JOHN PAUL II ON TOTALITARIANISM: A TIMELESS LESSON Fr. PA\(EL TARASIE\VICZ The merits of St. Pope John Paul II in the field of political struggle against totalitarianism are widely known and undisputed. As a result of his involvement, not only was the first free trade union "Solidarity" formed in the former Eastern Bloc of European nations, but also a radical reconstruction of that part of the world which had been under the profound influence of the totalitarian Soviet regime was made possible. It was even acknowledged by former Soviet prime minister Mikhail Gorbachev who said in 1992 that everything that happened in Eastern Europe in these last few years would have been impossible without this pope2o8. \7hile John Paul II's political initiatives against totalitarianism found supporting grounds in favorable international conditions, their strength also had a proper theoretical underpinning. This latter fact. is a good reason for attempting to reconstruct the Pope's thought in order to use his insights to answer questions about totalitarianism as such -its essence, causes, and effecdve neutralizers-. 1. What Is Totalitarianisrn? At its very beginning, the name totalitarianism had a negative connotation. In 7923, Giovanni Amendola was the first to coin and use the adjective totalitarian (Itahan totalitario) in order to stigmatize the fascist quest to monopolize power in the state and to impose on the Italian society a new 208 Scott Appleby, "Pope John Paul II," Foreign Poliq 119 (Summer 2000): 12, DOI: rc.nO7 /1149513. Ćf' Joseph Bryan Hehir, "Papal Foreign Policy,'' Foreign Policy 78 (Spring 1990): 40, DOI 10.8A7 /l'48627. 440 La humildad del maestro. Homenaie a lJrbano Ferrer political mentality which displayed traits of a secular religion2oe. A positive meaning was given to totalitarianisrnby Benito Mussolini who expressed irs essence, when he said: "[F]or the fascist, everything is in the shte, and nothing human or spiritual exists, much less has value, outside the state. In this sense fascism is totalita rian..." 21a . Giovanni Gentile, in turn, was the first philosopher of totalitarianism. Using terminology borrowed from Hegelianism, not only did he justify the political aspirations of Italian fascists, but he also constructed a picture of a totalitarian state that resembied those presented and criticized by Hannah Arendt and George Orwell in the late 1940s, except that he himself was a proponent of such a state2l1. Four periods can be distinguished in the history of the concept of totalitarianism. Initially, it was regarded as a previously unknown form of dictatorship, the implementation of which took place in Fascist ltaly, Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia. Then, it was opposed to liberalism. Next, the termtotalitarianism was used to describe various political systems and other cultural phenomena -€.B., Tsarist Russia, Diocletian's Rome, Plato's ideal republic, ancient Sparta, John Calvin's Geneva and the Catholic Church. Herbert Marcuse even wrote about the totalitarian universe of technological rationality, as that which characterizes, inter'alia, the United States. And, in his Tbe Road to Serfdom, Friedrich August von Hayek called Auguste Comte a nineteenth-century totaliarian2l2. Finally, in modern times, the 2a9 Cf. Peter Baehr, "Totalitarianism'', in Nez; Didionary of tbe History of ldeas' vol. ó, ed. Maryanne Cline Horowitz (Thomson Gale, Detroit 2005),2342.In his anicle which appeared in Il Mondo (May 12,1923), Amendoia "commęnted on the sham elections held in the town of Sanza in southern ltaly's Cilento hills, where Fascists presented two nearly identical lists of candidates and forcibly blocked the presentation of other lists'', and "coined the adjective 'totalitańo' to describe the true nature of the 'winner-take-all' electoral system, which in those days was being debated in Italy's lower house of parliament". Bruno Bongiovanni, "Totalitarianisml the !(ord and the Thing",/o urnal of Modern European History 3, n. 1 (2005), 5. 21o [P]er il fascista' tutto ć nello Stato, e nulla di umano o spirituale esiste, e tanto meno ha valore, fuori dello Stato. In tal senso i] fascismo ć totalitario . . . Benito Mussolini, "La dottrina del fascismo", in Italian Fascism and Anti-Fascism: A Critical Anthology, Stanislao G. Pugliese (ed.), Manchester University Press, Manchester and New York 2001), 85. Mussolini's best-known sratement on totalitarianism was given on October 28, 1925 in Milan: La nostra formula E questa: tutto nello stato, niente al di fuori dello stato, nulla contro lo stato [Our formula is this: everything in the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state]. Norbeno Bobbio, Dal fascismo allą d,emocrazia,Baldini & Castoldi, Milano 1'997,51.211 See David D. Roberts, "Il disinganno di Franchini: Rileggere I'Intervista su Croce dall'estero" in Il diritto alk filosofia: Atti del serninario di studi su Raffaello Francbini, Giuseppe Cantillo and Renata Viti Cavaliere (ed.), Soveria Manelli, Rubbettino, 2002,220. 2t2 Roman Bicker, Totaliaryzrn: geneza, istota, upadek fTotalitarianism: Genesis, Essence, Colhpsel, Index Books, Toruń 1'992 8. Cf. Baehr, Totalitdrienism, 2343: KarlPopper Parte IV ń'ticas aplicadas 441 scope of the word totalitarinnisrn is becoming increasingly limited. There are attempts to connect it with the revolution of a new type -permanent and continuous, or apply it only to the systems of real socialism-.213 The interpretarions of totalitarianism differ in terms of both the characteristics of its manifeshtions and the understanding of its ultimate causes. It seems, however, that all manifestations of totalitarianism are a derivative of totalitarian ideologies and ways of implementing them21a. Any universal ideology can potentially serve as a screen for the implemenration of a totalitarian world project215. However, the essential characteristics of a strictly totalitarian ideology include the pursuit of unlimited Power over men in order to subordinate them to ends considered higher, such as th€ State' class, race, etc216.Car7 Joachim Friedrich, for example, claims that totalitarian ideology is a doctrine that covers all aspects of human life. Therefore, it is found protototalitarianism in Plato. Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno spjed a totalitarian dialectic evolving out of an "Enlightenment" fixation on mathematical formalization, instrumental reasó'', and the love of the machine. J. L. Talmon discovered a creedal, "totalitarian democracy'' arising from one tendency among eighteenth-century philos9phies. Cf. also Łukasz Dominiak, "Totalitaryzmffotalitarianis n)'' ,in Enqlklopedin " Białych Plam" |The Enqclopedia of "Blank Slates"), vol. 17 (Radom: Polwen, 2006), 173l. The term totalitarianism.was given a ńew interpretation in "Karl \fittfogel's oriental Despotism (hydraulic hypothesis), Nicholas Sergeyevirch Timasheff understood totalitarianism as an unlimited extension of state function, which allowed social democratic states to be treated as totalitarian, and Aldous Huxley, before 1944, accused the members of the British Labor Party of totalitarianism". 213 Roman Blckeł Totalitaryzm,9. 214 A slightly di{ferent position is presented in Dominiak , "Totalitaryzm" , 1.77-: Among the basic characteńtici of totalitarian regimós, it is possible to indicate the dominance of the ideology that exhibits Gnostic traits and covers all aspects of human life, one massive hierarchically organized political mono-party wherein a signi{icant role is played by the leader, an extensive apparatus of terror, a socialized economy and (an attempt to create) a new man. 2r5 Roman Blcker, Totalitaryzrn, T4. 216 Cf. Peter Baehr, Toaliurianism, 2342' Cl' a\so Totaliaryzm _ przesztośc czy realne zagrożenic? |Toulitarianism a Past or a Real Danger?), R. Fiedler, S. \Wojciechowski (eds.), widawnicr*o Naukowe lNPiD UAM, Pomń2Oal,4I-42:The organs of totalitańan states violate all'human rights and freedoms that are supposed to protect mant digniry, and inviolabiliry, and guarantee freódom of choice in the area of mń's conduct and development. They violate_the right to f,fe, freedom from tomrre, inhuman or degrading treatment and punishment, freedom from forced *d co-pulsory labor, the ńght to legal personalĘ freedom from discńmination, the e9ualr9' of rights anj the principle of equł legal piotóction, the ńght to liberry and personal secuńry the right to a iair tńal, free_dom from punishmćnt without law, the right to effective means of protection of rights. Thev do nor respect freedom of thoughq conscience and religion, freedom of expression, freedom of n-torr"..nt, p.operry ńghts, the ńght io pńvacy, freedom of assembly and association. In their hands, the ńght to pań.ipat.I'' the ma''"age-ent of public affairs, the access to passive and active electoral ńgh$] and t]h. "..ó', to public positions and functions become fiction. The violation of these ńghts oi . -''' scale is a charjcteństic fearure of totalitańan countńes. People are less important than the ultimate goal, i.e., the creation of a homogeneous sociery and a, new kind of state. The.sacrificing o{ people's ights' o. erren their lives, is a necóssary cost that must be incurred to achieve this goal. 442 Lahumildad del maestro. Homenaje a lJrbano Ferrer characterized by its presence in all areas of culrure (i.e., science, morality, art, and religion), its being compulsory (it must be at least tacitly accepted by society) and authoritarian (it a priori and completely determinates the current state of affairs), and its having a definite plan for the future. l:uanLinz emphasizes that this type of ideology, although it may be more or less advanced intellectually, constitutes the identiry of the group in power and legitimizes all acdons taken by it. Hannah Arendt, in turn, adds that the irrationality of ideology as a source of knowledge about society makes totalitarianism aim at transforming human nature into a passive instrument subordinated to political power2l7. Tomlitarianism has its specific characteristics in practical terms too. Here, among the ways of introducing a totalitarian ideology, the strength and determination of its proponents come to the fore. For example, Juan Josć Linz believes that there is no totalitarianism without a monistic center of power that emanates all forms of institutional and group pluralisnfls. In addition to the human factor, Carl Joachim Friedrich mentions the technologically advanced control over all means of armed struggle, the control over all the means of communication (press, radio, etc.), and the efficient system of police terrofle. A confirmation of the specific character of totalitarian actions can be found in Pope Benedict XVI's words about the German people of the Third Reich, over which a ring of criminals rose to power by false promises of future greatness and the recovery of the nation's honour, prominence and prosperity, but also through terror and intimidation, with the result that our people was used and abused as an instrument of their thirst for destruction and powef2o. John Paul II's statements on totalitańanism are Part of a vast Stream of criticism of this phenomenon. According to the Pope, what hides behind the facade of totalitarianism is a false vision of both man and society22l. The anthropological error 217 Cf. Małgonata Kosiorek, Pedagogika autorytarna: geneza, lnodele, przemiłny |Autboriarian Pedagogy: Genesis, Models, Transformations] (Impuls, Kraków 2007), 16-19. Cf. Also DominiaĘ"Totalitaryzm",174 According to Arendą totalitarianism consists in destroying the identity of individuals and depriving them of their spirirual strength by the use of an apparatus of repression directed against arbitrarily selected social groups, the existence of a developed system of terror and control over individuals, and mechanisms of eliminating the possibility of rebellion -which lead to indifference, passive consent and social atomization*. As she pointed ouq the citizen of a totalitarian state cannot think independently and is usually an atheist. 2rB Cf. Kosiorek, Pedagogika autorytarna, 17. 21e lbid., 14-15. 220 Benedict XYI, Address Dwring tbe Visit to tbe Memorial and Musewm of the Nazi Concentration Camps in Auschuitz and Birkenau (28 May 2006), available at: http:// w2.v atican.v a/content/benedict-xvi/en.html. 221 Cf. Samuel Gregg, Cballenging tbe Modern World: Karol Wojtyta/John Paul II and, Parte IV Eticas aplicadas 443 of totalitarianism lies in its relation to man as an individual. It treats the individual man as an ordinary element or part of the social organism, as an impersonal set of social relations. This becomes particularly visible in the context of man's good which is completely subordinated to the good of the social whole. Certainly, totalitarianism does not s/ant to deprive a man of his good -it only denies him the right to initiative and to decide his own fate, maintaining that the good of a man can be realizedwithout taking into account his personal choices. The result of this mistaken conception of man -as John Paul II develops his argumentis that: [T]here arise both a distortion of law, which defines the sphere of the exercise of freedom, and an opposition to private property. A person who is deprived of something he can call 'his o'wn', and of the possibility of earning a living through his own initiative, comes to depend on the social machine and on those who control it. This makes it much more difficult for him to recognize his dignity as a person, and hinders progress towards the building up of an authentic human community222. An important feature of totalitarianism, then, is its anti-personalist character.It apprehends man in a typically functional and utilitarian manner and thus deprives him of his inherent dignity. Its anthropological reductionism, however, is not limited to'undermining the subjectivity of the human person, but finds its completion in violating the subjectivity of society. The social error of totalitarianism consists in regarding the state (party, or the like) as a subject of social life which represents and realizes the absolute good in history. Such a state, in order to preserve its status as the highest good, will try to destroy any foreign-to-itself social initiative, or at least the Deoelopment of CatholicSocialTeacbing (Md.: Lexington Books, Lanham 1999),52;.tlicja Zygmunt, "Kwestie społeczno-po|ityczne w nauczaniu Jana Pawła II [Social and Political IsiJesintheTeachingof JohnPaul II]",in StanrealizaĘipolitykispołecznej zaXXIwieku, ed. M. Miłek, G. wilk-Jakubowski (\(yd. Stowarzyszenia \fspółpracy Po1ska-\7schód, Kielce, 2009), 186; Henryk PiI:u&, Człorpiek w filozofii Karola Wojtyły-Jana Parłk |Man in the Pbilosopby of Karol Wojtyła-Jobn PawĄ (Vszechnica Polska, \farszawa, 2002),35I. Cf. also Domińiai<, "Totalitaryzm," 173 The first attempt to scientifically analyze the totalitarian regime -exemplified by the Third Reichis attributed to Flermann Rauschning who, in his TEe Rer.tolutioi of Nihitisrn (1939),explained the origin and character of the tota-litarian state through the lack of any positive content, understanding it as a revolution of nihilism. 222 JohnPaulll,CentesimusAnnus (Rome 1991),no. 13,available at:http://w2.vattcan. va/content/1ohn-pau1-ii/en.html. Cf. P1I,lĄ Człozaiek u filozofii Karola Wojtyły_Jana Pauła, 338: The errors of the totalitarian state, according to John Paul II, include: the negation of objective truth, the negation of the transcendent dignity of the_human-person who is a visible image of God, the violation of the good of the person as a subject of rights that no one can violate: neither individual or group, nor class, nation or State. 444 La humildad del maestro. Homenaje a lJrbano Ferrer subordinate it by making it an instrument of its own ideological apparatus2z3. Divesting the person of his dignity is connected with depriving him of the right to create autonomous communities and associations of an economic, political, cultural and even family character22a. In the light of John Paul II's teaching, the essence of totalitarianism comes down to a false conception of man and society. In totalitarian systems, not only does man lose his personal subjectivity, but communities different from the state (or its ideological substitutes) also lose their value. As a result, the totalitarian society is always built on an amorphous mass in which there is no individual human subject and thus, either, there is no place for the subjectivity of any intrastate community22s. 2. Roots of Totalitarianism Theorists of totalitarianism seek its sources in various areas of human existence. For example, Erich Fromm claims that this phenomenon has its ultimate cause in man. In his opinion, modern people experience frustration caused by the failure in pursuing their dreams of love, creativity and liberation from loneliness. This entails the fear of freedom and responsibility that generates the need for submitting to a totalitarian authortty226. Hannah Arendt, in turn, argues that the most significant reason for the existence of totalitarianism lies in society. In modern times, according to her, the forms of social life underwent a fundamental change due to the expansion of the capitalist idea of the free market. As a resulq the abolition of class structures and the development of social atrophy became possible. The transformation of class societies into mass societies involved the emergence of ideologies 223 John Paul II, Centesimus Annus, no. 45. 224 lbid., no. 13. Cf. Charles E. Curran, Tbe Moral Tbeology of Pope Jobn Pawl II (T8cT Clark, New York, 2006),224: The subjectivity of society opposes totalitarianism and recognizes that the social nature of the human person needs the state but above all needs the family and various intermediate groups, including economic, social, political, and cultural ones.'The subiectivity of society calls for the creation of structures of participation and shared responsibility. The family and intermediate associations create networks of solidarity that p.e,oent society from becoming an anonymous and impersonal mass. 225 Cf. Lukasz Dominiak, "Totaltaryzm," 776: However, one of the most important factors enabling the emergence of totalitarian regimes was the formation of masses; Gustave Le Bon (Psycbologie des Foules,1895), Florian Znaniecki(Upadek qwilizacji zachodniej lTbe Fall of 'Western Cfuilizationf, 1921'), Josć onega y Gasset (La rebelión de las masas, 1929), Vilfredo Pareto and H. Arendt paid attention to this phenomenon. 226 According to Erich Fromm, the escape from freedom could also generate another need-consumerism. Cf. ibid., 174. Parte IV Eticas aplicadas 445 -including totalitarian ideologiesthat came to the fore in order to impose their own social projects on the masses.227 Totalitarianism can then be based on man's errors which affect his relationship with himself and other people. But can it be caused by man's faults which undermine his relationship with God? John Paul II's answer is affirmative. The Pope argues that the roots of totalitarianism lie in the denial of God. For atheism is conducive to questioning both the identity of man (as it deprives him of the ultimate reason for his existence and development) and that of society (as it justifies all ideological experiments that question the autonomy of a man and of the communities he creates)228. The totalitarian system is thus a form of the atheistic system which-by a priori deciding the problem of God's existence and nature-deprives man of the right to decision on this matter and grants him the status of an impersonal being. John Paul II defends the dignity of man as a person by stating that: It is by responding to the call of God contained in the being of things that man becomes aware of his transcendent dignity. Every individual must give this response, which constitutes the apex of his humanity, and no social mechanism or collective subject can substitute for it22e. The rejection of God, the Source of ultimate truth, results in the negation of the objective truth that guarantees just relations between people23o. Reason is then replaced by the 227 Cf. Miłowit Kuniński, "TotaIharyzmw ujęciu Hannah Arendt fTotalitarianism from the Perspective of Hannah Arendt]'" in Totalitaryzm a zachodnia tradyĘa |Totalitarianism and tbe'Western Traditionf, M. Kuniński (ed.), ośrodek Myśli Politycznej, Kraków 2a06, 139. 228 On atheism, seeZofiaJ.Zdybicka,U.S J.K.,"AtbeisminTbe UnhtersalEnqclopedia of Pbilosopby", Studia Gilsoniana 7, 4 (october-December 2a1Ą: 709-757, DoI: 10.26385/ sG.070434. 22e John Paul II, Centesimus Annus, n. 13. Cf. Rocco Buttiglione, Karol Wojtyta: The Thougbt of the Man'Who Became Pope John Pawl II, trans. P. Guietti, F. Murphy, Grand Rapids, B. \flilliam, Eerdmans Publishing Company, Michigan 1997, 192; Jacek Moskwa, Jan Paweł 11 , Swiat Ksiązki, \Iarszawa 2005),48: John Paul II, however, brought to this discussion, along with his views as a theologian and philosopher, the specificity of his historical experience which strongly suggested that totalitarianism -while striving to take over the whole manalso makes its claims on his spiritual sphere. There, it encounters faith in God, that is, a reference to an absolute value system that excludes total subordination to the system. \fithout going into all the complicated problems of differences and similarities between Communism ind Nazism, we must note, however, two features they have in common. Firstly, the conviction that history should be the object of a radical change -made by the proletariat and irs party avant-garde in the first case, and by the charismatic leader and the elite around him' aciing'on behj'li of the nation, in t'he secó.'d. Secondly, the tendency to question the revealed religion. ra John Paul II, Centesimus Annws, n. 44. Cf. ibid., 17: In social life, then, human freedom could detache itself "from obedience to the truth, and consequently from the duty to respecr the rights of others. The essence of freedom then becomes self-love carried to the pointbf contempt for God and neighbour, a sel{-love which leads to an unbridled affirmation 446 La humildad del maestro. Homenaie a lJrbano Ferrer will of a ruler, aparty,a state or the like, and the value of a man is determined by how much he can contribute to the achievement of ideological goals.231 Totalitarianism thus takes the principle of the priority of power over reason (plus ,r:is quarn ratio) to the extreme and consequently makes man adopt a worldview imposed on him by force, rather than worked out by his own reason accompanied by his own freedom232. Totalitarianism is not disinterested in social order, but the latter is ultimately understood here as the result of decisions, not objective truths. The negation of objective truth in social life leads to the monopolization of political power. From the perspective of totalitarian ideologies, social leadership is absolutely infallible, which leads to the conclusion that it always makes the right decisions233. No social group, however-as the Pope states-"has the right to usurp the role of sole leader, since this brings about the destruction of the true subjectivity of society and of the individual citizens" by making "the individual and the people become 'objects', in spite of all declarations to the contrary and verbal assurances"234. Is, however, John Paul II's teaching -which seeks to embody truth in social lifefree from what it tries to oppose? For it seems that the deliverance of man from totalitarian ideologies is the work of those who seek after and cherish freedom, rather than those who seek and follow truth235. The Pope is aware of the pitfalls posed by the fanatical and fundamentalist approach of self-interest and which refuses to be limircd by any demand of justice." 231 lbid., 44: It must be added that totalitarianism arises out of a denial of truth in the objective sense. If there is no transcendent truth, in obedience to which man achieves his full identity, then there is no sure principle for guaranteeing just relations between people. Their self-interest as a class, group or nation would inevitably set them in opposition to one another. If one does not acknowledge transcendent truth, then the force of power takes over, and each person tends to make full use of the means at his disposal in order to impose his own interests ór his own opinion, with no regard for the rights of others. People are then respected only to the extent thit they can be exploited for selfish ends. Thus, tle root of modern totalitarianism is to be found in the denial of the transcendent dignity of the human person who, as the visible image of the invisible God, is therefore by his very nature the subject of rights which no one may violate-no individual, group, class, nation or State. Not even the majority of a social body may violate these rights, by going against the minority, by isolating, oppressing, or exploiting it, or by attempting to annihilate it. 232 lbid., 29. 233 Cf. ibid.,44. 23Ą John Paul lI, Sollicitudo Rei Socialis (Rome 1987), n. 15, available at:. http:// w2.v atican.v a / content / j ohn-paul-ii/en.html. 235 Cf. ]ózef Tischneł 'W krainie scborozaanej wyobra&ni |In the Land of Ailing Imagination) (Kraków: ZNAK, 1997), 14Q; Richard J. Neuhaus, "The Liberalism of John Paul II," First Tbings 73 (1997):16-21;Mirella 'W. Eberts, "The Roman Catholic Church and Democracy in Poland," Ewrope-Asia Stwdies 50, 5 (1998), 817-842. Parte fV: Eticas aplicadas 447 to truth. He sees a particular danger in the attitude resulting from religious ideologies that justify denying human freedom in the name of the claims rhey make. Therefore, the attitude toward truth cannot be an ideological attitude that strives to insert the diversity of social and political reality into some rigid frames. Respect for truth requires at the same time the recognition of the fact that human life is carried out in various ways' which areby no means perfect' The right attitude toward transcendęnt truth does not exclude the dignity and freedom of every human person, on the contrary -it guarantees respect for them-236. John Paul II emphasizes that the human person's freedom is a measure of human dignity and greatness. Freedom, however, is not a value in itself. It is combined with truth, since it is fulfilled in the human quest for truth and life in truth. In the lives of individuals, freedom detached from the real truth about man becomes license, whereas in political life, it takes form of whims of the most powerful and expresses itself in the arrogance of power237. 3. Dernocraqt: An Antidote to Totalitarianism? It seems that totalitarianism has its polar opposition in the so-called free world represented by individuaiit-, democracy, liberalism and even rationalism.238 John Paul II notes that, in the modern world, the tendency to build a social order based on democratic principles prevails. It is generally agreed that this system best suits both human nature and the requirements of social justice. Since society consists of persons who are all rational and social beings, it is necessary to allow each person to particiPate in power. Hence, democracy is to guarantee the participation of all members of society in government-at least their indirect participation23e. 236 John Paul II, Centesimus Annus, no. 46. Cf. Mary A. Glendon, "A Challenge to the Humin Sciences," in A Neu \Voildly Order: John Paul II and Human Freedont, George. Weigel (ed.), Ethics and Public Policy Center, \(aszyngton 1992,81'. 237 John Paul II, Speecb to tbe IJN General Assem]/7 $ery York, 5 October 1995), n. 1'2, av ailable at http: / / wż.vatican.valcontent/iohn-paul-ii/en.htm1. 238 See Kenneth Minogue, "'What Is the Opposite of Totalitarianism? ", in Totalitarianisrn and Western Tradition (Krikow: Centre for Political Thought, 1998), available at http:// www.omp.org.pllstareomp/totalitarianism.html. 23e John Paul II, Memory and ldentity: Conaersations at the Daun of a Millenniwm, Rizzoli, Ńew York 2oo5, 127'-1'31'; John Paul II, Centesimus Annus, n. ąa. cf. Zygmwt, "Kwestie społeczno-polityczne w nauczaniuJalaPawŁa II," 187. on the popes'position on democ."cy, seeJacekŚwiątek, "Demokracjaw nalczaniu papieży [Democracy in the Popes' Teaching]'', Człowiek us Kulturze 20 (2008)' 85-100. 448 La humildad del maestro. Homenaje a lJrbano Ferrer If democracy is justified in view of its respect for all, it is in line with expectations only when it implies the true conception of the human person and functions in a state in which human rights are resPected. According to the Pope, the most important human rights include: the right to life, the right to live in a family and moral environment, the right to develop intelligence and freedom, the right to work, the right to start a family, the right to have and raise children2oo. Therefore, the goal of an authentic democracy will consist in providing appropriate conditions to educate individuals in the spirit of true ideals and promote the subjectivity of society through the creation of autonomous structures of participation and co-responsibility2al. The papal understanding of democracy, however, is not universally accepted. Nowadays, it is becoming increasingly popular to claim that democratic forms of political life should be based not on truth understood in a classical sense as the ad,eqwatio rei et intellectus,but on agnosticism and skeptical relativism. Among democrats, then, there is a clear division between those who accept the ultimate truth and those who believe that truth is variable and depends on the decision of a majority2a2.John Paul II notes that in a situation where there is no invariable and universal truth that sets the tone for all political life, it is not difficult to find totalitarian methods of exercising power even in a democratic society. Therefore, in his opinion, a democracy without values easily turns into open or thinly disguised totalitarianism2a3. \7hat are the values that protect democracy from totalitarianism? According to the Pope, the supreme value which Protects the true identity of democracy is man -the human Person2ot . It is so on account of 24a See John Paul II, Centesirnus Annus, n. 46. C[. Zygmunt, "Kwestie społecznopolityczne w nauczaniuJanaPawla II", 188. 2Ą1 Cf. John Paul II, Centesimws Annws, n.462Ą2 Ibid' Cf. John Paul II, Veritatis Splendor (Rome 1993)' n. 101, available at:http:// wŁ.vat:rcan.valcontent/john-paul-ii/en.html; Neuhaus, "The Liberalism of John Paul II," 1627. Onthe criticism of majorlty democracy, see John Paul II, Evangeliwm Vitae (kome 1995), n. 69-70, available at:httpl11a,r2.rattcan.va/content/john-paul-ii/en.html. 243 John Paul II, Centesimus Annus, n. 46. Among those who warned about the possibiliry of a totalitarian democracy, there were Benjamin Constant,J. L. Talmon i Alexis de Tocqueuiile, see Arkady Rzegocki, "Czy demokrac1amo-że byó tota1itarna? [Can Democracy Be i'otalitarian?]'', in Totalitaryzrn a zacbodnia tradyĘa |Totalitarianisrn and Western Tradition], M. Kuniński (ed'), ośrodek Myśli Politycznej, Krakó'nr 2Oa6' 221; Peter Jones, "Freedom", in Enqtclopedia of Democratic Thougbt, P. Barry Clarke, J. Foweraker (eds.), Routled ge, London-New y ork 2001, 364. 244 For the Pope, every human being is a person whose earthĘ life begins at the moment of conception and sliould last until the moment of natural death. Cf. John Paul II, Evangeliwrn Vitae. Parte IV Eticas aplicadas 449 man's inseparable bond with the personal God, whereby the human person not only occupies the highest place in the hierarchy of beings that constitute the natural world, but also deserves due respect from other people, and even from entire societies. Other values have "value" inasmuch as they contribute to personal human development2as. Their quality is of great importance. Values are, in fact, the foundation on which both individual lives and the life of the whole society are built. They are also measures of the "value" of a democracy, that is, whether it creates and secures a social climate appropriate to human persons, or allows plans to impose an anti-personalistic ideology on society -an ideology that, in the name of some deified collective, would try to dethrone the true God and thereby deprive human persons of their intrinsic dignity-246. The more openly it disregards the dignity of man, the more clearly a democracy shows totalitarian tendencies. According to John Paul II, such tendencies include, for example, acceptance for programs that undermine morality and attack the family by promoting moral permissiveness, divorce, free love, abortion, contraception, euthanasia, or the manipulation of life. By rejecting voluntary service to all members of society, a democracy automatically harnesses itself in the yoke of slavish loyalty to powerful political or financial centers247. 4. Conclwsion Despite the collapse of its most representative twentieth-century instantiations -Nazism and Sovietism, totalitarianism can still be regarded as a live issue-. First, because there are countries where totalitarian ideas receive a lot of favorable attention2a8. Secondly, because in many countries, 245 Cf. Beata Kołek, Adam Spałek, "Samowychowanie w ujęciu Jana Pawła II drogą wprowadzania w świat wartości [Self-Education in John Paul II as a 'Way of Introducing into the \World of Values]'', in'Wycbozaanie ku wąrtościom w świetle nauczania Jana Pau;ła II lEdwcational Upbringing touard Values in tbe Ligbt of Jobn Paul II's Teachingl, vol. III, ed. K. Chałas (Lublin-Kielce: Jedność, 2007),48-5|.It seems that the anthropological dimension of John Paul IIt teaching is most clearly visible in his encyclical Redemptor Hominis (Rome 1,979), avallable at: http://w2.vattcan.va/content/john-paul-ii/en.html. 246 Cf. John Paul II, Message for tbe Celebration of tbe World Day of Peace (1 January 1985) (Yatican 1984), no. 6, available at:hrtp:/ /w2.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en.html. 247 See John Paul II, Eoangelium Vitae, n. 20. C{. Jarosław Gowin, Kościół po komunizmie |Tbe Cburch after Communismf Znak, Kraków 1'995,191; Czesław Ryszka,Jan Parl,eł II Wielki (Ed. Sw. Pawła, Częstochowa 2a02),348. 248 Cf. Agnieszka Kołakowska, "Political Correctness and the Totalimrian Mentality", in Totalitarianisrn and Western Tradition ( Centre for Political Thought, Krakow, 1998): [T] here is quite a lot left to say about the continuing totalitarian temptation: the astonishing 450 La humildad del maestro. Homenaje a Urbano Ferrer especially wealthy ones, the policy that prevails is a consumer policy which makes it difficult to recognize and respect the primacy of persons over things. Finally, because there are countries where a renaissance of religious fundamentalism takes place, which resulm in rendering it difficult for religious minorities to exercise their civil or religious rights2ae. The analysis of John Paul II's views on totalitarianism leads to a conclusion that the Pope contributed not only to a practical weakening of totalitarian systems in the political world, but also to a significant deepening of theoretical knowledge about them. In the light of his teaching, totalitarianism appears as anattackon the human person, consisting in an attempt to subordinate him to a collective subject. The main reason for the emergence and implementation of totalitarian ideologies is the negation of God as the ultimate guarantor of human dignity and freedom. In the field of social life, the separation of man from God results in the replacement of truth by the dictates of power. Living the life without free access to universally knowable truth can lead to various, even democraric, forms of totalitarianism. Democratic totalitarianism occurs when transcendent truth is excluded from the public sphere in the name of a democracy that gives absolute primacy to majority rule. Such a democracy becomes a treacherous danger for both individuals and minority groups25c. It finally seems that only an authentic democracy built on respect for the dignity of all human beings as persons can provide the necessary conditions for the successful overcoming of totalitarianism. growth of the totalitarian mentality in the 'West. For in the \7est, the totalitarian mentality, instead of receding, as we anticipated after the collapse of communism in. the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, seems to be spreading and gaining ground. Available at: http://www. omp.org.pllstareomp/totalitarianism.html. 24e John Paul II, Centesimus Annus, n. 29.250 Cf. Richard John Neuhaus, "The Liberalism of John Paul II", First Tbings, May 1997 , 16,21. Parte IV Eticas aplicadas