondova 2, 818 01 Bratislava, Slovakia szapuova@fphil.uniba.sk ORIGINAL SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE / RECEIVED: 13–07–06 ACCEPTED: 20–10–06 abstraCt:.This.paper.highlights.John.Stuart.Mill's.views.on.the.problem.of.gender. equality.as.expressed.in.The Subjection of Women,.which.is.commonly.regarded. as.one.of.the.core.texts.of.Enlightenment.liberal.feminism.of.the.19th.century ..In. this.paper,.the.author.outlines.the.historical.context.of.both.Mill's.views.and.his. personal.biography,.which.influenced.his.argumentation.for.the.emancipation.of. women,.and.considers.Mill's.utilitarianism.and.liberalism,.as.the.main.philosophical.background.for.his.criticism.of.social.conditions.that.subordinated.women .. She.reflects.on.some.of.the.philosopher's.ideas.and.arguments.for.equality.and. friendship.between.women.and.men.which.may.still.be.considered.noteworthy. and.relevant ..Attention.is.also.given.to.the.main.lines.of.contemporary.reception. of.Mill's. liberal. feminism.from.the.perspective.of.current. feminist.philosophy,. within.which.certain.critical.views.predominate ..Despite.some.problematic.points. in.Mill's.considerations,.his.essay.on.women's.subjection.may.be.regarded.as.one. of.the.philosophically.most.interesting.conceptions.of.liberal.feminist.thinking . KeyworDs:.Equality,.feminism,.gender,.liberalism,.philosophy . John Stuart Mill as Feminist: Biographical Context Although.contemporary.feminist.reflection.on.the.tradition.of.European. philosophical. thinking. is. quite. heterogeneous. and. richly. differentiated,. among. the. common. features. found. in. most. feminist. re-readings. of. the. philosophical.canon.is.their.critical.attitude.with.regard.not.only.to.the.historical.exclusion.of.women.from.philosophy,.but.also,.and.perhaps.more. commonly,.to.certain.negative.characterisations.of.women.or.the.feminine. found.therein,.the.explicit.misogyny.of.some.great.philosophers.(such.as. Aristotle's. description. of. the. female. as. a. deformed. male),. and. various. 180 Prolegomena 5 (2) 2006 forms.of.sexism.and.androcentrism.identifiable.in.the.Western.philosophical.canon ..Of.course,.considering.the.extreme.diversity.of.what.we.call. "the. philosophical. canon",. any. universalising. judgement. would. clearly. represent.a.simplification ..Nonetheless,.it.seems.that.it.is.hardly.possible. to.name.more. than.a.few.figures. in. the.history.of.philosophy,. from.the. ancient.Greeks.up.to.the.present,.who.have.contributed.positively.to.an. analysis.of.the.issues.surrounding.women's.(subordinated).position.in.society,.or.who.have.advocated.gender.equality.as.one.of.the.main.principles. of.social.justice ..John.Stuart.Mill.can.be.considered.one.of.the.very.few. exceptions.to.the.androcentric.character.of.Western.philosophy,.one.who. stands.out.from.a.long.tradition.that.tended.more.to.devalue.and.marginalise.women.and.issues.concerning.relations.between.the.sexes,.or.to.keep. silent.about. them,. than. to.develop.philosophical. ideas.and.explanations. regarding.women's.subordination.and.consider.gender.issues.based.on.the. principle.of.the.equality.of.women.and.men . John.Stuart.Mill.considered.this.to.be.one.of.the.most.fundamental. principles.for.building.a.liberal.and.democratic.society ..His.interest.in.the. emancipation.of.women.was. systematic. and.continuous .. It. is. also.very. important.to.note.that.he.worked.on.this.issue.not.only.theoretically.and. philosophically,.but.also.as.a.publicist.and.politician ..As.is.well.known,. Mill. was. not. a. typical. academic. philosopher. and. scientist,. and. did. not. regard.his.activities.as.mere.theorising ..Rather,.he.was.a."public.man",.an. enthusiastic.participant.in.public.and.political.debates.concerning.various. social. problems. of. his. time,. and. was. especially. interested. in. legal. and. social.reform ..Among.the.issues.on.which.Mill.campaigned.most.intensively.were.women's.rights,.women's.suffrage.and.women's.equal.access. to.education ..From.the.latter.half.of.the.1850s.until.his.death,.he.actively. supported.the.women's.movement.as.it.developed.during.this.period,.and. participated.in.various.forms.of.women's.political.struggle.against.subjection. and. discrimination. and. for. civil. and. political. rights,. especially. women's. suffrage,. as. well. as. social. and. political. reforms. aimed. at. improving. their. situation ..He.cooperated. and. regularly. corresponded.with. several.women's. rights. activists,. including.Elisabeth.C ..Stanton,. leader. of.the.first.organised.women's.movement.in.the.USA.and.author.of.the. famous.Declaration of Sentiments.of.1848,.a.manifesto.articulating. the. demand.for.equality.between.the.sexes ..During.his.brief.political.career. as.a.member.of.British.parliament.(he.became.a.member.of.the.House.of. Commons.in.1865),.Mill.worked.to.influence.legislation.and.public.policy. concerning.issues.affecting.women;.for.example,.he.fought.for.a.women's. suffrage.amendment.to.the.Reform.Bill.of.1867,.and.also.supported.the. Married.Women's.Property.Bill.one.year.later ..He.was.critical.of.the.idea. 181M. SZAPUOVÁ: Mill's Liberal Feminism: Its Legacy and Current Criticism that.husbands,.through.their.right.to.vote,.served.as.the.protectors.of.their. wives;. for.him,.women's.enfranchisement.signified. the.greater. struggle. for.women's.equality . In.the.literature.devoted.to.Mill,.it.is.commonly.held.that.his.criticism. of.patriarchy,.his.ideas.about.the.emancipation.of.women,.and.his.feminism.are.closely.related.to.his.personal.relationship.with.Harriet.Taylor. and.her. thoughts.on. these. issues ..Although. there. is.much.disagreement. regarding.the.impact.of.Taylor's.ideas.on.Mill,.and.especially.about.the. merit.and.value.of.her.influence.on.Mill's.feminism.(some.authors.view. Taylor's.influence.on.Mill.in.a.positive.light,.others.see.it.as.damaging),. no.one.denies.that.Mill.and.Taylor.greatly.affected.each.other's.thinking .. Mill.attests.to.the.common.nature.of.his.and.Taylor's.work.in.the.following.words: When.two.persons.have.their.thoughts.and.speculations.completely.in.common;. when. all. subjects. of. intellectual. or. moral. interest. are. discussed. between.them.in.daily.life,.and.probed.to.much.greater.depths.than.are.usually. or.conveniently.sounded.in.writings.intended.for.general.readers;.when.they. set.out.from.the.same.principles,.and.arrive.at.their.conclusions.by.processes. pursued.jointly,.it.is.of.little.consequence.in.respect.to.the.question.of.originality,.which.of. them.holds. the.pen;. the.one.who.contributes. least. to. the. composition.may.contribute.most.to.the.thought;.the.writings.which.result. are.the.joint.product.of.both,.and.it.must.often.be.impossible.to.disentangle. their.respective.parts,.and.affirm.that.this.belongs.to.one.and.that.to.the.other .. (Mill,.1981:.251) The.joint.nature.of.their.writings.is.important.for.our.understanding. of.the.context.of.their.philosophical.ideas ..The.extraordinary.relationship. between.Mill.and.Taylor.shaped.not.only.their.personal.lives,.but.also.the. priorities. of. their. thoughts. and. writings ..They. met. in. 1830,. when. Harriet.was.married. to. John.Taylor ..Her. intimate. friendship.with.Mill.was. a.source.of.much.criticism;.the.restrictiveness.of.Victorian.morality.made. their. relationship.suspect ..Their.disgust.at. the.ostracism. they. faced.due. to.their.close.relationship.may.be.recognised.in.the.criticism.of.cultural. conformity. in. On Liberty. In. The Subjection of Women,. Mill. discusses. the.situation.of.an.intelligent.woman.confined.by.patriarchal.institutions. and.customs.that.deny.her.individuality.(see.also.Eisenstein,.1981:.114) .. Through.his.relationship.with.Taylor,.Mill.reached.the.strong.conviction. that.women's.suffrage.was.an.essential.step.towards.the.moral.improvement.of.humankind,.and.that.the.relationship.between.husband.and.wife. had.to.be.grounded.in.legal.as.well.as.real.equality.–.that."marital.slavery".should.be.replaced.by."marital.friendship" ..In.1851,.two.years.after. John.Taylor's.death,.Mill.and.Harriet.Taylor.were.married,.subsequently. 182 Prolegomena 5 (2) 2006 working.together.on.Mill's.Autobiography and.On Liberty. Harriet.died. only.seven.years.after.their.marriage,.and.The Subjection of Women.was. published.after.her.death . Mill on the Subjection of Women Mill.formulates.the.fundamental.argument.of.The Subjection of Women.in. its.first.paragraph: [T]he.principle.which.regulates.the.existing.social.relations.between.the.two. sexes.–.the.legal.subordination.of.one.sex.to.the.other.–.is.wrong.in.itself.and. now.one.of.the.chief.hindrances.to.human.improvement;.and.[...].ought.to. be.replaced.by.a.principle.of.perfect.equality,.admitting.no.power.or.privilege.on.the.one.side,.nor.disability.on.the.other ..(Mill,.1984:.261) Mill's.criticism.of.the.social.status.of.women.is.based.on.his.analysis. of.the.social.injustice.excluding.women.from.public.and.civil.life,.from. politics.and.decision-making ..He.stresses.that.this.kind.of.social.injustice. is. one. of. the. main. barriers. to. human. progress. and. the. moral. improvement.of.humankind ..Analysing.the.consequences.of.women's.subjugation,. he.points.out.that.such.conditions.negatively.affect.not.only.the.lives.of. women,.but.of.men.as.well ..Men.and.women.alike.are.harmed.by.such.a. situation,.and.consequently.the.subjection.of.women.negatively.affects.the. whole.of.society ..As.a.liberal. thinker,.Mill.expresses.his.strong.conviction.that.the.subordination.of.women,.which.deprives.them.of.freedom,.is. an.unjust.violation.of.the.principle.of.liberty ..Moreover,.it.is.a.historical. anachronism,."an.isolated.fact.in.modern.social.institutions.[...],.a.single. relic.of.an.old.world.of.thought.and.practice.exploded.in.everything.else,. but.retained.in.the.one.thing.of.most.universal.interest".(Mill,.1984:.275);. and. Mill. declares. that. this. "relic. of. the. past. is. discordant. with. the. future,. and.must.necessarily.disappear". (Mill,.1984:.272) ..He. locates. the. origin.of.women's.oppression.in.men's.physical.strength,.assuming.that. the.more.influence.reason.has.in.a.society,. the.less. importance.physical. strength.will.have ..In.such.a.state.of.affairs,.women.would.no.longer.be. disadvantaged,.as.physical.strength.becomes.less.important.as.civilisation. progresses ..This.progress. implies. the.development.of.reason.which,.according.to.Mill,.is.the.same.in.either.sex ..Hence.the.subjection.of.women. in.an.advanced.society.has.no.other.basis.than.habit.or.custom,.both.of. which.are. serious.hindrances. to. the. full.development.of. reason .. In. this. way,.Mill.conceptualises.human.life.as.progressing.from.the.passionate. and.the.natural.to.the.rational.and.the.cultural . Mill.views.the.problem.of.women's.status.in.society.–.the.problem. of.their.subjection.–.in.the.context.of.his.philosophical.belief.in.general. 183M. SZAPUOVÁ: Mill's Liberal Feminism: Its Legacy and Current Criticism human.progress,.in.general.human.advancement.and.prosperity ..Any.inequality.represents.a.serious.barrier.to.the.advancement.of.an.entire.society,.and.is.also.an.obstacle.to.progress.on.an.individual.level,.that.is,.to. individual. improvement.and.prosperity ..Precisely. this. is.Mill's.point.of. departure.in.arguing.for. the.need.to.dismantle.social.and.legal.relationships.that.subjugate.women.and.establish.perfect.equality.and.partnership. between.the.sexes,.in.both.the.public.and.private.spheres . Today.Mill.is.commonly.viewed.as.the.most.important.representative. of.Enlightenment.liberal.feminism,.and.no.doubt.this.essay.on.women's. subjection.is.the.most.persuasive.piece.of.liberal.feminist.thinking ..However,.some.of.his.views.are.more.similar.to.certain.radical.feminist.ideas. developed.within."second-wave.feminism" ..For.example,.in.exploring.the. question.of.the.causes.and.motives.for.which.unequal.relations.between. men.and.women.are.maintained,.Mill.claims.that,.apart.from.established. customs.and.general.sentiments,.it.is.in.the.interest.of.men.to.keep.women. in.their.subjugated.position ..The.exclusion.of.women.from.public.life.is. the.result.of.men's.will.to."maintain.their.subordination.in.domestic.life,. because.the.generality.of.the.male.sex.cannot.yet.tolerate.the.idea.of.living. with.an.equal" (Mill,.1984:.299) . When.speaking.about.women's.status,. especially.in.the.family.and.marriage,.he.often.uses.the.image.of.slavery:. a.wife."is.the.actual.bondservant.of.her.husband:.no.less.so,.as.far.as.legal. obligation.goes,.than.slaves.commonly.so.called".(Mill,.1984:.284) ..Mill. considers.marriage,.or.more.precisely.the.marital.law.of.his.society,.as.the. main.factor.in.generating,.perpetuating.and.enforcing.women's.slavery ..In. his.view,.women.are.in.a.double.bind:.they.are.not.free.within.marriage,. and.they.are.not.free.not.to.marry ..This.lack.of.freedom.not.to.marry.results.from.the.fact.that.they.cannot.acquire.education.or.earn.money.in.the. public.sphere ..Thus.there.is.strong.social.and.economic.pressure.to.marry:. law.and.custom.dictate.that.a.woman.has.scarcely.any.available.means.of. gaining.a.livelihood,.except.as.a.wife.and.mother . Mill's.reflections.on.women's.status.within.marriage.contain.not.only. this.critical.moment,.but.also.some.constructive.ones ..He.outlines.a.vision. of.marital.partnership.based.on.the.principles.of.equality,.partnership,.cooperation.and.reciprocity.between.woman.and.man,.and.stresses.that.only. such.a.relationship.between.married.persons.is.acceptable,.not.only.in.a. political.but.also.in.a.moral.sense: The.equality.of.married.persons.before.the.law,.is.not.only.the.sole.mode. in.which.that.particular.relation.can.be.made.consistent.with.justice.to.both. sides,.and.conducive. to. the.happiness.of.both,.but. it. is. the.only.means.of. rendering. the.daily. life. of.mankind,. in. any.high. sense,. a.school. of.moral. cultivation ..(Mill,.1984:.294) 184 Prolegomena 5 (2) 2006 Despite.the.fact.that.Mill.concentrates.primarily.on.legal.conditions. and.legislation,.he.is.also.well.aware.that.women's.position.in.marriage. and.their.status.in.public.life.are.interconnected ..Accordingly,.he.believes. that.marital.relations.based.on.partnership.and.equality.would.transform. not.only.the.domestic.but.also.the.public.sphere ..His.reflections.on.the.relationship.between.the.public.and.private.world.also."emphasised.the.extent. to.which.the.rights-bearing.individual.of.much.liberal.political.thought.is. constituted.in.important.ways.by.intimate.as.well.as.public.relationships". (Shanley,.2000:.398) ..Mill.offers.plenty.of.arguments.to.discredit.prejudices.against.women's.entry.into.the.public.world.–.the.world.of.higher. education,.paid.labour.and.politics.–.and.to.demonstrate.the.necessity.of. making.all.occupations.and.public.positions.accessible.to.women.as.well. as.men ..In.accordance.with.his.liberal.political.and.philosophical.convictions,.he.maintains.that.the.very.principle.of.justice.requires.that.women. possess.the.same.rights.as.men,.and.that.equality.before.the.law.will.lead. to.justice.in.all.spheres.of.social.and.political.life . Mill's.analysis.of.the.subjection.of.women.in.society.clearly.reveals. his.utilitarian.position,.as.well.as.his.participation.in.the.English.liberal. tradition ..The.situation.of.one.half.of.humankind,.which.he.describes.in. terms.of.subjection,.oppression.and.slavery,.is.not.only.in.sharp.contrast. with.the.principle.of.equality.and.individual.freedom ..It.is.also.a.serious. obstacle. to.social.and.individual. improvement,. to.prosperity.and.happiness:. the. subjection. of. women. "dries. up. [...]. the. principal. fountain. of. human. happiness,. and. leaves. the. species. less. rich,. to. an. inappreciable. degree,.in.all.that.makes.life.valuable.to.the.human.being".(Mill,.1984:. 340) ..Mill.justifies.the.necessity.of.women's.emancipation.mainly.by.the. need.to.create.room.for.each.individual.(which.means.not.only.men,.but. also.women). to.develop. their.personal. inclinations.and. talents,.so.as. to. realise.the.maximum.of.their.personal.happiness.and,.as.a.consequence,. contribute.to.the.development.of.the.whole.of.society ..It.is.not.difficult.to. identify.the.utilitarian.principle.of.maximum.happiness.in.the.background. of.such.argumentation;.for.it.is.the.well-being.of.the.maximum.number. of.people.which.Mill.uses. to.demonstrate. the.disutility.of.women's.oppression.and.exclusion.from.public.life ..Other.principles.which.are.central.to.his.argumentation.are.the.liberal.principle.of.equality.and.freedom,. the.principle.of.equal.opportunities,.and.the.principle.of.free.individual. choice ..Accordingly,.since.human.beings.are.equal,.the.fact.that.someone. is.born.a.woman.should.not.determine.her.lifelong.position.and.status.in. society,.and.neither.philosophy.nor.customs.should."ordain.that.to.be.born. a.girl. instead.of.a.boy,.any.more.that. to.be.born.black.instead.of.white,. or.a.commoner.instead.of.a.nobleman,.shall.decide.the.person's.position. 185M. SZAPUOVÁ: Mill's Liberal Feminism: Its Legacy and Current Criticism through.all.life".(Mill,.1984:.274) ..It.may.be.said.that.this.idea.represents. one.of.the.most.fundamental.assumptions.of.liberal.feminist.theory.to.this. very.day ..As.for.Mill's.strategy,.it.may.be.said.that.he,.like.Harriet.Taylor,. wanted.to.extend.the.ideology.of.liberal.individualism.to.women;.for.both. of.them.sought.to.secure.an.independent,.autonomous.identity.for.women. as.distinct.individuals.(on.Mill's.liberal.individualism,.see.also.Eisenstein,. 1981:. 113–145) .. In. short,. Mill's. argumentation. is. bound. to. two. fundamental. assumptions. or. theses,. which. permeate. his. thoughts. throughout. the.whole.essay ..According.to.the.first,.the.equality.of.women.before.the. law.is.an.imperative.proceeding.from.the.very.principle.of.social.justice .. The.second.consists.in.his.thesis.regarding.the.social.utility.of.eliminating. the.oppression.of.women,.not.only.for. them.but.for.society.as.a.whole .. These.two.assumptions.are.joined.into.one.thesis.of.fundamental.importance,.according.to.which.the.inequality.of.women.and.men.is.unjust.as. well.as.harmful,.both.for.individuals.(individual.women.and.men).and.for. society: This.interweaving.of.the.principle.of.justice.that.dictates.women's.rights.to. equality.before.the.law.and.of.the.principle.of.utility.that.anticipates.social. benefits.to.follow.from.overturning.relationships.of.domination.and.subordination.recurs.repeatedly.in.The Subjection of Women ..(Shanley,.2000:.400) In. this.context,. the.question.of. the.compatibility.of. these. two.principles.may.arise,.and.it.might.also.be.asked.which.of.the.two.Mill.considers.more.important ..I.think.that.these.two.principles.are.equally.important. for.Mill;.but.what.is.more.remarkable.is.the.way.in.which.he.combines. them.when.examining. the.advantages.of. improving.women's. status. for. the.whole.of. society ..His.question.cui bono?. and. the. answers.he.gives. are,.in.some.sense,.highly.similar.to.the.arguments.found.in.contemporary. discourse.on,.for.example,.women's.representation.in.politics.or.decisionmaking.positions ..When.speaking.of. these. issues,. it. is.very.common.to. appeal.to.the.usefulness.of.a.higher.representation.of.women.in.politics,. arguing.that.they.could.bring.to.this.sphere.different.values.or.attitudes,. and. that. this. is. the.main.reason.why.we.should.wish. to.see. them.more. highly.represented ..Of.course,.in.Mill's.case.an.orientation.towards.utility. is.understandable.in.the.context.of.his.utilitarianism;.yet.I.still.think.that. this.kind.of.argumentation.presents.some.difficulties ..Should.we.aim.at. a.higher.representation.of.women.in.politics.only.because.we.expect.them. to. do. politics. differently,. thus. producing. positive. changes. in. society. at. large?.The.main.problem.I.see.with.this.kind.of.thinking.is.that.it.tacitly. presupposes.that.each.individual.woman.is.a.representative.of.her.sex.and. femininity.(primarily.a.conventionally.conceived.femininity) . 186 Prolegomena 5 (2) 2006 Many. of. Mill's. views. on. women's. social. position. and. status. are. relevant. today;. this. is. true.even. from. the.viewpoint.of. current. feminist. philosophy .. These. include. Mill's. thoughts. on. issues. like. the. source. of. women's.subjection,.the.difference.between.women.and.men,.the.origins. and.nature.of.such.differences,.and.so.on ..Although.I.cannot.agree.with. everything. which. Mill. says. on. these. issues,. I.believe. his. philosophical. argumentation.is.still.worthy.of.consideration ..For.example,.with.regard. to.the.thesis.(found.even.in.contemporary.discourse).that.the.experience. of.mankind.confirms.the.existing.social.order.and.the.current.gender.arrangement,.Mill.points.out.that.experience."cannot.possibly.have.decided. between.two.courses,.so.long.as.there.has.only.been.experience.of.one". (Mill,.1984:.276) . In. accordance.with.his. liberal. social. and.political. philosophy,.Mill. stresses.the.similarities.between.women.and.men,.rather.than.their.differences,.emphasising.that."any.of.the.mental.differences.supposed.to.exist. between.women.and.men.are.but.the.natural.effect.of.the.differences.in. their.education.and.circumstances,.and.indicate.no.radical.difference,.far. less.radical.inferiority,.of.nature".(Mill,.1984:.302) ..Mill.argues.that.any. gap.in.intellectual.achievement.between.men.and.women.can.be.explained. by.the.better.education.and.privileged.social.position.which.men.enjoy .. On.the.other.hand,.he.endeavours.to.emphasise.and.positively.evaluate.the. importance.of.those.mental.or.behavioural.traits.of.women.which.supposedly.differ.from.men's ..For.example,.while.arguing.for.women's.suffrage. and.their.representation.in.public.life,.he.suggests.that."the.general.bent.of. their.talents.is.towards.the.practical".(Mill,.1984:.304),.thus.making.them. fit.for.a.life.of.public.action ..He.frequently.refers.to.women's.(present). characteristics.to.support.his.call.for.eliminating.barriers.to.their.participation.in.public.life ..It.seems.that.Mill's.reflections.on.this.issue.are.not. unambiguous:.they.oscillate.between.the.classical.liberal.position,.within. which.equality.is.mainly.regarded.as.based.on.sameness,.and.a.position. which.was.more.distinctly.articulated.approximately.one.hundred.years. later.by.second-wave.feminism,.i .e ..the.theory.of.sexual.difference ..However,. it. should.be. stressed. that.with. regard. to. the.question.of.women's. emancipation.and.gender.equality,.Mill's.position.is.clearly.a.liberal.one . Likewise.still. relevant. is.Mill's.criticism.of. traditional.opinions.regarding.women's.and.men's.proper.place.in.society.–.opinions.which.are. deeply.rooted.in.European.culture.and."mass.feeling" ..In.this.context,.Mill. stresses.the.importance.of.analysing.such.opinions.and.feelings.or,.to.use. the.current.terminology,.gender.stereotypes,.yet.at.the.same.time.is.well. aware.of.how.difficult.it.is.to.argue.against.them ..As.if.debating.with.an. imaginary.opponent,.a.supporter.of."the.established.custom.and.the.gen187M. SZAPUOVÁ: Mill's Liberal Feminism: Its Legacy and Current Criticism eral.feeling".(Mill,.1984:.263).with.regard.to.the.natural.place.of.women. and.men.and.the.natural.character.of.the.inequality.existing.between.them,. Mill. presents. abundant. arguments. to.undermine. such.opinions,. emphasising.that."custom,.however.universal.it.may.be,.affords.in.this.case.no. presumption,.and.ought.not.to.create.any.prejudice,.in.favour.of.the.arrangements.which.place.women.in.social.and.political.subjection.to.men". (Mill,.1984:.272) . In.Victorian.England.as.well.as. in.our.own.society,.one.repeatedly. encounters.a.kind.of.justification.of.the.differing.social.position.of.women. and.men.which.claims.that.this.is.due.to.their."nature",.to.their.(supposedly). natural. characteristics. and. dispositions ..With. regard. to. this. issue,. I.think.it.appropriate.to.quote.a.slightly.longer.passage.from.Mill's.essay: Neither.does.it.avail.anything.to.say.that.the.nature.of.the.two.sexes.adapts. them.to.their.present.functions.and.positions,.and.renders.these.appropriate. to.them ..Standing.on.the.ground.of.common.sense.and.the.constitution.of. the.human.mind,.I.deny.that.anyone.knows,.or.can.know,.the.nature.of.the. two.sexes,.as.long.as.they.have.only.been.seen.in.their.present.relation.to.one. another ..If.men.had.ever.been.found.in.society.without.women,.or.women. without.men,.or.if.there.had.been.a.society.of.men.and.women.in.which.the. women.were.not.under.the.control.of.the.men,.something.might.have.been. positively.known.about.the.mental.and.moral.differences.which.may.be.inherent.in.the.nature.of.each ..What.is.now.called.the.nature.of.women.is.an. eminently.artificial.thing.–.the.result.of.forced.repression.in.some.directions,. unnatural.stimulation.in.others ..(Mill,.1984:.277) Here.Mill.not.only.calls.attention.to.the.impossibility.of.knowing.the. "nature".of.women;.for.what.we.now.call.the.nature.or.natural.traits.of. women.is.the.result.of.culturally.determined.factors.such.as.socialisation. and.education.and.the.effect.of.the.social.circumstances.in.which.women. live ..He.also.unmasks.the.falsity.and.delusiveness.of.any.argument.based. on.the.premise.of."natural".mental.or.moral.differences ..For.if.men.really. believed,.as.they.say.they.do,.that.a.woman's.natural.vocation.is.that.of. wife.and.mother,. they.would.not.erect.barriers. to.prevent.women. from. doing.anything.else ..Mill's.observation.that."the.knowledge.which.men. can.acquire.of.women.[...].is.wretchedly.imperfect.and.superficial,.and. always.will.be.so,.until.women.themselves.have.told.all.that.they.have.to. tell".(Mill,.1984:.278).still.sounds.remarkable.today ..When.current.feminist. philosophers. and. theorists. invoke. women's. voices,. when. they. call. on.women.to.articulate.their.experiences.and.their.lives,.we.hear.an.echo. of.John.Stuart.Mill.and.his.view.that.the.issue.of.difference.between.the. sexes.is."a.subject.on.which.nothing.final.can.be.known,.so.long.as.those. who.alone.can. really.know. it,.women. themselves,.have.given.but. little. testimony,.and.that.little,.mostly.suborned".(Mill,.1984:.278) . 188 Prolegomena 5 (2) 2006 Current Feminist Reflections on Mill's Views While.Mill's.opinions.on.the.subjection.of.women.and.his.strong.criticism. of.the.social.arrangement.which.subordinates.them.were.widely.accepted. by.his.feminist.contemporaries.and.the.leaders.of.the.women's.suffrage. movement,.the.reception.of.Mill's.liberal.feminism.in.contemporary.feminist.philosophy.has.been.more.variable ..Critical.voices.regarding.some.of. his.views.may.also.be.heard ..These.I.would.summarise.in.the.following. points: 1 ..One.of.the.main.targets.in.current.criticism.of.Mill's.liberal.feminism.is.his.universalist.and,.at.the.same.time,.biased.view.of.human.life. and.human.nature ..As.already.mentioned,.Mill.conceptualises.human.life. as.progressing.from.the.passionate.and.the.natural.to.the.rational.and.the. cultural ..However,.since.the.Western.philosophical.tradition.conceives.of. men.as.typifying.the.rational.and.the.cultural,.then.within.this.conceptual. framework.women,.if.they.are.to.progress,.must.become.like.men ..This.is. partly.due.to.the.androcentric.biases.inherent.in.philosophical.accounts.of. reason.and.culture,.which.is.evident.in.the.assumptions.made.by.philosophers.concerning.which.activities.qualify.as.rational.and.cultural ..The.implicit.associations.between.maleness,.reason.and.culture,.on.the.one.hand,. and.femaleness,.passion.and.nature,.on.the.other,.must.be.made.explicit.if. they.are.to.be.challenged ..As.Moira.Gatens.shows,.Mill's.failure.to.take. this.step.might.have.been.caused.by.his.commitment.to.a.philosophical. paradigm.which.is.(in.the.aforementioned.sense).inherently.masculine ..In. examining.the.recommendations.made.by.Mill.(and.also.Harriet.Taylor). concerning.what.women's.place.and.function.in.society.ought.to.be,.Gatens.argues.that."the.failure.of.liberal.principles.–.as.Mill.and.Taylor.present.them.–.to.meet.the.problem.of.women's.subjection.is.rooted.in.their. univeralist.view.of.human.nature".(Gatens,.1991:.29) ..Moreover,.because. Mill's.central.argument.for.the.emancipation.and.education.of.women.is. based.on.the.necessity.of.intellectual.progress.among.men,.which,.in.his. view,.cannot.occur.unless.women.also.progress,.such.argumentation.thus. favours.women's.emancipation.because. the.progress.of. the.human.race. depends.on.it .. In. this.regard,.Gatens.stresses. that.Mill. is.not.concerned. with.the.emancipation.of.women.per se,.but.rather.with.the.benefits.that. would.be.brought.to.mankind.by.a.change.in.how.women.perform.their. traditional.tasks.(Gatens,.1991:.30,.39) . 2 ..The.second.main.target.in.contemporary.feminist.criticism.of.Mill. concerns.his.views.on.women's.domestic.functions,.which.he.considers. "natural";.for.example,.he.describes.women's.childbearing.and.childrearing.capacities.as.an."animal.function" ..Mill.does.not.escape.the.traditional. (masculinist). view. that. assigns.women's. traditional.work. and. activities. 189M. SZAPUOVÁ: Mill's Liberal Feminism: Its Legacy and Current Criticism to. the. domain. of. nature,. a. domain. which,. in. Mill's. view,. is. to. be. progressively.overcome.or."amended".by.rational.activities ..The.kinds.of.activities.in.which.women.have.traditionally.been.involved.in.the.domestic. sphere.are.seen.as.part.of.the.animal.world,.as.something.that.falls.outside. of.culture ..Some.contemporary.feminist.philosophers.have.pointed.to.this. as.an.evident.masculinist.bias.in.Mill's.thought . 3 .. The. third. target. in. contemporary. feminist. criticism. of. Mill. is. his.acceptance.of. the. traditional.gender-based.division.of. labour.within. the.family ..Namely,.he.assumes.that.equality.before.the.law.will.eliminate. the.subjection.of.women.and.guarantee.their.equality.with.men,.even.if. traditional.gender.roles.remain.intact ..Although.Mill.criticises.women's. status.as.wives.and.mothers.and.condemns.the.injustice.of.marital.slavery,. his.views.on.marriage.show.certain.limits.to.his.liberal.feminism ..He.does. not.attack.traditional.assumptions.regarding.women's.and.men's.different. responsibilities.in.a.household,.and.accepts.the.notion.that.when.women. marry.they.should.be.responsible.for.taking.care.of.the.home.and.children,. while.men.provide.the.family.income: Like. a.man. when. he. chooses. a.profession,. so,. when. a.woman. marries,. it. may.in.general.be.understood.that.she.makes.choice.of.the.management.of. a.household,.and.the.bringing.up.of.a.family.[...];.and.that.she.renounces,. not.all.other.objects.and.occupations,.but.all.which.are.not.consistent.with. the.requirements.of.this ..(Mill,.1984:.237) It.might.seem.curious.–.given.his.high.regard.for.women's.intellectual.abilities.and.his.admission.that.women's.duties.as.wives.and.mothers. prevent.them.from.succeeding.in.professions.–.that.Mill.still.believes.even. the.most.liberated.woman.would.continue.to.choose.the.family.over.other. competing.activities ..By.accepting. the. traditional.gender-based.division. of.labour.in.the.private.sphere.in.his.discussion.of.family.life,.he.seems.to. forget.his.own.observation.that.women.are.subjugated.not.only.by.law,.but. also.by.customs.and.general.feelings ..As.Susan.Okin.argues,."Mill.never. questioned.or.objected.to.the.maintenance.of.traditional.sex.roles.within. the. family,.but. expressly.considered. them. to.be. suitable.and.desirable". (Okin,.1979:.237) ..It.would.seem.that.his.emphasis.on.the.importance.of. legal. and.political. equality,. on. equality.before. the. law,.makes.him. less. sensitive. to.other. forms.of. inequality. and.discrimination ..Several. paragraphs.in.Mill's.essay.offer.strong.evidence.for.such.a.criticism,.and.he. often.writes.as.if.all.that.were.necessary.to.eliminate.women's.subordinate. status.is.to.provide.them.with.equal.legal.rights.and.equal.opportunities .. However,.as. the.historical.development.of. the.women's.movement.and. feminism.demonstrate,.it.is.clear.that.equal.rights.and.equal.opportunities. 190 Prolegomena 5 (2) 2006 are. the.necessary.but.not. the. sufficient. conditions.of.women's. emancipation ..In.this.sense,.current.criticism.of.Mill's.overoptimistic.and.quite. naïve. views. is. legitimate .. On. the. other. hand,. we. need. to. recognise,. as. Shanley.points.out,.that.Mill's.ultimate.solution.for.ending.the.subjection. of.women.was.not.equal.opportunity,.but.spousal.friendship;.he.regarded. equal.opportunity.as.a.means.whereby.such.friendship.could.be.encouraged . Another.important.issue.worth.noting.concerns.the.compatibility.of. the.principle.of.equality,.which.Mill.so.strongly.emphasises,.and.his.acceptance.of.the.traditional.gender-based.division.of.labour.within.the.family .. According.to.the.interpretation.offered.by.Shanley, Mill's.commitment.to.equality.in.marriage.was.stronger,.and.of.a.different. theoretical.order,.than.his.acceptance.of.a.continued.sexual.division.of.labour .. On.the.one.hand,.Mill's.belief.in.the.necessity.of.equality.as.a.precondition. to.marital.friendship.was.a.profound.theoretical.tenet ..It.rested.on.the.normative.assumption.that.human.relationships.between.equals.were.of.a.higher,. more.enriching.order.that.those.between.unequals.[...] ..On.the.other.hand,. his.belief.that.friendship.could.be.attained.and.sustained.while.women.bore. nearly.exclusive.responsibility.for.the.home.was.a.statement.that.might.be. modified.or.even.abandoned.if.experience.proved.it.to.be.wrong ..(Shanley,. 2000:.416–417) Mill. considered. the. principle. of. equality. to. be. a.moral. imperative,. while.the.division.of.labour.was.an.empirical.matter,.one.which.might.be. altered.according.to.actual.conditions.and.experience ..Whether.we.accept. such. an. interpretation,. or. adopt. a. more. critical. stance. regarding. Mill's. thinking,.in.my.view.there.is.no.doubt.that.The Subjection of Women.may. be.regarded.as.the.most.important.and.influential.contribution.to.Enlightenment.feminist.theory ..In.many.ways.Mill.transcended.his.own.time,.and. many.of.his.views.are.still.relevant.today ..His.conception.of.gender.equality. as. articulated. in. this. essay. remains.one.of. the.philosophically.most. interesting.formulations.of.liberal.feminist.thought . References Eisenstein,. Z .. 1981 . The Radical Future of Liberal Feminism. (Boston:. Northwestern.University.Press) . Gatens,. M .. 1991 .. Feminism and Philosophy . Perspectives on Difference and Equality.(Cambridge:.Polity.Press) . Mill,.J ..S ..1981 . Autobiography..In:.The Collected Works of John Stuart Mill,.Vol .. 1:.Autobiography and Literary Essays..Ed ..John.M ..Robson.and.Jack.Stillinger. (Toronto:.University.of.Toronto.Press) . 191M. SZAPUOVÁ: Mill's Liberal Feminism: Its Legacy and Current Criticism ––. 1984 ..The Subjection of Women ..In: The Collected Works of John Stuart Mill,. Vol ..21:.Essays on Equality, Law and Education..Ed ..John.M ..Robson.(Toronto:. University.of.Toronto.Press) . Okin,.S ..M ..1979 . Women in Western Political Philosophy.(Princeton:.Princeton. University.Press) . Shanley,.M ..L ..2000 .."The.Subjection.of.Women" ..In.J ..Skorupski.(ed .),.The Cam- bridge Companion to Mill.(Cambridge:.Cambridge.University.Press),.396–422 .