The Romanian Journal of Analytic Philosophy Vol. VIII, 1°, 2014, pp. 5‐20 ARE COPYRIGHTS COMPATIBLE WITH HUMAN RIGHTS ? Radu USZKAI* Abstract : The purpose of the following study is that of providing a critical anal‐ ysis of Intellectual Property (IP), with a closer look on copyright, in the context of human rights. My main conjecture is the following : the legal infrastructure stemming from the implications of copyrights which states created has nega‐ tive consequences if we have a closer look at some human rights specified by The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). For example, copyrights are, in my view, incompatible with the human rights which specify that (1) hu‐ man beings have a right to freely take part in the cultural and scientific life of the communities which they inhabit and (2) human beings have a right to own property. My main hypothesis is the following : if copyrights are, in fact, more difficult to ground from a moral perspective, then this considerations must trump the provision of the 27th article of the UDHR, which states that creators, be they artists or researchers, have a human right to have their moral and mate‐ rial interests protected with regard to their intellectual products, if this amounts to a justification for a copyright. Keywords : intellectual property, globalization, human rights, copyright, patents. I. INTRODUCTION The globalization of IP has become, nowadays, ubiquitous. Moreover, the emergence of institutional and moral norms which sanction the illegiti‐ mate use and copying of intellectual products such as books, songs or com‐ plex chemical formulas used by the pharmaceutical industry is a benchmark of the transition form the modern to the contemporary society. Speaking from a historical perspective1, IP rights are a recent development, born at the confluence between a technological revolution, namely the invention * Radu USZKAI, Romanian Academy, Iași branch ; University of Bucharest, Faculty of Philosophy. Contact address : radu.uszkai@cadi.ro. 1 For a historical analysis regarding this process see May and Sell (2006). 6 Radu Uszkai and improvements made on the printing press2, and a cultural one : people changed their perspective on what it is like to be an author, creator or inven‐ tor and with regards to the relationship between creators and the products of their intellectual labor (Hesse 2002, 26 – 29). However, the emergence, evolution and globalization of IP raises some important ethical questions. For example, the first issue discussed tradition‐ ally regards a fundamental question : is IP morally justifiable ? Other prob‐ lems, such as what is the correct relation between societies, individuals and creative industries permeates the moral debate around IP. Even though I will dwell upon some some considerations regarding this particular topics, my main objective in this paper will be to analyze whether copyrights are compatible with the legal, but more importantly moral framework created by the human rights. First of all, a short discussion regarding UDHR is in place. As a conse‐ quence, I will present the relevant aspects regarding IP which have to do with certain articles from the UDHR. Secondly, my goal will be to provide the reader with a clearer understanding of the structure of IP, with an em‐ phasis on copyrights, sketching a map of the most important arguments in favor of such a right. Afterwards, this step will be followed by an in depth moral critique of the main two arguments in favor of IP, namely the natural rights and utilitarian justifications. Last, but more importantly not least, I will show how copyrights undermine other and possibly more important HR, such as limiting the right to property or the capacity to freely enjoy the fruits of artistic, cultural, technological or scientific advancements of our society. II A SHORT OVERVIEW OF THE UDHR : IS THERE A PLACE FOR IP AND COPYRIGHT ? If we take a closer look at the UDHR, we could clearly state that there's no direct or in extenso reference to IP. We can find, however, some relevant hints which might do the trick. For example, Article 27, paragraph 2 clearly states that „Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and mate‐ rial interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author"3. However, the first paragraph of the same Article acknowledges that individuals have a right to take part in the cultural life of their society : „Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultur‐ al life of the community, to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advance‐ ment and its benefits". The potential contradiction between those two paragraphs might not seem, at the present time, noticeable. Why ? Well, because, to put it bluntly, 2 In short, this means lower costs associated with copying a book. 3 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, available online : www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/ index.shtml. All my reference regarding articles of the UDHR have the same online source. 7 Are Copyrights Compatible with Human Rights ? recognizing the moral and material rights of creators or researchers is a vague formulation. You don't necessarily need an intellectual property right in or‐ der to do that. However, in the context of a globalized world, most of the states which accept the UDHR do protect the interests of intellectual crea‐ tors with such rights, which are divided between copyrights, patents, trade‐ marks and trade secrets. In the present paper I will address, however, only copyrights. How could copyrights be viewed, though, as being incompatible with hu‐ man rights ? A closer look at some of the provisions of the UDHR is neces‐ sary. First of all, according to the 17th Article, „Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others". Moreover, the second paragraph also adds that „No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his prop‐ erty". Last but not least, Article 25 clearly states that „Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well‐being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care". The global IP system is, I conjecture, in a clear opposition with such mor‐ al goals which I previously presented. Even though everyone has a right to property, as Article 17 underlines, the exercise of this right is limited, as I will show in the following sections of my study, by certain aspects of the copy‐ right law. For example, such laws put us in a strange situation in which we cannot exercise freely our property right towards a physical object (such as a book or a CD), because we cannot make legal copies of it. Let us assume that I am in a library and decide to buy a really expensive photo album. Furthermore, imagine that I have a friend who is passionate about photography, who has wanted that album for a couple of years but, because he's always short on money, he couldn't do it up to this point. As a consequence, I decide to make a photocopy of that album and give it to my friend. Would anyone say, judging this facts, that I committed an immoral action ? Chances are slim, with one notable exception : the people who argue that artists, or the companies which bought their copyrights, have a monop‐ oly on the process of making extra copies of a certain work. If I make a copy of that album and donate it to my friend, the argument goes, I do not respect someone's IP. Artists (or the companies which, after buying the artists' copy‐ rights, are bound by law to pay them royalties) have a right to be paid when‐ ever someone wants to have access to a good such as a photo album. My starting point is a common sense observation : people do not have an equal access to the cultural and scientific life of their community. My intui‐ tion and contention is that the crux of the problem revolves around the no‐ tion of copyright and that is why, in the following sections of my paper, I will try to provide a moral critique of this right. Furthermore, if I will man‐ age to show that copyrights are either unjustifiable or at least very difficult to justify, then my normative claim is that enjoying a human right to private property or to take part in the cultural life of the community trumps the ef‐ 8 Radu Uszkai fort of trying to ground IP in the provisions of the second paragraph of the 27th Article of the UDHR. III. IP AND COPYRIGHTS : BETWEEN NATURAL RIGHTS AND UTILITARIAN ARGUMENTS It is generally accepted that IP is a product of the Enlightenment period (Hesse 1990). My contention is that the ethical debate regarding IP also has its birthplace in the same period, namely in the debate between Diderot and Condorcet4. However, I will not dwell on the historical origins of the debate, but I will try to analyze the current justifications for copyright, with an em‐ phasis on natural rights and utilitarian arguments. This does not mean, however, that you could only argue in favor of an au‐ thor's copyright in his book solely on this grounds. Peter S. Menell, for ex‐ ample, provides us with an illuminating map of all the arguments, for and against, by distinguishing between (1) Utilitarian/economical arguments and (2) Non‐Utilitarian arguments. With regards to the second perspective, he identifies eight subsumed theories : the Lockean theory, unjust enrichment, the personhood theory, libertarian theories, distributive justice, democratic theory, the radical/socialist perspective and ecological theories (Menell 2000). For the purpose of my present inquiry, I choose to resume only to the natu‐ ral rights (Lockean) and utilitarian/consequentialist arguments, because, as things stand, this two theories represent the standard justifications for IP in general and for copyright in particular. But, first of all, I consider that I have to provide an answer to an essential question : what is IP ? I think that a good way for us to understand what IP is might be to walk on the footsteps of Tom Palmer : „intellectual property rights are rights in ideal objects, which are distinguished from the material substrata in which they are instantiated" (Palmer 1990, 818). To make things clearer, let's return to the previous example regarding the photo album. When I'm in the library and I buy that album, I become the owner of just a single copy, namely the one which I hold in my hand after I pay for it. I am not, however, the own‐ er of the ideas and the concepts which the owner had in mind when he con‐ ceived the album. As a consequence, when we refer to IP rights, we must keep in mind the distinction between the physical substratum (namely the physical copy in my hands) and the immaterial content (the idea which the creator had in mind when he made the album). The type – token distinction also provides some insights regarding the pre‐ vious distinction which I made. Laura Biron advances the following ques‐ tion : If we treat IP as a reference to a relation of property, which are the ob‐ jects which IP refer to ? If we talk about a bicycle or an apple, the answer is 4 Roger Chartier has an interesting analysis regarding this particular aspect of the moral debate around IP. For more details see Chartier (2002). 9 Are Copyrights Compatible with Human Rights ? pretty simple : we refer to certain physical objects. What would we say, how‐ ever, when the object at hand is not a bicycle, but a song or a movie ? Similar to Tom Palmer, Laura Biron also tries to shed some light on this topic : „tra‐ ditional property rights over physical objects are rights to tokens, whereas intellectual property rights are rights to types. When one holds an intellec‐ tual property right to an invention such as a pharmaceutical drug, for exam‐ ple, one has rights to a particular drug type, and the power to control certain uses of all of the tokens that instantiate the type. When one owns a physical object, on the other hand, one owns only that token object. So it seems intui‐ tively plausible to say [...] that the objects of intellectual property are abstract types" (Biron 2010, 383 – 384). Therefore, in our current legal framework, cre‐ ators are owners of an ideal type. Consumers, on the other hand, only own a particular token, namely the physical substratum which they bought.5 Up to this point, I insisted on shedding some light on what IP rights are. Now, however, I will address the problem of justifying them from a mor‐ al perspective. III.1. The Natural Rights Theory : Locke, Ip and Copyright Even if we take only a superficial look at the current debate surrounding IP, we could conclude, without difficulty, that there is an overlapping pre‐ occupation amongst IP scholars and moral philosophers to argue that cop‐ yrights or patents can be morally justified using Locke's theory of natural rights and, moreover, his account of property. For example, Richard Spinello and Maria Bottis (2009) argue that one of the strongest arguments in favor of an artist's right to have a monopoly on releasing copies of his intellectu‐ al products relies on the Lockean perspective on property as a natural right. Moreover, Spinello considers that „The Anglo‐American tradition has long recognized the validity of the Lockean perspective – we assign property rights not only to incentivize creators but also to reward them for their ef‐ forts" (2003, 8). The reason why he considers that a utilitarian perspective on IP would be incomplete is that, at least sometimes, empirical data could be unreliable. That's why he concludes that we need a non‐consequential‐ ist perspective about copyrights, which could withstand criticism based on unreliable data. The starting point of all Lockean theories regarding IP resides in Locke's theory of property and acquisition : „Though the earth, and all inferior crea‐ tures, be common to all men, yet every man has a property in his own per‐ son : this no body has any right to but himself. The labor of his body, and the work of his hands, we may say, are properly his. Whatsoever then he re‐ moves out of the state that nature hath provided, and left it in, he hath mixed 5 Laura Biron is not the only philosopher who entertains this perspective. For more details see Wreen (2010) and Wilson (2010). 10 Radu Uszkai his labor with, and joined to it something that is his own, and thereby makes it his property. It being by him removed from the common state nature hath placed it in, it hath by this labor something annexed to it, that excludes the common right of other men : for this labor being the unquestionable proper‐ ty of the laborer, no man but he can have a right to what that is once joined to, at least where there is enough, and as good, left in common for others" (Locke 1988[1689], 287 – 288). Locke refers, however, only to material objects, such as apples or acorns. Could this view be accommodated to immaterial objects ? Spinello says that there would be no problem doing this because mental labor is no different than physical labor as exemplified by picking up apples or cultivating a field with wheat : „Locke's theory is applicable to some forms of intangible prop‐ erty as well as physical property, since the former also represents the fruit of one's labor. Mental labor is no different from physical labor : both are ex‐ tensions of the person and belong to the person. It's certainly logical that a person who expends intellectual labor to write a book or create a work of art has a presumptive claim to the ownership and control of the fruits of her labor" (2011, 280). Robert Merges expands Spinello's perspective, by giving three reasons why a Lockean conception of property is also compatible with intellectual and immaterial objects such as ideas. Firs of all, Locke's theory of acquisition from a common state of nature works equally effective when we talk about ideas. In short, Locke's state of nature, in which individuals appropriate an apple by picking it up from a previously unowned tree, is similar to a situa‐ tion in which a creator works with an idea form the public domain and de‐ velops a new novel. Moreover, Merges also highlights the importance of la‐ bor in the process of appropriation. Last but not least, even Locke himself recognizes the importance of mental labor. Therefore, and this is how the argument goes, it wouldn't be difficult to argue for an IP right in a Lockean context (2011, 33 – 34). As I mentioned earlier, IP scholars who work within a Lockean frame‐ work suggest that there is a clear resemblance between the public domain of ideas and the common property in the state of nature. Robert Merges ad‐ vances an illuminating synthesis of the process of appropriation : „Resources are common. One owns one's body, and the labor that is produced by it. Annexing or mixing one's labor with resources found in the common gives rise to property rights-a legitimate claim to ownership" (2011, 35). In short, the Lockean argument for a copyright is the following : creators deserve a special type of right in relation to their intellectual products which are the result of their mental labor, because those ideas are the products of a mix be‐ tween the creators' labor (which he previously owns, because he owns him‐ self) and objects found in the public domain, as long as the Lockean provi‐ so is not violated. 11 Are Copyrights Compatible with Human Rights ? III.2. Towards a Utilitarian/Consequentialist Justification for Copyright An alternative moral grounding for a copyright is the so called utilitari‐ an or consequentialist one, which shifts it's focus from self‐ownership and the deontological relevance of labor, towards another argumentative strat‐ egy, namely the fundamental role which incentives play in human action. Following Spinello's suggestions (2003, 9), I think that we could resume the utilitarian/consequentialist perspective on IPR in the following syllogism : Premise 1 : from a utilitarian perspective, society should adopt those norms or legal rules which increase the level of aggregate welfare ; Premise 2 : Legal norms such as copyrights and patents represent incen‐ tives for authors, researchers and other creative individuals to be more creative ; Premise 3 : Incentivizing creative individuals increases the level of aggre‐ gate welfare ; Conclusion : Therefore, we need an institutional framework in which the rights of creative individuals are protected. A similar take on the issue of IP and incentives is given by Posner and Landes (2003). They suggest that the issue of ideas and property is best treat‐ ed if we take, first of all, a closer look at the costs involved in this process, namely the costs associated with producing a book, but also with that of the legal system which protects IP. The first type of costs have two main com‐ ponents : (1) the actual cost of creation (which could be easily assumed as being constant) and (2) the costs of producing an additional copy of a book. Regarding the second aspect of their analysis, they highlight the important transaction costs inherent to this activity (which is a direct result of the on‐ tological status of ideas, namely the fact that ideas, being immaterial objects, don't occupy a single physical space), the propensity of economic agents who operate in this market to enjoy rent‐seeking opportunities and also the costs associated with the protection of a creators' IP (they refer to the opportunity cost of redirecting resources towards the police or courts of law). In a similar fashion to Lockean scholars, Landes and Posner also note that there is a difference between a material and immaterial objects with regards to a property relation : „Intellectual property tends to be particularly costly to protect. An idea or other intellectual product cannot be seen in the way a piece of land can be or described with the precision possible in a map" (2003, 18). However, a copyright is justifiable if we take a closer look at incentives : unless there is power to exclude, the incentive to create intellectual proper‐ ty in the first place may be impaired. Socially desirable investments (invest‐ ments that yield social benefits in excess of their social costs) may be deterred if the creators of intellectual property cannot recoup their sunk costs. That 12 Radu Uszkai is the dynamic benefit of property rights, and the result is the „access versus incentives" trade off : charging a price for a public good reduces access to it (a social cost), making it artificially scarce, but increases the incentive to cre‐ ate it in the first place, which is a possibly offsetting social benefit" (2003, 20). To better understand the argument, let's take the following example : would J.K.Rowling take the time to write her famous Harry Potter series if she couldn't rely on a legal framework in which her copyright is protected by the state ? Posner and Landes would answer, obviously, that most proba‐ bly Rowling would have had, in the absence of a copyright, little incentives to incur the costs associated with such an impressive literary enterprise. Why ? The answer is, in the utilitarian/consequentialist perspective, quite simple : it's easy for a person to buy a copy of her book, make digital (PDF) copies of it and distribute it online using a BitTorrent protocol. As a consequence, her income would be dramatically affected by individuals who would illegally download her books, instead of buying them from the local library. IV. ARE COPYRIGHTS MORALLY JUSTIFIED ? The Lockean and utilitarian justifications are, as I have tried to argue up to this point, the standard argumentative strategies for IP scholars. My ob‐ jective in the following section will be, however, to show that both of this moral and philosophical enterprises do have serious flaws in their main ar‐ guments. I will start with the Lockean perspective, then continue with the utilitarian one and, lastly, I will present what I consider to be the knockdown argument against copyrights. First of all, is work a sufficient condition for arguing that a creator has a property right in the idea which he produced ? Edward Hettinger, for exam‐ ple, expresses his skepticism regarding this contention. Even though mental labor is, indeed, needed in order to create an intellectual product, this does not mean that an intellectual laborer is entitled to the market value of that product, because he is not the originator of that value (1989, 39). To be more precise, value is a spontaneous byproduct of people interacting on the mar‐ ket. It does not represent the end result of someone's work. Therefore, we could contend, for example, that J.K.Rowling is the owner of the popular se‐ ries Harry Potter. However, this does not mean that she is also entitled to the profits obtained if the book gets printed and sold in libraries. Moreover, mental labor is different than physical labor. A painter might get the inspiration to be creative in a blink of an eye. A poet or a musician likewise. A researcher could develop an idea for a new drug while he's drink‐ ing his morning coffee and reading the sport section of a paper. I do not mean to say that all great ideas or works of art originate this way, but I do wish to assert that, at least sometimes, developing a new idea is an easy job, with lit‐ tle (mental) labor involved. 13 Are Copyrights Compatible with Human Rights ? Let's assume, though, that people do deserve a copyright because of the labor involved in developing, for example, an idea for a novel. Is a novel, however, just the result of the work performed by a single individual ? In short, it is not. Take J.R.R. Tolkien as a case study. The popular Lord of the Rings series was made possible not just because of Tolkien's mental labor, but also because he inspired himself from other literary works, such as the Bible or medieval folklore tales. Before moving to a critical analysis of the utilitarian perspective, I would like to underline an additional problem regarding the Lockean claim that cre‐ ation and labor are pivotal aspects in the process of appropriating an idea, by following on the footsteps of an argument developed by Stephen Kinsella. Assume that you are a lumberjack and you have in front of you two differ‐ ent sets of timber. One is yours, and the other one belongs to a co‐worker. Moreover, with both of them, you decide to make a chair. If you do accom‐ plish your plan to make a chair using your timber, the chair does not be‐ long to you only because you created that object, but because you previous‐ ly owned the raw material. In the second scenario, however, even though you did create that piece of furniture, it is not yours solely on those grounds. Moreover, in doing so, you left your co‐worker without his piece of timber. As a consequence, creation „is neither necessary nor sufficient to establish ownership. The focus on creation distracts from the crucial role of first oc‐ cupation as a property rule for addressing the fundamental fact of scarcity. First occupation, not creation or labor, is both necessary and sufficient for the homesteading of unowned scarce resources" (Kinsella 2001, 27). What about the utilitarian argument ? Are copyrights necessary to incen‐ tivize artists to produce more poems, music or novels ? Is online piracy hurt‐ ing the creative industry ? Answering this questions is a complicated affair, because, in my view, the utilitarian/consequentialist argument amounts (in opposition to the more deontological Lockean position) to an empirical ques‐ tion : is IP necessary ? What conclusions could we draw if we take a closer look at the relevant facts ? Boldrin and Levine's analysis (2008) sheds some light in this particular case. While analyzing the situation of composers in Europe, from 1750 up to 1850, the year when copyright was ubiquitous in all the countries of the continent. In their analysis, they try to identify some answers regarding the following questions : which countries have been the most productive during that period ? Was the United Kingdom, the first country to introduce a cop‐ yright on music, on that list ? Moreover, did the introduction of copyright in UK had a beneficial effect on the country's composers ? Looking at the data, the two economists make an astonishing discovery : far from incentivizing composers to produce more music, the introduction of copyright actually had the opposite effect. To be more precise, the number of composers declined everywhere, with the UK in the first line of the proc‐ ess : „We see that the number of composers per million declined everywhere, 14 Radu Uszkai but it declined considerably faster in the United Kingdom after the introduc‐ tion of copyright than it did in Germany or Austria, and at about the same rate as it did Italy. So there is no evidence here that copyright increased mu‐ sical output"(2008, 188). The same (possibly counterintuitive) idea holds if we focus on the finan‐ cial impact of piracy on artists or companies such as publishing houses, mu‐ sic companies or film studios. A copyright, at least this is how the argument goes, must protect the material interests of artists. In other words, artists must get compensated when a consumer wants to have access to a particu‐ lar product. A consumer, however, could watch a movie, read a book or lis‐ ten the the most popular songs of the day not just by buying a movie tick‐ et, going at the library or at the record store. He could also download them, free of charge, using a protocol such as BitTorrent. Most of the utilitarian/ consequentialist arguments tend to focus on the disruptive effect that online piracy has had on the income of artists or companies. As a consequence, the theory holds, they will not have the same incentive to be more creative, pro‐ ductive, or invest their time and money to produce more. A series of recent studies contradict this utilitarian hypothesis : the ef‐ fects of piracy are overestimated. Take, for example, the music industry. Oberholzer‐Gee and Strumpf (2010) argue that, even if the album sales of an artist plummet, this does not mean that online piracy is to blame, because online piracy also influences other markets. For example, online download‐ ing of music has had a positive effect on the revenues which musicians de‐ rive from playing live in concerts or music festivals, because it increased their exposure to the public. In addition to this, online piracy did not (necessarily) hurt the music in‐ dustry. Starting from the year 2000 (this is a landmark because, starting from the turn of the millennium, file‐sharing has become a popular means of ac‐ quiring music), record labels doubled their total production of albums. A similar trend could also be observed in other creative domains. For exam‐ ple, in 2009, the movie production was 30% higher than in 2003. The number of published novels also increased (2000, 47). In short, if piracy (mainly on‐ line piracy) would have hurt the industry, we should have seen a decrease in the number of products released on the market. However, this phenome‐ non did not occur. In addition to this, utilitarian/consequentialist arguments tend to over‐ shadow an important aspect of a musician's revenue : not all his income is a re‐ sult of selling albums either at a record store or online, through digital copies. According to another recent study (DiCola 2013, 52), only 12% of an artist's income has a direct connection with copyright, while the other sources have either an indirect link with IP, or they are totally irrelevant with regards to this institution, because they have to do with going on tours, being hired as a music teacher, or they are money obtained from various marketing activities. While trying to figure out the effect file sharing had on the Norwegian music industry, Bjerkøe și Sørbo (2010) reach a similar conclusion to Levine 15 Are Copyrights Compatible with Human Rights ? and Boldrin or DiCola, namely that it was not negatively affected by online piracy : „The Norwegian music industry, seen as a whole, has seen its reve‐ nues rise from NOK 1 466 million in 1999 to NOK 1 873 million in 2009, an increase of NOK 407 million, or 28% in 11 years. But, if these numbers are adjusted for inflation, they have gone from NOK 1 801 million to NOK 1 873 million in the same period, an increase of NOK 72 million, or about 4%. In other words, the total music industry in Norway is about the same size to‐ day as it was in 1999, but the revenue shares have changed" (2010, 69). When they look at the total and the average artist income however, they discover an interesting fact : if we adjust it to the rate of inflation, the total income ac‐ tually grew, from 1999 to 2009, with 114%. In a similar fashion, a Norwegian artist earned, on average, in 2009, 66% more than he did in the year 1999. Up to this point I've tried to sketch a critique of the standard justifications for copyright, highlighting a series of counterarguments against the Lockean and utilitarian/consequentialist theories. There is, however, an additional one and it has to do with the ontology of ideas. V. THE ONTOLOGY OF COPYRIGHT : SHOULD IDEAS BE APPROPRIATED ?6 As I mentioned in the beginning of my paper, when we talk about cop‐ yright we have to keep in mind an important distinction, namely that be‐ tween type and token. A copyright is a property right in an ideal type. Ideas (as types) however, do not occupy a place in space and time, only their to‐ kens do. My hypothesis is that we can talk about property only when refer‐ ring to tokens, because tokens are material objects, and material objects have an essential trait : they are scarce and, as a consequence, subject to rivalry in consumption. In short, „a little reflection will show us that it is these goods' scarcity ‐ the fact that there can be conflict over this goods by multiple hu‐ man actors. The very possibility of conflict over a resource renders it scarce, giving rise to the need for ethical rules to govern its use „(Kinsella 2001, 19). Therefore, property should be viewed as an ethical institution which aims at either avoiding or at least minimizing the possibility of conflict over scarce goods. But, if scarcity and the possibility of conflict render the necessity of an institution such as a property right, then isn't trying to justify a property right in an idea a futile endevour, because ideas exist in overabundance and they are non‐rivalrous in consumption ? To make things more clearer, assume that I am in a record store and I buy a copy of a Pearl Jam album. My upstairs neighbor, who is also a Pearl Jam fan, does not have the money to buy it so he decides, either by forcing me, or by tricking me, to take my copy of that album. This is, by any legal or mor‐ al definition, an example of a theft : someone left me without my property, 6 I have made a similar argument in Cernea and Uszkai (2012). 16 Radu Uszkai because tangible goods such as a albums are scarce : we can't listen, at the same time, and in different apartments, the same copy of that album. Now suppose that, knowing that my friend likes Pearl Jam, I decide to make a digital copy of the album and I give it to him, free of charge. This sit‐ uation is quite different from the first one. If in the first one he left me with‐ out my copy, in the second we can both enjoy that music in the same time, in our apartments. Moreover, our little exchange does not amount to a theft directed against the artists or the record label. I did not stole anything while making the copy, because the artists and the record label still have the ideas behind the album, and their copies. I have anticipated the reason behind my conclusion from the beginning of this section : the consumption of intangi‐ ble goods (namely ideas) does not have the rivalrous property that material objects (tokens such as the album in my example) have. Ideas are not scarce, but they are made so by the copyright system, because they amount to an unjustified (or at least hard to justify) state‐granted monopoly, a monopo‐ ly which limits my use of tangible objects (such as albums bought from the record store) which I acquired fully in line with market rules. VI. CAPITOL RECORDS, INC. V. THOMAS‐RASSET : WHY COPYRIGHTS AND HUMAN RIGHTS ARE NOT COMPATIBLE In order to show why copyrights are incompatible with human rights, I con‐ sider that the recent legal case from USA, Capitol Records, Inc. v. Thomas‐Rasset, could serve as a textbook analysis. In 2007, Jammie Thomas‐Rasset was found liable for infringing copyright on 24 songs which she downloaded via a file sharing platform. After declining a settlement offer proposed by the record companies (which meant that she had to pay $5,000), Thomas‐Rasset was ordered to pay, at the following trial, $220,000 in statutory damages, a sum which increased, in the following years, to $ 1.5 million. After another couple of trials, in 2012 the Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals reinstated the $220,000 in statuary damages which she owed to the record labels7. If we take a clos‐ er look at the courts decisions, we could easily notice that the overall tone of the arguments are consequentialist/utilitarian and in line with the gener‐ al tone of the American Constitution. For example, in arguing against Jammie Thomas‐Rasset the judges from the United States Court of Appeals For the Eighth Circuit cite the legal prec‐ edent of Sony Corp. of Am. v. Universal City Studios : copyrights should be pro‐ tected because they achieve an important public interest, namely that of mo‐ tivating „the creative activity of authors and inventors by the provision of a special reward, and to allow the public access to the products of their gen‐ ius after the limited period of exclusive control has expired". Moreover they 7 For a full description of the trial see the following description, available online : http :// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitol_v._Thomas 17 Are Copyrights Compatible with Human Rights ? go on and add that „with the rapid advancement of technology, copyright infringement through online file‐sharing has become a serious problem in the recording industry. Evidence at trial showed that revenues across the in‐ dustry decreased by fifty percent between 1999 and 2006, a decline that the record companies attributed to piracy. This decline in revenue caused a cor‐ responding drop in industry jobs and a reduction in the number of artists represented and albums released"8. The same was true for a previous decision of the United States District Court, District of Minnesota. While acknowledging the fact that the statuto‐ ry damages aim at compensating the damages of the copyright holder (this part has, indeed, a Lockean flavor) the judge highlights that the punishment should also serve as a deterrent to other potential copyright infringers9. Is this a case in which the human rights of an individual were violated ? If so, what are the normative implications of it, in context of my current anal‐ ysis about IP and copyright ? First of all, as I have tried to argue in the beginning of my paper, the first paragraph of the 17th article of the UDHR clearly states that individuals have a human right to participate and engage themselves in the cultural and ar‐ tistic life of their communities. From a moral perspective, such a right could be justified either in a deontological or in a utilitarian fashion. Having ac‐ cess to cultural or artistic expands your autonomy and allows you to devel‐ op your natural talents. In addition to this, easier access to cultural products increases the level of aggregate welfare in a society. If the state is responsible for situations in which a human right is violat‐ ed, I conjecture that the public policies or legal framework they create should have, as a starting point, the UDHR10. The problem, however, is that if you read the second paragraph of the 27th article as a basis for IP and, as a conse‐ quence, for copyright, then we get into a situation where either paragraphs from the UDHR contradict themselves, or laws enacted by states contradict those provisions. In the second reading, if respecting the material interest of a musician means establishing a system of IP, then individuals do not have a free and equal access to the cultural, artistic and scientific life of their state, because such policies institute monopolies, which artificially raise the price of a commodity such as an album. I consider that, if my reading of the Capitol Records, Inc. v. Thomas‐Rasset is correct, then I could clearly assert that it costs 8 The full text of the United States Court of Appeals For the Eighth Circuit see Capitol Records, Inc. ; Sony BMG Music Entertainment ; Arista Records LLC ; Interscope Records ; Warner Bros. Records Inc. ; UMG Recordings, Inc.,. vs. Jammie Thomas‐Rasset, United States Court of Appeals For the Eighth Circuit, No. 11‐2858, 2012, available online : https ://www.eff.org/files/ filenode/thomasrassetbrief.pdf 9 Capitol Records, Inc., et al., vs. Jammie Thomas‐Rasset, United States Dis trict Court, District of Minnesota, No. 06‐1497, 2011. Available online : www.gpo.gov/fdsys/granule/USCOURTS‐ mnd‐0_06‐cv‐01497/USCOURTS‐mnd‐0_06‐cv‐01497‐1 10 This is true, of course, if you accept the UDHR as a normative basis. 18 Radu Uszkai (if we only look at the monetary ones) Jammie Thomas‐Rasset $220,000 to en‐ gage herslef în the cultural activites of the American society. Therefore, by establishing a legal framework for copyright, the state limits the exercise of a human right provided by the UDHR. This is not, however, the only right which copyrights collide with. Copyrights also limit, in an arbitrary fashion, our right to private proper‐ ty. We usually treat property as a bundle of rights (Alchian and Demsetz, 1973). Let's say, for example, that I buy a knife. According to the bundle of rights theory, from my available bundle I could only use that knife in a limited manner. I could use it to slice some tomatoes in order to make myself a salad. I could lend it to you if you want to slice some bread. I could use it as a religious artefact. I cannot use my knife, however, to harm you, or (without your consent) slice your tomatoes. In a similar fashion, if I buy my Pearl Jam album, I could li‐ sten to it, use it as a coffee table, borrow it, or use it like a frisbee. I cannot, howe‐ ver, make a digital copy of it and give it, free of charge, to a friend, because this would mean that I would infringe a copyright just like Jammie Thomas‐Rasset was not allowed to use her computer according to her own plans. As I have tried to show in the previous sections, the main justifications in favor of IP in general and copyright in particular are not that convincing. It is not at all clear how mental labor and the act of creation entail, necessari‐ ly, a property right. Moreover, if copyrigths are essential to incentivize art‐ ists to produce more music, why is there empirical data which contradict this assumption ? VII. CONCLUDING REMARKS To summarize, I tried to show why copyrights are incompatible with the human rights which state that individuals have a right to freely participate in the cultural life of their community and that individuals have a right to property. There is, of course, a demarcation between copyright, as an institutional bundle of rights and the philosophical arguments for or against copyright. However, my normative view has been the following : if there is a contradic‐ tion between two rights specified by the UDHR, then we should take a look at the moral justifications available for those specified rights. If one of them is either unjustifiable or difficult to justify in moral terms, than the other one should trump it as a matter of legal importance. Between copyrights for ar‐ tistic expression and Human Rights seems to be, in fact, a lack of concord‐ ance from an ethical perspective. As a consequence, if a state reads the 27th article of the UDHR as a basis for a copyright, then it should answer the difficult moral problems regard‐ ing their moral status which I have emphasized in my paper. 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