Prolegomena 5 (2) 2006: 193–207 Self-Regarding / other-Regarding Acts: Some Remarks JOVAN BABIĆ Department of Philosophy University of Belgrade – Faculty of Arts Čika Ljubina 18–20, Belgrade, Serbia jbabic@sezampro.yu ORIGINAL SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE / RECEIVED: 15–07–06 ACCEPTED: 20–10–06 abstraCt:. In.his. essay.On Liberty, John.Stuart.Mill.presents. the. famous.harm principle in.the.following.manner:."[...].the.sole.end.for.which.mankind.are.warranted,.individually.or.collectively,.in.interfering.with.the.liberty.of.action.of.any. of.their.number,.is.self-protection ..[...].The.only.part.of.the.conduct.of.anyone,. for. which. he. is. amenable. to. society,. is. that. which. concerns. others .. [...]. Over. himself,.over.his.own.body.and.mind,.the.individual.is.sovereign .".Hence,.there. is. a. distinction. between. self-regarding and. other-regarding acts, and. only. the. latter.are.subject.to.moral.criticism ..However,.while.all acts.are.in.some.way.selfregarding,.it.is.not.clear.if.there.are.any.which.are.exclusively.so ..There.are.two. additional.difficulties ..First,. the."individual".may.not.be.an. individual.person;. self-determining.communities,.at.least.when.they.have.the.ability.to.decide.for. themselves,.are.also."individuals".in.this.sense ..Second,.it.is.claimed.that.groups. of.acts.(activities.and.practices).have.a.different.kind.of.justification.from.single. acts ..So.what.are.the.limits.which."others".have.in.order.to.protect.themselves. from.what."individuals".(personal.or.not).do,.and.what.are.their rights.to do and. to protect?.If,.in.the.final.analysis,.protection or.defense is.a.source.of.justification,.what.should.or.must.be.protected,.and.why?.Where.does.the.demarcation. line.between.self-regarding.and.other-regarding.acts.lie?.In.our.age,.as.in.Mill's,. we.encounter.many.situations.where.such.a.line.is.needed,.yet.is.hard.to.determine.or.establish ..One.such.example,.the.case.of.same-sex marriages, is.further. explored.in.this.paper . KeyworDs:. Cloning,. harm. principle,. other-regarding. acts,. same-sex. marriages,. self-regarding.acts . In.this.short.essay.I.intend.to.explore.Mill's."harm.principle",.particularly. the.distinction.between.self-.and.other-regarding.acts,. in. the.context.of. social.practices ..For.some.of.these.practices.we.encounter.cases.that.are. extremely.difficult.to.locate.on.either.side.of.the.demarcation.line.sepa194 Prolegomena 5 (2) 2006 rating. self-regarding. from. other-regarding. acts .. This. should. be. considered.important.in.that.the.harm.principle.protects.only.self-regarding.acts,. carving.out.a.space.for.freedom.which,.according.to.this.principle,.should. be. protected. from. external. interference .. Other-regarding. acts,. however,. may.be.subject.to.control.by.others . In.the.first.section.of.this.paper,.I.briefly.discuss.three.problems.related. to.the.harm.principle:.paternalism,.the.difference.between.persuasion.and. compulsion,.and.the.distinction.between.self-.and.other-regarding.acts ..I. have.focused.in.particular.on.the.latter.problem,.attempting.to.define.the. possible. scope. of. "self". in. self-regarding. acts .. In. the. second. section,. I. discuss.some.of.the.most.influential.past.attempts.to.interpret.this.distinction.and.establish.a.demarcation.line.between.these.two.types.of.acts ..In. the.third.section,.I.analyze,.by.way.of.example.of. these.interpretations,. Dworkin's. concept. of. "external. preferences",. since. this. seems. to. offer. the.most.extensive.and.promising.means.of.distinguishing.self-regarding. from.other-regarding.acts ..The.example.taken.for.analysis.is.the.practice. of.same-sex.marriages ..Taking.Anthony.Ellis'.formulation.of.Dworkin's. external.preferences.as."other-regarding.desires",. I.attempt. to.create.an. argument.which.shows.that,.in.the.context.of.social.practices.as.well.as. individual.actions,.the.demarcation.line.between.self-.and.other-regarding. acts.should.be.located.at.the.point.of.justifiable.defense.against.a.destructive.attack ..In.the.case.of.same-sex.marriages,.this.proves.to.be.the naming of.that.practice.as."marriage" ..According.to.my.interpretation,.there.is.a. sound.reason.for.demanding that.such.a.practice.be.named.differently,.for. the.sake.of.preserving.the.distinction.between.the.new.practice.and.the.old. one ..Participants.in.the.old.practice.have.a right to.defend.such.a.distinction,.and.to.claim.that.the.difference.between.these.two.practices.should. be.maintained ..While.they.have.no.obligation.to.insist.on.this,.their.right. constitutes.a.sufficiently.good.reason.for.not allowing.the.name.of.the.old. practice.to.be.extended.to.the.new.one ..This.argument.says.nothing.about. the. justifiability. of. the. new. practice. as. such;. it. is. restrictive. only. with. regard.to.naming.it ..If.this.argument.is.sound,.it.represents.a.new,.interesting.and.successful.application.of.Mill's.harm.principle ..In.the.concluding. part.of.the.paper,.the.example.of.cloning,.which.is.somewhat.similar.with. regard.to.its.being.new.and.potentially.destructive.to.an.old.practice.(or. institution).that.might.thus.be.considered.worthy.of.protection,.is.briefly. discussed.as.illustrating.this.application.of.Mill's.principle . I In. the."Introductory". to.his. famous.essay.On Liberty, John.Stuart.Mill. writes: 195J. BABIĆ: Self-Regarding / Other-Regarding Acts: Some Remarks The.object.of.this.essay.is.to.assert.one.very.simple.principle,.as.entitled.to. govern.absolutely.the.dealings.of.society.with.the.individual.in.the.way.of. compulsion.and.control,.whether. the.means.used.be.physical. force. in. the. form.of.legal.penalties,.or.the.moral.coercion.of.public.opinion ..That.principle.is,.that.the.sole.end.for.which.mankind.are.warranted,.individually.or. collectively,.in.interfering.with.the.liberty.of.action.of.any.of.their.number,. is.self-protection ..That.the.only.purpose.for.which.power.can.be.rightfully. exercised.over.any.member.of.a.civilised.community,.against.his.will,.is.to. prevent.harm.to.others ..His.own.good,.either.physical.or.moral,.is.not.a.sufficient.warrant ..He.cannot.rightfully.be.compelled.to.do.or.forbear.because.it. will.be.better.for.him.to.do.so,.because.it.will.make.him.happier,.because.in. the.opinions.of.others,.to.do.so.would.be.wise,.or.even.right ..These.are.good. reasons.for. remonstrating.with.him,.or. reasoning.with.him,.or.persuading. him,.or.entreating.him,.but.not.for.compelling.him,.or.visiting.him.with.any. evil.in.case.he.do.otherwise ..[...].The.only.part.of.the.conduct.of.anyone,.for. which.he.is.amenable.to.society,.is.that.which.concerns.others ..In.the.part. which.merely.concerns.himself,.his.independence.is,.of.right,.absolute ..Over. himself,.over.his.body.and.mind,. the.individual. is.sovereign ..(Mill,.1971:. 136) Thus,.within.the.scope.of.those.acts.which."concern".only.those.who. act,. their. right. is.absolute, and. they.are."sovereign". to. that.extent ..The. most.important.goal.of.this."harm.principle".(or."Simple.Principle",.as.it. is.also.known).is.to.establish.that.there.are.such.acts,.and.that.the.freedom. of.actors.in.realizing.or.exercising.them.should.not be.subject.to.any.external.control ..This.is.one.of.the.main.tenets.of.liberalism,.and.the.harm. principle.obviously.serves.this.purpose.very.well ..It.supports.values.such. as.privacy and.all. the.other.values.and.interests. that.depend.on.privacy. and.freedom . However,.this.sovereignty.has.its.limits ..The.most.obvious.one.is.discussed.in.the.very.next.paragraph:."It.is.[...].hardly.necessary.to.say.that. this.doctrine. is.meant. to.apply.only. to.human.beings. in. the maturity of their faculties" [my.italics] . Children,.non-adults.in.the.legal.sense,.and. those.who."require.being.taken.care.of.by.others",.whereby.they."must. be.protected.against.their.own.actions.as.well.as.against.external.injury",. are.excluded.from.protection.by.the.harm.principle ..Perhaps.the.most.interesting.among. these.exceptions. is. the. status.of. those. living. in."backward.states.of.society.in.which.the.race.itself.may.be.considered.as.in.its. nonage" ..For.them,."despotism.is.a.legitimate.mode.of.government",.and. "[l]iberty,.as.a.principle,.has.no.application".until.such.time.as.they."become.capable.of.being.improved.by.free.and.equal.discussion" ..Leaving. aside. the. intriguing.question.of.where. to.draw.the.demarcation.line.between."civilized".and."barbaric".societies,.and.the.possibly.paternalistic. or.even.colonialist.implication.of.this.thesis.(which.could.endanger.one.of. 196 Prolegomena 5 (2) 2006 the.most.basic.Millian.principles,.namely,.that.everyone.is.the.best.judge. of.his.own.interests),.there.remains.the.question.of.the.applicability.of.our. main.distinction,.i .e ..that.between.self-.and.other-regarding.acts,.to.those. acts.which.cross.the.line.dividing.civilized.societies.and.nations.from.barbaric.ones.–.wherever.that.line.might.be.drawn . There.is.another.problem.which.is.relevant.here ..The.difference.between."remonstrating.with",."persuading",.and.the.like,.on.the.one.hand,. and."compelling", on.the.other,.is.less.clear.than.we.might.like.it.to.be .. Compelling.is.a.very.difficult.notion.to.define,.especially.since,.according.to.Mill,.it.comprises.all.kinds.of.non-physical.manifestations.("moral. coercion. of. the. public. opinion") .. This. is. a. deeper. and. more. far-reaching.objection.than.the.previous.one,.for.it.retains.its.force.even.after.we. have.distinguished.who. is and.who. is.not possessed.of. the.maturity.of. his.faculties ..There.are.indirect,.negative.forms.of.compulsion:.threats.of. retaliation,.various. types.of.harassment.or,.as.Thucydides.would.put. it,. "exercising.a. jealous.surveillance.over.each.other". (1993:.89) ..Furthermore,.the.line.between.persuading.and.compelling.may.be.subject.to.one's. perception.and.sensitivity .. In.order. to.be.effective,. the. line.must.not.be. arbitrary;.yet.this.is.very.hard.to.avoid,.because.perception.and.sensitivity. are.subjective.and.relative.to.a.great.extent,.and.cannot.be.measured.by. any.constant.means ..Another.aspect.of. this.problem.is. its. inherent.conflict.with.the.supreme.criterion.of.utilitarianism ..For.if.this.criterion.–.the. utilitarian.calculus.which.considers.only.final results,.expressed in.terms. of.the.achieved.amount.of.good,.or.happiness.–.prevails.in.the.end,.why. should. it.matter.at. all.how. those. results.are.actually.achieved?. If.harm. can.be.avoided,.why.is.it.important.how.this.is.done?.From.a.utilitarian. point. of. view,. what. is. important. is. that. harm. is. avoided,. regardless. of. who.inflicts.it.and.who.suffers.it;.and.if.there.is.only.one.way.of.avoiding. harm,.there.seems.to.be.no.good.reason.not.to.do.so ..In.particular,.how. is.one.to.justify.the.notion.that.it.can.never be.appropriate.to.even.try.to. prevent.harm.which.is.self-inflicted,.i .e ..which.falls.within.the.scope.of. self-regarding.acts . The.third.problem.for.the.harm.principle.is.the.very.distinction.between.self-.and.other-regarding.acts.–.which.are.which?.The.answer.to.the. two.previous.questions,.of.course,.defines.this.most.important.demarcation.line:.in.other.words,.what.the.scope.of.a.self-regarding.act.is ..This.is. much.narrower.in.the.case.of.those.who.are.not.fully.possessed.of.mature. faculties,.since.others.have.a.much.broader.right.to.intervene.in.their.affairs.–.a.right.which.may,.from.the.(strictly).utilitarian.standpoint,.become. an.obligation ..Potentially.very.few,.if.any,.of.their.acts.will.be.their.own. "self-regarding".ones,.while.most.of.them.will.rightfully.concern.others. whose.right.and.even.duty.it.is.to.intervene . 197J. BABIĆ: Self-Regarding / Other-Regarding Acts: Some Remarks The.distinction.between.persuasion.and.compulsion.also.affects.and. determines.which.acts.are.self-regarding.and.which.are.other-regarding .. Therefore,.defining.or.articulating.this.distinction.has.a.considerable.impact.on.what.the.scope.of.possible.self-regarding.acts.will.be ..We.should. bear.in.mind.that.precisely.this scope.is.to.be.protected.by.the.harm.principle,.implying.that.the.extent.of.its.protection.will.be.influenced.by.such. prior.definitions ..On.the.other.hand,.the.main.purpose.of.the.harm.principle. is. to. ensure. a. sphere.of. action. that. should.be.protected. from.any. interference.or.intrusion.by.others ..As.this.is.to.be.achieved.by.prohibiting. interference.in.that sphere,.it.may.appear.that.we.are.moving.in.a.circle .. To.make.this.point.clearer,.it.should.be.said.that.only.direct interference. in.the.sphere.of.self-regarding.acts.in.the.form.of.compulsion is.prohibited. by.the.harm.principle ..Compulsion.can.be.defined.as.making.someone.do. something.that.he.otherwise.would.not.do.if.the.decision.were.his.own;.yet. this.is.to.be.prohibited.only.if.we.are.not dealing.with.an.other-regarding. act ..Compulsion.is.legitimate.and.justifiable.in.the.sphere.of.other-regarding.acts . We.may.stop.here.for.a.moment.in.our.search.for.a.viable.definition. of. self-regarding. acts ..According. to. the.harm.principle,. there. is. a. right. of.coercion.within.the.scope.of.other-regarding.acts,.while.within.that.of. self-regarding.acts.no.such.right.exists ..What.exactly.does.this.mean?.Let. us.approach.this.from.the.opposite.side,.and.say:."One.has.no.right.over. the.behavior.of.others.unless.such.behavior.interferes.with.–.what"?.Now. anything that can. rightfully. stand. for. "what". in. the.preceding. sentence. will.define what.the.word."interferes".means.there ..Otherwise,.quite.literally.anything. could.count. as. interference ..For. example,. some.action.of. mine.may.be.disliked.by.others.for.whatever.reason,.and.this.would.make. it. an. interference. in. the. affairs. of. those. others .. Or,. to. go. even. further,. my.action.might.be.observed.by.someone.else ..If.we.were.to.accept.that. anything.relating.me.to.others.could.take.the.place.of."what".in.the.question.above,.we.would.find.ourselves.in.a.situation.where.anything.could. amount.to."interference" . If.this.were.the.case,.it.would.imply.that.there.are.no.acts.which.are. "self-regarding",.or.at.least.that.there.are.no.acts.which.are.exclusively.so .. While."self-regarding".would.be.an.aspect.of.every.act.(the.one.relating.it. to.its.actor),.all.acts.would.also.be.other-regarding ..Thus.the.demarcation. line.between.the.two,.if.it.exists.at.all,.needs.to.be.defined,.justified,.and. made.plausible.and.relevant ..This.can.be.done.if.it.carries.some.norma- tive importance indicating.that.certain.acts.are.not other-regarding,.despite. their. possibly,. or. even. actually,. also. being. other-regarding. in. some. respect ..We.need.to.define.a.sphere.of.action.that.is.not.the.rightful.concern. of.others;.where.others.do.not,.and.should.not,.have.the.right.to.interfere. 198 Prolegomena 5 (2) 2006 or.control ..(This.is.not.to.say.that.they,.in.fact,.do.not.interfere;.rather.that. they.have.no.right.to.do.so .).Which.criteria.are.relevant.here? II The. most. natural. interpretation. of. the. distinction. between. "self". and. "other".in.this.respect.is.the.difference.between.those.who.act and.those. others.upon.whom.their.acts.may.have.some.effect ..But.who.is.acting?. And.who.are.others?.We.have.seen.how,.in. the.case.of.non-adults,. this. distinction.develops.in.a.different.direction ..One.thing.that.must.be.kept. in.mind.is.that.neither.of.these.aspects.(actors,.others).can.be.restricted.to. individuals.only ..Those.who.act.are,.in.the.first.place,.always.individuals. and/or.aggregates.of.individuals;.yet.in.the.final.analysis.we.may.be.dealing.with.real.collectives.capable.of.exercising.decision-making.powers .. Likewise,.others.(those.who.are.acted.upon).may.not.just.be.aggregates. of.individuals,.but.rather.genuine.collectives ..On.the.social.and.political. level,.but.also.in.everyday.life,.this.proves.to.be.of.the.utmost.importance:. what.we.do.has.an.impact.not.just.on.a.certain.number.of.individuals,.but. on.collectives.as.well ..These.collectives.are.defined.in.advance,.and.are. targeted.or.defended.as.bearers.of."self".in.the.distinction."self-regarding. vs ..other-regarding.acts" ..This.is.possible.because.they.possess.a.certain. distinguishing. feature.which,. as. a.kind.of. constitutive.principle,.makes. them.real.decision-makers.and.actors,.either.as.a."we".or.a."they" ..It.is. important.that.the.basic.normative.force.of.the.distinction.between.self-. and.other-regarding.acts.(and.practices).should.remain.intact,.regardless. of.whether.we.are.dealing.with.individuals.or.collectives ..There.are.examples.which.illustrate.this. in.a.vivid.and.striking.way,.and.later.I.will. attempt. to.analyze.one.of. these ..But.before. turning. to.examples,. let.us. mention. a. few. interpretations. of. the. self-regarding/other-regarding. distinction.found.in.the.literature . C ..L ..Ten.(1980).explores.several.such.interpretations,.three.of.which. seem.to.be.of.interest.here ..First.among.them.is.the.traditional interpretation,.which.says.that.acts.which.have.no.real.effect.on.others.without. their.consent.should.be.viewed.as.self-regarding.acts ..In.order.to.designate.an.act.as.self-regarding,.it.must.not.affect.anyone.besides.the.actors. themselves.and.other.consenting.adults.(for.only.adults.possess.the.power. of.consent.at.all) ..The.integrity.of.the.harm.principle.is.thus.ensured.by. prohibiting.acts.that.impact.others.against their.will ..However,.as.we.have. seen.above,.almost.anything.may.be.regarded.as.having.an.impact;.for.example,.looking.in.others'.direction.can.be.interpreted.as.having.an.impact:. e .g ..giving.them.the."evil.eye",.or.as.a.sign.of.resistance.(in.the.Ottoman. Empire.there.was.a.rule.that.Christians.had.to.look.down.in.public.places,. 199J. BABIĆ: Self-Regarding / Other-Regarding Acts: Some Remarks to.show.that.they.were.not.rebels),.or.even.as.an.act.of.aggression.(this. was.how.the.Americans.interpreted.the.activation.of.Iraqi.radar.in.the."nofly.zone") ..Similarly,.there.were.once.rules.prohibiting."colored.citizens". from.using.sidewalks.or,.nowadays,.activists.who.oppose.something.we. might.find.normal.but.which.they,.e .g ..vegetarians,.find.abhorrent.or.disgusting ..All.such.acts.can.be.experienced.as.having.a.relevant.impact.on. others,.who.might.be.genuinely.offended.when.confronted.with.them ..As. we.might.expect,.this.interpretation.has.been.heavily.criticized,.as.it.is.too. broad.to.satisfy.the.requirement.of.relevance . The.second.of.Ten's.interpretations.(1980:.11.ff).originates.in.a.paper.by.John.Rees.(1960) ..Rees.argues.that.it.is.not.enough.for.an.act.to. have.an.impact.on.others;.what.is.needed.to.make.it.an.other-regarding. act. is. some.effect.on. their. interests ..Whether.an.act.has.an. impact. is. a. factual.matter,.but.whether. it.affects.someone's. interests. is.a.normative. one ..Interests.are.much.easier.to.connect.with.rights.and.obligations,.and. so.may.become.relevant.with.regard.to.what.one.has.a.right.to.do.or.not. do ..This.is.a.very.elegant.scheme,.as.it.ensures.a.value.component.for.the. demarcation.line.between.self-.and.other-regarding.acts,.assigning.to.the. former.all.those.rights.which.cannot.be.assigned.to.the.latter ..As.interests. are.formed.on.the.basis.of.a.certain.interestedness.(which.is.factual),.the. interestedness.of. the.actors. themselves. is.obviously.a.natural.candidate. for.a.prima facie.justification.of.acts ..On.the.other.hand,.the.interestedness.of.others.should.be.supported.by.some.additional.justification.which. resolves.one.part.of.our.dichotomy.above.(namely,.who.is.acting),.excluding.from.a.prima facie justification.any.kind.of.coercion to act. Of.course,. this.is.not.an.exhaustive.justification,.either.of.the.act.itself.(on.the.actor's. part).or.of.its.impact.(on.the.part.of.others) ..But.it.can.offer.all.the.needed. justification.regarding.the.act's.impact.upon.the.actor.himself,.providing. very.strong.corroboration.of.the.idea.that.each.person.is.the.best.judge.of. his.own.interests.(or.at.least.a.good.enough.one) ..I.consider.this.line.of. argumentation.to.be.quite.fruitful.and.worth.exploring.further ..However,. this. obviously. cannot. be. the. whole. story. –. some. additional. scheme. of. argumentation.is.needed.to.tell.us.how.to.discern.exactly.where.the.line. between.self-.and.other-regarding.acts.lies . The.third.interpretation.examined.by.Ten.(1980:.30.ff).is.the.distinction.made.by.Ronald.Dworkin.(1978:.234.ff).between.personal.and.external.preferences ..Suffice. it. to. say. that. this. is. also. a.highly.promising. viewpoint,.as.it.provides.a.very.good.guideline.for.a.liberal.approach.to. the.demarcation.line.between.self-.and.other-regarding.acts.and.practices .. It. states. that. only. personal. preferences. constitute. a. legitimate. basis. for. decisions.with.a.relevant.impact.on.others,.while.external.preferences.do. not .. Personal. preferences. refer. to. what. someone. wishes. to. do. or. have,. 200 Prolegomena 5 (2) 2006 while. external. preferences. are. about. "what. others. should. do. or. have" .. This.provides.a.rather.sharp.distinction.between.self-.and.other-regarding. acts.at.the.level.of.collective.decisions ..In.the.decision-making.process.in. a.democratic.system,.what.the.majority.decides.is.right.on.the.condition. that.everyone.involved.participates.as.part.of.the.same.whole.that.makes. the.decision ..However,. if. the.minority. that. loses. is.not. included.as.part. of.the.whole,.i .e ..if.the.minority.and.the.majority.are.not.both.part.of.the. same.thing,.then.the.majority.has.no.right.to.decide,.as.the.basis.for.this. decision.would.then.consist,.in.Dworkin's.terminology,.in.external.and.not. in.personal.preferences . Therefore,.all.political.decisions,.and.for. that.matter.all.other.decisions.potentially. impacting."others",.must.be.made.on.the.basis.of.personal.preferences.alone ..A.dissenting.minority.has.the.right.to.defend its. differing.position.to.the.point.of.not.allowing.decisions.and.actions.that. would.inhibit.or.prohibit.its.freedom.to.act.based.on.that.position ..If.this. difference.may.be.established.as.justified,.then.there.is.no.possibility.of.interference,.even.in.the.form.of.a.collective.decision.based.on.the.majority .. The.fact.that.the.majority.may.regard.a.certain.practice,.e .g ..homosexuality,.as.abhorrent.and."immoral".is.no.justification.for.repressive.measures. against.it ..To.take.another.example,."although.the.fact.that.cruelty.to.children.harms.them.is.a.relevant.consideration.[for.preventing.and.punishing. acts.involving.such.cruelty],. the.different.fact. that. the.majority.have.an. external.preference.which.regards.cruelty.to.children.as.wrong.does.not. count".(Ten,.1980:.30) ..External.preferences.have.no.power.to.justify.any. act.of.prohibition.at.all ..Those.who.have.a.given.personal.preference.may. freely.do.whatever. they.want,.on. the.condition.that. their.acts.are."selfregarding" ..Others,.whether.the.majority.or.not,.have.no.right.to.impose. their.external.preferences.upon.them,.regardless.of.what.importance.they. assign.to.the.object.of.those.preferences.–.for.themselves.or,.in.their.view,. for.everyone ..We.can.follow.Anthony.Ellis.(2003:.193).in.considering.all. such.external.preferences.as."other-regarding desire, the.desire.that.others. should.live.their lives.in.a.certain.way" . III It. is. now. the. right.moment. to. look.at. the. example. I.mentioned.earlier .. Many.such.examples.arise.when.we.are.dealing.with.new.kinds.of.practices,.or.practices. that.have.not.been.defined. strictly. enough ..Although. they.do.not.prove.much.in.themselves,.they.can.serve.to.illustrate.the.difficulties.arising.from.seemingly.sound.arguments.which.are,.in.fact,.neither. exhaustive.nor.comprehensive.enough.to.ensure.the.necessary.relevance .. New.practices.sometimes.emerge.from.new.opportunities.that.did.not.ex201J. BABIĆ: Self-Regarding / Other-Regarding Acts: Some Remarks ist.before.(such.as.animal.or.human.cloning,.or.computer.hacking),.while. at.other.times.they.arise.from.something.which.was.already.possible.in. the.past,.but.only.at.high.cost.or.great.risk,.or.as.an.exception.rather.than. the.rule.(abortion,.for.example:.while.it.was.always.possible.as.an.act,.it. became.a.practice.only.when.it.was.made.less.risky.and.more.affordable) .. What.is.common.to.all.such.practices.is.the.fact.that.the.Millian.demarcation.line.between.self-.and.other-regarding.acts.is.both.very.much.needed. and.quite.hard.to.define ..To.repeat.Ellis'.formulation.of.external.preferences:.they.are.other-regarding.desires.commanding.that.others.live.their. lives.in.a.certain.way ..It.seems.obvious.that.others.should.have.the.right. to.defend.themselves.against.such.intrusions.and.not.be.forced.to.accept. such.commands . Take.the.example.of.same-sex.marriages ..It.would.seem.that.this.relates.to.the.issue.of.homosexuality,.i .e ..defending.the.right.of.homosexuals.to.live.in.the.way.they choose,.and.not.allowing.others.to.decide.how. they.should.live.their.lives ..Part.of."living.one's.own.life".comes.from.the. socially.recognized.and.legally.established.institution.of.marriage,.from. which.many.people.–.and.not.only.those.who.are.married.–.derive.a.considerable.part.of. the.meaning.of. their. lives.and.the.values.they.cherish .. Everyone.cares.about.their.family,.their.parents.and.children,.as.well.as. other.relatives.like.uncles,.aunts,.grandparents.or.grandchildren;.and.all.of. this.depends.in.part.on.the.institution.of.marriage ..Marriage.makes.our.life. what.it.is ..We.can.say.that.the.practice.of.homosexuality.does.not,.prima facie,.endanger.this.framework.of.values.in.any.cardinal.way.(even.if.the. spread.of.that.practice.could.endanger.it.in.what.we.might.call.a.radical way!),1.for.it.concerns.only.those.referred.to.as.homosexuals ..However,. does.this.same.logic.apply.to.the.issue.of.marriage? Ellis. would. say. it. does .. He. would. admit. that. same-sex. marriages. change.the.very.nature.of.marriage."in.societies. in.which.marriage.had. previously.been.restricted,.socially.and.legally,.to.members.of.the.opposite. sex" ..But.he.would.also.claim. that. the. "desire. to.understand.one's. marriage.in.a.certain.way".does.not.generate."any.rights.over.the.behavior. of.others",.thus.referring.to.attempts.by."others".to.prevent.and.prohibit. same-sex.marriages.because they feel that they endanger their way of life. And.why.should."others".think.that?.Because.they.consider.marriage to. be. a. sacrosanct. institution. which,. as. stated. above,. gives. a. very. special 1.The.distinction.between.two.kinds.of.change may.prove.to.be.useful.here.(especially.if.the.change.is.a.great.one):.radical change,.i .e ..a.change.whose.extent.is.great,.yet. remains.within.the.framework.of.the.original.subject.matter,.and.cardinal change,.i .e ..a. change.which.is.such.that.the.subject.is.no.longer.the.same.as.before,.but.rather.one.of.a. different.nature ..This.may.have.certain.implications.regarding.how.a.change.is.justified,. and.perhaps.also.for.the.justificatory.role.of.defense in.this.process . 202 Prolegomena 5 (2) 2006 meaning.to.their.lives,.and.as.such.is.to.be.defended.from.the.aspiration. of. homosexuals. and. others. to. introduce. a. new. element. into. this. social. and.legal.scheme.that.would,.if.approved,.change.the.institution.not.only. radically,.but.cardinally ..What.is.at.issue.here.is.not.the.practice.of.homosexuality.and.its.articulation.(either.via.a.specific.institutional.scheme. or.outside.it),.but.rather.only.a.certain.very.specific.institution which.has. been,.and.continues.to.be,.designated.as."marriage" ..The.reasons.conditioning.the.proper.extent.and.form.of.justifiable.tolerance.may.not.be.quite. clear.here,.especially.concerning.the.issue.of.who.is.tolerating.whom.with. regard.to.defining.a.specific.institution ..This.is.particularly.true.if.there. is.a.demand.to.destroy.its.specificity.by.annulling.its.line.of.demarcation. with.neighboring.areas.of.institutionalized.and.non-institutionalized.life .. The.reality.of.institutions,.however,.depends.on.our.thinking.about.them. in.a.certain.way;.and.this.fact,.together.with.a.sincere.belief.in.what.we. think,.may.also.be.the.reason.why.we.feel.compelled.to.defend.that.part. of.our reality from.unwanted.and.(from.the.point.of.view.of.an.institution). dangerous.changes . Ellis,.however,.would.say.that.how.one.thinks.about.something.cannot.be.a.good.reason.for.dictating.what.others.should.do.(Ellis,.2003:.195) .. According.to.him,.this.line.of.reasoning.does.not.take.into.account.whose. interests.are.more.important;.he.claims.that.those.who.oppose.same-sex. marriages."have.no rights.in.this.matter.at.all,.because.we.have.no.rights. over.the.behavior.of.others.grounded.simply.in.the.desire.to.attach.a.certain.sort.of.significance.to.our.own.behavior" ..The.form.of.this."attachment".should.not.count ..However,.if.the."attachment".is.such.that.a.certain. kind.of.cardinal.change.would.destroy.not.only.it,.but.also.some.particular. feature.or.aspect.of.the.institution.of.marriage.–.one.which.produces.and. maintains.a.certain.system.of.values.that.gives.those.within.this.institution. a.significant.part.of.the.meaning.of.their.lives,.and.which.these."others". very.much.consider.to.be."self-regarding".–.then.how.can.we.argue.that. they.have.no.right.to.defend.themselves.by.defending.that.institution?2 2."Others".here.are.a.specific.group.who.participate.in.a.certain.institution ..In.some. institutions,.the.scope.of.tolerance.is.linked.to.the.conditions.of.that.institution's.existence .. Let.us. take.the.police as.an.example.of."others" ..If.someone.else.(i .e ..someone.who.is. "other".from.the.viewpoint.of.policemen).wishes.to.wear.a.police.uniform,.or.paint.his. car.to.look.like.a.police.car,.we.might.think.that.policemen.(and.any.other.people.insofar. as.they.participate.in.the.institution.of.the.police).have.some.grounds.to.defend the differ- ence,.which.amounts.to.defending.the."old".institution.by.attempting.to.prevent.the.loss. of.its.definitional.distinction ..This.could.be.done.in.two.ways:.either.by.preventing.anyone. outside.the.police.from.wearing.such.uniforms.or.driving.such.cars,.or.by.changing.these. uniforms.or.cars.into.something.visibly.different ..It.seems.that.Ellis.would.allow.the.latter. but.not.the.former,.thus.entering.into.a.vicious.circle.of.endless.change . 203J. BABIĆ: Self-Regarding / Other-Regarding Acts: Some Remarks Of.course,.there.is.a.very.easy.solution.for.this problem.(which.is.not. often.the.case.with.other,.similar.problems):.to.define.another,.parallel.or. analogous.institution.and.give.it.some.other.name:.not."marriage".but,.for. example,. "sarriage". (or,. as. in. Oregon,. "domestic. partnership",. or. "civil. union",. like. in.some.other.US.states) .3.However,. it.seems.most.unlikely. that.this.would.satisfy.those.who.seek.to.be.allowed.to."marry",.insisting. on.the.use.of.that.very.word.and.unwilling.to.accept.any.other.name.for.it . Thus. it. seems. that. the. central. notion.here. is. that. of. "defense". and. what.may.constitute. its.rightful.object:.how.can.we.determine.what.we. have.a.right.to.defend?.While.it.is.very.difficult.to.answer.this.question,. the.answer.could.well.be.the.best.means.of.defining.the.demarcation.line. between.self-.and.other-regarding.acts ..The.difficulty.of.this.question.lies. partly.in.the.logic.it.contains:.if.one.has.a.right.to.defend.something,.that. right.seems.to.be.absolute.and.based.on.principles.alone ..The.prospect.of. success.does.not.form.part.of.the.right.to.defend ..If.someone.has.such.a. right,.its.existence.cannot.depend.on.the.probability.of.success;.nor.does. the.absence.of.this.probability.diminish.or.annul.that.right.if.it.exists ..Of. course,.it.is.very.hard.to.determine.what.we.have.a.right.to.defend ..What. seems.to.be.relevant.at.this.point.is.that.it.depends.on.what.constitutes.the. "self".in."self-regarding.acts" ..This.will.make.it.possible.for.us.to.establish,.in.terms.of.principles,.what.content.the.right.to.defend.has,.showing. us.the.demarcation.line.between.self-regarding.and.other-regarding.acts .. Identifying.what."self".might.possibly.represent.in."self-regarding.acts". –.the.self which.is."regarded".by.those.acts.–.would.certainly.help.us.in. determining.what.the.object.of.justifiable.defense.is.and.defining.the.necessary.demarcation.line . In.a.prima facie sense,.this.grants.primacy.to.whatever.the.existing fact.or.institution.is,.and.implies.the.additional.burden.of.justifying.any. change,.especially.such.change.as.could.be.designated."cardinal" ..As.such,. it.may.seem.too.conservative ..In.terms.of.the.logic.of.justification,.however,.no.change.would.be.prevented.if.it.could.withstand.the.process.of. justification.up.to.the.point.of.actual.change;.it.only.entails.an.asymmetry between. justifying.something.which. is.already.accepted.and.something. anticipated.as.the.possible.object.of.an.intention.or.decision ..This.logic. would.partly.imply.that.if.there.is.a.strong.right.to.defend.something,.it.is. because.there.are.strong.enough.reasons.to.produce.such.a.right ..If.this.is. so,.then.the.right.to.defend.would.pertain.to.the.entire.scope.of.self-regard3.However,. there.might.also.be.restrictions. to. this.solution,.such. that.adopting. the. term."sarriage".will.not.prove.adequate ..To.take.the.example.from.the.previous.footnote,. labeling.a.non-police.vehicle.(perhaps.a.car.belonging.to.a.gang).with.the.word."poleece". or."polyce".would.be.quite.as.likely.to.provoke.a."defense.of.the.old.institution".as.labeling.it."police" . 204 Prolegomena 5 (2) 2006 ing.acts,.independent.of.whether.these.acts.belong.to.the.private.sphere.or. not.(or,.in.other.words,.all.such.acts.would.be.designated.as."private".or,. in.Dworkin's.terminology,."personal",.in.a.certain.sense) . Therefore,.if.a.practice.or,.for.that.matter,.a.whole.institution.is.subject. to. the. right. of. justifiable. defense,. this. would. fall. within. the. scope. of.Millian.self-regarding acts,.and.the.distinction.that.constitutes.such.a. practice.or.institution.would.be.protected.by.the.harm.principle ..Another,. even.more.conservative.part.of.this.logic.is.that.there.is.a.prima facie case. for. preserving. all. distinctions. unless. a. change. is. justified .. If. this. argument.is.sound,.then.there.can.be.no.right.to.name same-sex.unions.mar- riages, unless.we.are.ready.to.accept.a.cardinal.change.in.the.institution. of.marriage,.one.which.would.amount. to. its.abandonment.and. replacement. by. something. else. under. the. same. name!.The. conclusion. is. that,. unlike."domestic.partnerships".or."civil.unions",."same-sex.marriages". cannot.avoid.harming.others,.and.that.a change in name would.imply.a change in definition, thus.entailing.that."same-sex.marriage",.unlike.marriage,.is.not.a.self-regarding.act.or,.in.Dworkin's.words,.does.not.belong. to.the.sphere.of.personal.preferences ..On.the.contrary,. it. is.an.other-regarding.act,.or.one.pertaining.to.the.sphere.of.external.preferences,.for.it. impacts.not.only.what.people.believe,.but.also.what.constitutes.their.area. of.rightful.defense ..To.designate.same-sex.unions.by.the.word."marriage". is.obviously.an.other-regarding.act,.and.thus.seems.to.violate.the.hitherto. protected.institution.of.marriage,.in.which.the.act.of.calling.a.certain.relationship.a."marriage".functions.as.a.self-regarding.act.and.falls.under.the. protection.of. the.harm.principle ..Destroying. the.distinction. that.defines. "marriage".in.the.traditional.way.would,.therefore,.constitute.unjustified. harm.to.others,.whereas.preventing.the.designation.of.same-sex.unions.as. "marriages".would.not ..For.while.it.is.certain.that.the.former.would.occur. without.the.consent.of.some.of.those.concerned,.the.latter.does.not.violate. the.condition.that.all.parties.concerned.should.agree.on.what.the.collective. decision.will.be . Before.concluding,.let.us.look.at.another.example.involving.a.similar. issue.of.what.constitutes.the.self-regarding.and.other-regarding.scope.of. a.real.action ..Here.this.is.not.confined.only.to.naming,.as.in.the.case.of. "same-sex.marriages",.but.rather.concerns.an.entire.practice,.i .e ..cloning,. and.its.impact.on.what.we.regard.as."ourselves",.such.that.we.may.believe. we.have.a.right.to.defend.ourselves.against.this.practice ..Cloning.is.a.form. of.asexual reproduction,.human.or.other ..Prima facie there.is.nothing.visibly.wrong.with.it,.for,.in.principle,.the.form.of.reproduction.has.no.special.moral.standing ..The.problem,.however,.is.that.it.does.indeed.become. relevant,.since.a.great.many.of.the.values.to.which.we."attach.a.certain. sort.of.significance".are.grounded.in.the.sexual.aspect.of.our.reproduc205J. BABIĆ: Self-Regarding / Other-Regarding Acts: Some Remarks tion ..It.is.what.makes.us what.we.are ..Although.at.some.point.in.the.future. cloning.might.become.a.thing.of.great.use,.or.even.necessity.(in.a.situation. where.it.would.be.the.best.or.only.available.means.of.human.reproduction),.in.the.present.world.cloning.–.if.accepted.as.a.general.or.semi-general.practice.–.would.certainly.endanger.and.possibly.destroy.important. elements.of.the.values.that.make.us.what.we.are,.by.disrupting.important. parts.of.our.current.institutional.network ..This.does.not.imply.that.a.world. created.in.such.a.way.would.be.worse.than.the.one.we.have.now ..It.is.quite. possible.that.a.world.unburdened.by.the.network.of.traditional.family.relations.would.be.better.and.more.agreeable.than.the.present.one ..However,. this.does.mean.that.it.would.not.be.our world ..We.might.experience.it.as. an.utterly.foreign.world,.one.where.our.lives.would.not.possess.their.usual. condition.and.importance ..And.we.may.attempt.to.defend.ourselves.to.the. extent.that.this.is.in.our.power,.by.defending.the.basic.institutions.of.our. world.and.the.conditions.upon.which.they.are.founded ..We.may.even.feel. we.have.a right to.do.so . *.*.* We.may.conclude.that,.if.the.argument.presented.here.is.correct,.we.have. the.right.to.prohibit.certain.actions.by.others.and.thereby.restrain.them.in. what.they.may.feel.to.be.entirely.self-regarding.acts ..In.searching.for.a.viable.demarcation.line.between.the.two.kinds.of.acts,.the.goal.is.to.define.a. set.of.protected.interests.which,.according.to.the.harm.principle,.should.be. exempt.from.social.control.and.interference.by.others ..Yet.if.the.freedom. to.act.in.a.specific.way.(or,.in.the.first.example.above,.to.call.a.practice.by. a.specific.name).wrongfully.infringes.on.the.interests.of.others.and.causes. them.unjustifiable.harm,.the.only.way.out.is.to.balance.freedom.of.action,. on.the.one.hand,.and.the.unjustifiable.adverse.effects.of.such.action,.on. the.other.(cf ..Cane,.2006:.36) .. In.order. to.avoid.such.confusion.and.its. possibly.disastrous.effects.for.the.harm.principle,.it.seems.that,.to.preserve. the.distinction.essential.to.that.principle,.we.may.forego.not dictating.to. others.how.to.live.their.lives.to.the.extent.that.we.may.reject.their.right. to.freely.name.what.they.are.free.to.do ..Their.insistence.on.also.naming. the acts.within.the.scope.of.their.freedom.may.be.unjustified,.even.if.the. acts. themselves. are. self-regarding. ones .4.The. question. becomes. one. of. 4.It. is. tempting. to. ask.what.would.happen. if.members.of. the. "old. institution",. in. trying.to.avoid.absorption.into.the."new.institution".and.thus.preserve.their.old.identity,. decided.to.change the name of their institution: would.members.of.the.new.institution.follow.them.in.that.new.naming,.attempting.to.prevent.their.escape?.Would.they.insist.in.being.named.with.the.same.name.(and.so.reject.the.difference),.rather.than.be.satisfied.with. 206 Prolegomena 5 (2) 2006 tolerance:.defending.a.distinction.and,.for.that.matter,.part.of.the.world's. diversity,. which. would. be. abolished. by. unifying. two. close. but. distinct. practices ..Defending.a.distinction.does.not.imply.any.demand.to."ban".or. even.to.judge.either.of.the.differentiated.practices ..It.simply.represents.a. request.that.something.remain.specific.via.diversity ..This.indeed.requires. tolerance,.for.otherwise.a.new.discrimination.would.take.the.place.of.the. one.now.removed.(and.presumably.this.is.the.principal.reason.for.demanding.unification) ..An.act.of.naming.may.not.be.a.self-regarding.act,.despite. the.fact.that.the.harm.principle.protects.as.self-regarding.those.acts.which. are.to.be.named ..If.this.were.not.the.case,.we.would.have.to.balance.two. competing.sets.of.self-regarding.interests.and.acts,.which.seems.to.imply. a.practical.contradiction:.namely,.something.which.is.not.the.legitimate. concern. of. others. is,. nonetheless,. their. legitimate. concern .. If. this. were. to.happen,. then.neither of. these. competing. interests. and.actions.would. be. self-regarding. and. protected. by. the. harm. principle,. for. unjustifiable. harm.would.exist.on.both.sides ..Therefore,.as.in.criminal.law,.we.should. seek.to.reconcile.the.competing.interests.of.those.who.act.and.those.who. are.adversely.affected.by.such.acting.(cf ..Feinberg,.1984:.217),.and.not,. as.Ellis.would.argue,.presume.the.primacy.of.freedom.of.action,.wherein. others."have.no rights. in. this.matter.at. all". (Ellis,.2003:.195) ..This."at. all". seems. to. imply.confusing.self-regarding.acts. (doing.what.does.not. legitimately.concern.others).with.other-regarding.acts.(calling.those.acts. by.a.name.already."taken",.one.which.has.a.strong.normative.capacity) .. However,.the.purpose.of.the.harm.principle.is.to.distinguish.self-regarding.acts.from.other-regarding.acts,.for.the.sake.of.protecting.the.former .. It.should.not.be.used.to.confuse.the.distinction.between.them.in.order.to. provide.unprincipled.protection.for.an.obviously.other-regarding.act,.with. the.justification.that.it.constitutes.a.different.self-regarding.act . having.conquered.the.old.name.they.had.aspired.to?.If.not,.why.should.they.not.already. accept.a.difference.and.a.new.name.now,.instead.of.insisting.on.the.old,."occupied".name. of.something.similar.yet.still.different.from.their.practice?.The.question.is,.finally,.why. they.reject.separation.and.the.difference.connected.with.it,. insisting.on.a.kind.of.counter-discrimination,.as.if.diversity.in.naming,.unlike.diversity.in.behavior,.implied.hidden. discrimination . 207J. BABIĆ: Self-Regarding / Other-Regarding Acts: Some Remarks References Cane,.P ..2006 .. "Taking.Law.Seriously:.Starting.Points.of. the.Hart/Devlin.Debate",.The Journal of Ethics 10:.21–51 . Dworkin,.R ..1978 ..Taking Rights Seriously.(London:.Duckworth) . Ellis,.A ..2003 .."Minority.Rights.and.the.Preservation.of.Languages",.The Philo- sophical Yearbook 16.(Belgrade) . Feinberg,.J ..1984 ..Harm to Others.(The Moral Limits of the Criminal Law).(New. York:.Oxford.University.Press) . Mill,.J ..S ..1971 ..Utilitarianism, On Liberty, Essay on Bentham,.ed ..by.Mary.Warnock.(London:.Collins) . Rees,.J ..C ..1960 .."A.Re-Reading.of.Mill.on.Liberty",.Political Studies 8:.113–129 . Ten,.C ..L ..1980 ..Mill on Liberty.(Oxford:.Clarendon.Press) . Thucydides.1993,.History of the Peloponnesian War (trans ..by.Richard.Crawley,. London:.Everyman) .