An Introduction to Interdisciplinary Research Theory and Practice Edited by Steph M enken M achiel Keestra Authors Lucas Rutting Ger Post M achiel Keestra M ieke de Roo Sylvia Blad Linda de Greef Am sterdam University Press V olum e 2 of the Series Perspectives on Interdisciplinarity C over design and lay-out: M atterhorn A m sterdam A m sterdam U niversity P ress English-language titles are distributed in the U S and C anada by the U niversity of C hicago P ress. ISB N 9 78 9 4 6 29 8 184 3 e-ISB N 9 78 9 0 4853 16 1 5 N U R 10 0 © Steph M enken & M achiel K eestra / A m sterdam U niversity P ress B .V., A m sterdam 20 16 A ll rights reserved. W ithout lim iting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this book m ay be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system , or transm itted, in any form or by any m eans (electronic, m echanical, photocopying, recording or otherw ise) w ithout the w ritten perm ission of both the copyright ow ner and the author of the book. Every effort has been m ade to obtain perm ission to use all copyrighted illustrations reproduced in this book. N onetheless, w hosoever believes to have rights to this m aterial is advised to contact the publisher. 6 7 An Introduction to Interdisciplinary Research Acknow ledgem ents 8 Preface 10 Chapter guides 11 Part 1 The H andbook – 'The W hat' 12 1 Introduction 13 2 W hat is science? A brief philosophy of science 17 2.1 W hat is science? 17 2.2 M oving through the Science Cycle 18 3 The disciplines 25 3.1 Academ ic disciplines: A brief history 25 3.2 O ur	definition	of	a	discipline 27 3.3 Classification	of	academ ic	disciplines 29 4 Interdisciplinarity 31 5 Com plexity: the m ain driving force behind interdisciplinarity 34 5.1 Com plex (adaptive) system s 35 5.2 Com plexity broken dow n into drivers of interdisciplinarity 38 6 Interdisciplinary integration 41 6.1 Com m unication	as	a	first	step	to	integration 43 6.2 Integration	techniques 44 Part 2 The M anual – 'The H ow ' 50 7 The	interdisciplinary	research process 51 7.1 The IIS m odel of interdisciplinary research 51 7.2 Planning your research project 56 8 The problem 57 Step 1 Identify problem or topic 57 Step 2 Form ulate prelim inary research question 65 9 Theoretical fram ew ork and research question 68 Step 3 D evelop theoretical fram ew ork 70 Step	4 Finalize	research	question 88 Step 5 Form ulate sub-questions 88 10 H ow to collect and analyze your data 89 Step	6 Develop	research	m ethods	and	design 89 Step	7 Data	collection	and	analysis 94 11 D iscussion and conclusion(s) 96 Step	8 Interpret	results,	discuss	research	&	draw	conclusion(s) 97 Part 3 Interdisciplinary research in practice 102 12 Interdisciplinary research exam ple: fogponics 103 Step 1 Identify problem or topic 103 Step	2 Form ulate	prelim inary	research	question 104 Step	3 Develop	theoretical	fram ework 104 Step	4 Finalize	research	question 105 Step 5 Form ulate sub-questions 105 Step 6 D evelop research m ethods and design 106 Step 7 D ata collection and analysis 107 Step 8 Interpret results, discuss research & draw conclusion(s) 108 13 Interdisciplinary careers 110 Further reading 119 References 123 References Research projects undertaken by IIS students 127 Contents 10 11 An Introduction to Interdisciplinary Research T he interdisciplinary research process is not an easy journey. In fact, it is a challenge for undergraduate students and experienced senior researchers alike. T he aim of this book is to m ake the process m ore accessible. W e provide m any exam ples of interdisciplinary research projects, obstacles that researchers encounter during their academ ic journey, and the solutions they cam e up w ith. M oreover, w e interview ed researchers w ho are experienced in applying an interdisciplinary approach, and w e share their expert insights. It w ould have been im possible to w rite this book w ithout the contributions of the experts, lecturers, students and other individuals affiliated w ith the IIS at the U vA . W e hope that you enjoy it, that you w ill learn a lot w hile reading it, and that you put the insights obtained into practice. W e also w elcom e your feedback, so if you com e across m istakes, or have suggestions to im prove it, please get in touch w ith us via L.degreef@ uva.nl. Chapter guides T he first part of the handbook begins w ith a short introduction to the m ain topic of the book (chapter 1). N ext w e give an explanation of w hat science actually is; in other w ords, w e w ill dive into the philosophy of science (chapter 2), after w hich w e define w hat an academ ic discipline is, and provide a description of the historical developm ent of the current disciplinary structure of the academ ic system (chapter 3). W e then describe how this division into disciplines evolved (also in chapter 3), and thereafter w e m ove on to define m ultidisciplinarity, transdisciplinarity, and interdisciplinarity (chapter 4). T his is follow ed by an overview of the m ost relevant drivers of interdisciplinary research, w hich, in our view , share one characteristic: com plexity (chapter 5). Part 1 concludes w ith a feature that is unique to interdisciplinary research: the integration of disciplinary insights at different levels (chapter 6 ). T his is w here interdisciplinary research differs from m ultidisciplinary research. A fter reading part 1, you should have acquired enough know ledge to start your ow n interdisciplinary research project. Part 2 w ill guide you through this process by m eans of a m odel for interdisciplinary research introduced in chapter 7. It points out w here m onodisciplinary and interdisciplinary research approaches differ, and gives a step-by-step explanation of the process from the problem definition (chapter 8), the form ulation of the research question (chapter 9 ), and data collection and analysis (chapter 10 ) to the discussion and conclusions (chapter 11). T hen, in part 3 (chapter 12), w e start w ith an exam ple of an interdisciplinary research project follow ing the steps of our m odel, introduced in part 2. Furtherm ore, w e share the stories about the careers of four interdisciplinary scholars in chapter 13. Preface A n Introduction to Interdisciplinary R esearch is a handbook on interdisciplinarity and its background, and a m anual on conducting interdisciplinary research for undergraduates and beyond. A lthough several books have been w ritten about interdisciplinary research, providing rich theoretical descriptions of and hands-on approaches to the topic, this handbook is a m ore condensed resource focusing on students in the social and natural sciences. T he m ost relevant com parison can be draw n w ith A llen R epko's sem inal Interdisciplinary R esearch: P rocess and T heory, 2 nd ed. (20 12). R epko's book served as an im portant source of inspiration and inform ation for us. H aving used R epko's book for several years in our interdisciplinary research sem inars, w e felt the need for another book that w ould differ in several respects from R epko's valuable book. A s a result, our book m ainly focuses on European students, w hereas R epko's book seem s to be prim arily addressing undergraduate students from institutions in the U S and C anada. T his is w hy our book prim arily contains exam ples of research carried out in Europe. Furtherm ore, w e focus on students w ith m ajors in the social and natural sciences and less on those w ho m ajor in the hum anities or liberal arts and sciences. W e have also included a thorough description of com plexity, w hich w e and others consider to be a m ain driving force behind interdisciplinarity. H ow ever, the m ost significant difference to R epko's m anual concerns size. W e explicitly aim ed to produce a m ore condensed book that is practical, to the point, and clear. T he book is divided into three parts. T he first part – T he H andbook – gives a brief overview of interdisciplinarity and provides fundam ental inform ation about the origins of interdisciplinary research, w hat it entails, w hen it can be applied, and w hy it should be applied. T he second part of the book – T he M anual – focuses on the step-by-step process and sets out instructions on how to undertake interdisciplinary research. T he third part contains a m odel exam ple of an interdisciplinary project and the career stories of som e interdisciplinary scholars. M any questions surround interdisciplinary research. H ow does it differ from disciplinary research? W hat does it dem and from the interdisciplinary researcher? W hat potential does it have that disciplinary research does not offer? It is im portant to note that interdisciplinary research builds on disciplinary research. W hen dealing w ith com plex problem s, a m erely disciplinary approach w ill not suffice. Such problem s necessitate an interdisciplinary approach w hen scientifically and socially robust answ ers are sought. 13 An Introduction to Interdisciplinary Research 12 1 Introduction H alf a century ago, philosopher of science K arl Popper (19 6 3) fam ously observed: "W e are not students of som e subject m atter, but students of problem s. A nd problem s m ay cut right across the boundaries of any subject m atter or discipline." T his statem ent has becom e increasingly relevant. Today, m any of the phenom ena and problem s that w e are trying to understand and solve indeed 'cut across' the traditional boundaries of academ ic disciplines. M odern technological developm ents and globalization add to the com plexity of problem s and, in response, w e are becom ing increasingly aw are that an integrated approach is necessary. H ealthcare, clim ate change, food security, energy, financial m arkets, and quality of life are but a few exam ples of subjects that drive scientists to 'cross borders' and engage w ith experts from m ultiple fields to find solutions. In short, com plex questions and problem s necessitate an interdisciplinary approach to research. M ost real-life problem s are m ultifaceted, in that they have m ultiple types of causes and determ ining factors. T hese different types of causes and determ ining factors often have to be addressed in different w ays w ith different disciplinary m ethods. W e know from research, for exam ple, that alcohol intake is involved in over half of the violent acts that take place in the public dom ain. H ow ever, the relationship betw een the intake of alcohol and aggressive behavior is m uch m ore com plex, and different disciplines have different perspectives on this relationship, as you can see in figure 1. Each discipline's focus is on another factor (in this case either nurtureof nature-related) at a different level of analysis, using different theoretical fram ew orks, and different m ethodologies. Part 1 The Handbook 'The W hat' 14 15 An Introduction to Interdisciplinary Research C h ap te r 1 Introduction T he previous exam ples illustrate that know ledge is, to a large extent, generated w ithin separate disciplines (see also box 1). C onsequently, in interdisciplinary research w e need these disciplines to provide insights into different aspects of our research problem . So, before w e turn the focus to interdisciplinarity, it is essential to understand w hat an academ ic discipline is. For this, it is useful to understand the origins of academ ic disciplines, as w ell as their developm ent. In the follow ing chapter, w e define the academ ic discipline before providing an overview of the discipline's inception and expansion throughout the science system and beyond. T his is follow ed by a definition of the concept of interdisciplinarity and im portant related concepts (chapter 4). C hapter 5 focuses on the im portance of com plexity as the driving force behind interdisciplinarity, and provides an overview of the different m anifestations of com plexity. Finally, chapter 6 provides a description of the integration of disciplinary know ledge to produce new , interdisciplinary insights (see the exam ple below on an interdisciplinary theory on poverty), w hich is the key feature of interdisciplinary research. Box 1 An interdisciplinary theory on poverty Eldar	Shafir	and	Sendhil	M ullainathan,	respectively	Professor	of	Psychology at Princeto n and Pro fesso r o f Eco no m ics at H arvard , d evelo p ed an interd iscip linary theo ry o n p o verty. Their theo ry, p ub lished in the b o o k Scarcity – W hy Having Too Little M eans So M uch, w as p raised b o th in and o utsid e acad em ia. The	starting	point	for	their	research	was	the	finding	that	poor	people g enerally m ake b ad d ecisio ns. C o m p ared to m id d le-class p eo p le, p o o r p eo p le eat less healthily (even w hen healthy fo o d is m ad e availab le to them ), take o ut lo ans w ith hig h interest rates m o re o ften, and are g enerally bad	at	taking	long-term effects	into	consideration.	However,	as	Shafir	said: "N o o ne w as stud ying w hy p o o r p eo p le are m aking these b ad d ecisio ns" (E.	Shafir,	pers.	com m .,	12	Decem ber	2013). Shafir	and	M ullainathan	started	to	connect	findings	from their	disciplines. They fo und that the b ad d ecisio ns p o o r p eo p le m ake are actually w ell researched in p sycho lo g y. Fo r exam p le, p o o r p eo p le w ere d isco unting the future and sho w ed lo ss aversio n in their d ecisio ns, tw o effects kno w n fro m research o n d ecisio n-m aking . The q uestio n the researchers then investig ated w as: W hy are p o o r p eo p le m o re p ro ne to these effects than o thers? ▼ W hat is the effect of alcohol on the neurochem istry of certain brain areas, and how does this influence behavior? Cognitive scientist W hich factors in an individual's personal history and developm ent contribute to the expression of aggressive behavior? Psychologist W hich genetic factors are related to the onset of aggressive behavior in individuals after alcohol consum ption? Geneticist W hich cultural norm s and/or societal factors contribute to the expression of aggressive behavior after drinking alcohol? Sociologist Alcohol & Aggression Figure 1 Different perspectives on the relationship between alcohol intake and aggression A nother exam ple of a m ultifaceted problem is the financial crisis. O ver the past five years, academ ics from different disciplines have tried to explain w hat caused the global econom ic recession. T hese disciplinary explanations, how ever, only shed light on part of the problem . W hen com bined, they m ay offer a m ore com prehensive explanation, as you can see below in figure 2. W hat caused the financial crisis? W hat are the weaknesses of the current financial system ? Econom ist W hat factors of the current financial system elicit risky behavior of bankers and consum ers of financial products? Psychologist To what extend can national governm ents prevent a global econom ic recession? Political scientist W hich cultural norm s and/or societal factors contribute to the expression of greedy behavior? Sociologist Figure 2 Different perspectives on the causes of the financial crisis 1 6 1 7 An Introduction to Interdisciplinary Research C h a p te r 1 Introduction 2 W h a t is s c ie n c e ? A b rie f p h ilo s o p h y o f s c ie n c e 2.1 W hat is science? In the previous chapter w e quoted philosopher of science K arl Popper, w ho contended that solving a problem often requires the integration of insights that pertain to different subject m atters or disciplines. Popper observes a certain tension betw een the w ay that scientific disciplines are organized and how problem s present them selves. Indeed, interdisciplinary research is a w ay to overcom e this tension and to organize scientific research in such a w ay that it is not im peded by the organizational structure of the sciences itself. Since it is im portant to understand both the value and the lim itations of this organizational structure, w e need to briefly reflect on w hat science is and does. In other w ords: let us reflect on som e basic ingredients of science, the w ay philosophers of science do. T here are m any ingredients that appear to be fam iliar enough, though perhaps not easy to understand, such as theory, concept, fact, hypothesis, explanation, inference, induction, deduction, and so on. G iven the lim itations of this handbook, w e w ill only pay attention to a few of these and recom m end you to look elsew here for a m ore com prehensive introduction to the philosophy of science. Scientists w ork hard to understand the w orld or reality, in m uch the sam e w ay as lay persons do. In fact, scientists cannot help but do this by building on the sam e pillars as w e all have to. T hey have to rely upon sense perception in order to draw upon inform ation about the w orld available and they have to use reasoning in order to draw the right conclusions about this inform ation and to avoid m istakes. N onetheless, if one reads scientific texts, it im m ediately becom es apparent that there are striking differences betw een scientific and lay efforts to reach an understanding of reality. Scientists do not usually rely on just their senses as lay persons do, but rather use a variety of instrum ents to perceive m ore, sm aller, larger, and different objects than lay persons do: m icroscopes, structured interview s, telescopes, fM R I scanners, validated questionnaires, participatory observations, archive research, and so on. Sim ilarly, their reasoning and argum ents are often quite different from those of lay persons, as they w ork w ith rather specific concepts, propositions, form ulas, figures, tables, and schem es and tend to strictly follow the law s of logic in connecting those. Put differently, they w ork w ith large and com plex collections of sym bols, all arranged in a quite particular structure. In th e ir e x p e rim e n ts , th e y fo u n d th a t p s y c h o lo g ic a l tra its lik e b a d c h a ra c te r o r lo w in te llig e n c e c o u ld n o t e x p la in w h y p o o r p e o p le m a d e m o re b a d decisions	than	people	with	m ore	financial	resources.	Instead,	Shafir	and M u lla in a th a n c a m e u p w ith a n o th e r e x p la n a tio n : It is o fte n a p e rs o n 's context	that	dictates	whether	som eone	can	m ake	a	good	decision.	Shafir again:	"Slowly	cam e	the	realization	that	m any	of	the	m istakes	m ade	by	the p o o r a re c a u s e d b y p o v e rty its e lf." In th e ir b o o k , th e re s e a rc h e rs e x p la in th a t w h e n s o m e o n e e x p e rie n c e s s c a rc ity – w h e th e r it is a la c k o f m o n e y , frie n d s o r tim e – th is s h o rta g e 'c a p tu re s ' th a t p e rs o n 's m in d . H e r m in d w ill in te n tio n a lly a n d u n in te n tio n a lly d e a l w ith s c a rc ity , a n d th is le a v e s le s s c o g n itiv e c a p a c ity fo r o th e r th in g s , s u c h a s m a k in g a g o o d d e c is io n . 18 19 An Introduction to Interdisciplinary Research Chapter 2 W hat is science? A brief philosophy of science Theories and laws T he top of the Science C ycle (figure 3) consists of the m ost im portant com ponent of science; that is to say, theories and law s. A theory consists of concepts, principles, ideas, or statem ents that together provide a com prehensive background or fram ew ork w ithin w hich other ingredients of science are located. Fam iliar exam ples of theories are the theory of relativity, the theory of evolution, the behaviorist theory of learning, the structuralist theory of m eaning, or the theory of plate tectonics. In general, a theory offers a fram ew ork that usually captures the result of years of studies by num erous scientific colleagues, w ho have accum ulated a w ealth of facts and insights into a particular phenom enon. T he theory offers elem ents that can be used to explain and predict phenom ena that belong to the scope of the theory. If phenom ena are com plex, such as cognitive or social phenom ena, it is likely that m ultiple theories are applicable to specific features of such phenom ena: genetic, developm ental, social, and geographical features m ight all be som ehow relevant and m ight require interdisciplinary integration for a robust prediction and explanation, as w e w ill learn in part 2. It is im portant to realize that there is a difference betw een the areas of research w ith regard to the prevalence and im portance of specific theories. P hysics is dom inated by a few theories and a host of specific law s connected to those theories, w hile in the social sciences and hum anities there are m any com peting theories but also m any insights that have not been published in term s of a 'theory'. G iven the fact that social, cultural, and historical phenom ena are very com plex and dynam ic, this lesser prom inence of theories in those dom ains should not be surprising, as such phenom ena can usually be partly elucidated from m ultiple perspectives. In m any – though not in all – cases, w e consider law s as part of a theory: for exam ple, the law of gravity and several law s of m otion belong to the theory of classical m echanics form ulated by N ew ton. Som ew hat differently, the M endelian law s of inheritance are now part of the theory of classical genetics. N ote that law s of inheritance have a probabilistic character, w hich distinguishes them from law s from classical m echanics and m any other law s. Indeed, in the life, the social, and the hum an sciences such probabilistic law s are m ore prevalent because of the m ore m ulti-causal nature of phenom ena in their dom ains. T his also underlines the im portance of distinguishing betw een correlative relations and causal relations: as long as w e do not really know w hat causal m echanism s are involved, w e should be cautious about interpreting probabilistic relations. Deduction and developing predictions & conjunctions A s m entioned earlier, besides sense perception, reasoning is crucial for scientists, and deduction and induction are the m ost prom inent reasoning processes involved in science. A scientist w ho w ants to add to a body of know ledge w ill start by offering new predictions from a particular theory, or from the com bination of tw o different theories – predictions that have, until now , not been form ulated or tested. Such predictions are form ulated by a particular logical reasoning process, called deduction. A part from the fact that scientists rely upon sense perception and reasoning in w ays that are not com m on to the average lay person, but use quite specific instrum ents and m ethods, there is another fact that is peculiar to how scientists operate. O ne of the greatest scientists, Isaac N ew ton, once w rote in a letter to a colleague that "If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants." T his rem ark reflects how scientists build upon each other's w ork, aim to put each other's w ork to the test, to expand the know ledge that others have produced, to use that know ledge in new applications, or to prove that their colleague's conclusions are not correct and that adjustm ents are required. In other w ords, m uch m ore than lay persons, a scientist is expected to be w ell inform ed about the relevant insights, results, instrum ents, and m ethods that other scientists have been and are using – relevant for answ ering the questions that the scientist is asking. O bviously, w hat is relevant for answ ering a particular question is often not easy to determ ine: a connection to a previously-held irrelevant factor m ight be established w hen new research has been executed and new instrum ents and m ethods have been developed, for exam ple. Em ploying highly elaborate form s of sense perception and reasoning, and building upon the relevant w ork of other scientists: these are im portant features that distinguish the scientists' acquisition of know ledge from the w ay lay persons operate. W e can elucidate these features by looking at the figure below , w hich presents w hat is called the 'em pirical cycle' or the 'Science C ycle': a process that represents how scientists go about w hen acquiring know ledge. 2.2 M oving through the Science Cycle Induction process Data collection, observation Science Cycle Deduction process Operationalization and investigation Predictions and conjunctions Facts and data Theories and laws W orld/reality Figure 3 The Science Cycle, consisting of four processes, connecting four com ponents – together providing a (som ewhat sim plified) representation of science as an ongoing process. Note that reasoning and sense perception are present, albeit in specific ways. 30 31 An Introduction to Interdisciplinary Research Chapter 3 The disciplines 4 Interdisciplinarity N ow that w e know w hat academ ic disciplines are and how they em erged and developed, it is tim e to introduce interdisciplinarity. O ne of the m ost w idely used and adequate definitions of interdisciplinarity com es from the N ational A cadem y of Sciences (20 0 5): Interdisciplinary research is a m ode of research in w hich an individual scientist or a team of scientists integrates inform ation, data, techniques, tools, perspectives, concepts, and/or theories from tw o or m ore disciplines or bodies of specialized know ledge, w ith the objective to advance fundam ental understanding or to solve problem s w hose solutions are beyond the scope of a single discipline or area of research practice. O ther definitions include those of K lein and N ew ell (19 9 7), w ho define interdisciplinarity as "a process of answ ering a question, solving a problem , or addressing a topic that is too broad or com plex to be dealt w ith adequately by a single discipline or profession [... ] and draw s on disciplinary perspectives and integrates their insights through construction of a m ore com prehensive perspective" (pp. 39 3-39 4). Interdisciplinarity has becom e a buzzw ord in scientific debates, and it has been identified by m any research funding organizations in Europe and the U nited States as an im portant factor in future research. A lthough there is no single accepted definition of interdisciplinarity and the term is som etim es used interchangeably w ith m ultidisciplinarity and transdisciplinarity, it is im portant to distinguish and describe these three different m anifestations of research. T he basic difference betw een these m anifestations of research that spread beyond a discipline is the extent to w hich researchers aim for the integration or synthesis of (disciplinary) insights. Interdisciplinary research literally m eans research betw een disciplines, referring to the interaction of disciplines w ith each other. Indeed, the Social Science R esearch C ouncil in N ew York, w hich first used the term 'interdisciplinary' around 19 25, aim ed to facilitate collaborations betw een the social scientific disciplines it did oversee (K lein, 19 9 0 ). Such interaction m ay range from the m ere com m unication and com parison of ideas, through the exchange of data, m ethods, and procedures, to the m utual integration of organizing concepts, theories, m ethodology, and epistem ological principles. In m ultidisciplinary research, the subject under study is also approached from different angles, using different disciplinary perspectives. H ow ever, in that case neither the theoretical perspectives O ne can identify sub-disciplines w ithin each of the m ajor disciplines. For exam ple, there are num erous specialized sub-disciplines or branches w ithin the field of biology. Som e are classified according to the level of organization they study, such as m olecular biology, cell biology, or ecology. O ther sub-disciplines are characterized by the type of organism s they study (e.g. botany and zoology) or their focus on a practical application (e.g. conservation biology). A n overview of the various branches that can be distinguished w ithin biology is displayed in figure 5. A s their nam es reveal, som e of the branches already com bine insights from various disciplines. For exam ple, biochem istry com bines biology and chem istry, cognitive neuroscience com bines cognition and neuroscience, and biocom puting com bines biology and com putational sciences. Such sub-disciplines can be called 'inter-disciplines', w hich m ight over tim e develop into separate disciplines, conform ing to the features of a discipline m entioned above. Biopolym ers Biophysics Biom onitoring Biomechanics Biomaterials Biology Bioinformatics Biodynamics Biocontrol Biocomputers Biochemistry Biomedical science Anatomy Affective neuroscience Zoology Wildlife bio logySyste ms bio logyStruc tural biolo gy Spo rts s cien ce Pro teo mic s Pop ula tion dy nam ics Ph ysi olo gy Ph arm ac olo gy Ph arm ac og en om ics Pa th olo gy Pa ra sit olo gy Op to m et ry On co lo gy Ne ur os cie nc e Ne ur oe th olo gy M ole cu lar bi olo gy Mi cro bio log y Me dic al im ag ing Me dic al d evi ces Ma rine bio log y Imm uno the rap y Imm uno logy Immu noge netic s Health scienc es Genomics Genetics Food science Evolutionary genetics Evolutionary biology Environmental science Ethology Ecology Developmental biology Conservation biology Computational neuroscience Cognitive neuroscience Cell biology Botany Biotechnology Figure 5 The m any branches of biology 32 33 An Introduction to Interdisciplinary Research Chapter	4	Interdisciplinarity factors involved, often by conducting individually highly specialized disciplinary research. A further step then consists of the interdisciplinary integration of their insights by determ ining a specific genetic factor that m odulates the neurochem ical pathw ay along w hich alcohol affects an inhibitory process in subjects. T his m ight then lead to a transdisciplinary research project involving alcoholics and their fam ilies, aim ed at developing a socially robust intervention that prevents aggression. nor the findings of the various disciplines are integrated. Lastly, transdisciplinary research also involves actors from fields outside of the university, thereby allow ing for the integration of academ ic and non-academ ic or experiential know ledge (H irsch-H adorn et al., 20 0 8). In this handbook, w e w ill use the follow ing definitions: 1 M ultidisciplinary research is research that involves m ore than one discipline, but w ithout integration. R esults from the involved disciplines are com pared and conclusions are subsequently draw n from each of the individual disciplines, but there is no integration of the disciplinary insights. 2 Interdisciplinary research is research in w hich relevant concepts, theories, and/ or m ethodologies from different academ ic disciplines, as w ell as the results or insights these disciplines generate, are integrated. 3 Transdisciplinary research occurs w hen researchers collaborate w ith stakeholders from outside the academ ic w orld. K now ledge from outside the academ ic w orld, as w ell as stakeholder values, is integrated w ith academ ic know ledge. Together, these insights determ ine w hat problem is studied and how this is done, and w hich interventions are selected to address the problem . Figure 6 illustrates these different approaches to research. Discipline A Discipline B Non-academ ic knowledge Discipline A Discipline B Discipline A Discipline B Trans M ulti Inter Integrated transdisciplinary results Integrated interdisciplinary results Unintegrated m ultidisciplinary results of disciplines A and B Figure 6 M ultidisciplinarity, interdisciplinarity, and transdisciplinarity illustrated A lthough in theory m ulti-, inter-, and transdisciplinarity can be distinguished, in practice researchers often sw itch betw een these approaches – som etim es w ithin the sam e research project. For exam ple, at the D utch R esearch Institute for Transitions (D R IFT ) researchers alw ays go from transto interto m ultidisciplinarity (see the interview w ith D R IFT-director D r. D erk Loorbach in chapter 13). In the case of the alcohol and aggression research, scientists in a m ultidisciplinary team m ight shed light on the specific genetic and neurochem ical and psychological 51 An Introduction to Interdisciplinary Research 50 7 The interdisciplinary research process A lthough there are a lot of sim ilarities betw een the disciplinary research process (w ith w hich you m ight already be fam iliar) and the interdisciplinary research process, there are som e additional questions to answ er, steps to perform , and challenges to overcom e w ith regard toin the latter. W e have therefore developed a m odel for doing interdisciplinary research (see box 5 and figure 9 ). B uilding on this m odel, w e describe the different stages of the research process and the additional challenges interdisciplinary researchers are facing. In part 1, w e m entioned several drivers of interdisciplinary research, am ong w hich the inherent com plexity of nature and society and the need to solve societal problem s. H ow ever, in a student project you m ight not be pressured by such a driver to conduct interdisciplinary research, as the starting point m ay be different from academ ic research in practice. In som e cases, students form a research team on the basis of their different educational backgrounds, and then collectively form ulate a subject or a problem to investigate. A lthough the drivers described in part 1 m ight cover the problem or subject, the m ain driver in choosing a subject is usually the student's personal experience and practice. 7.1 The IIS m odel of interdisciplinary research In figure 9 w e present our m odel for interdisciplinary research. It describes a generalized research process, in w hich the follow ing steps are distinguished: identify the problem or topic (i) and form ulate the prelim inary research question (ii) in the O rientation phase; develop the theoretical fram ew ork (iii), finalize the research question (iv) and sub-questions (vi) and research m ethods and design (vii) in the P reparation phase; collect and analyze the data (viii) in the D ata phase; and interpret the results, draw conclusions and w rite the discussion (ix) in the Finalization phase. A s convenient as this m ay seem , it is im portant to note that there is not really a standard research process, not only because research processes differ in practice, but also because w hat is considered a norm al research process differs from discipline to discipline. T herefore, the m odel that is proposed here should serve as a guideline during your ow n research, not as a strict protocol. In chapter 12, you w ill find an exam ple of a com plete interdisciplinary research project as carried out by students w ho used our m odel as a guideline. T he exam ple focuses on an innovative and sustainable form of greenhouse agriculture called Fogponics. It w ill help you to get an idea of how our research m odel can be operationalized. Part 2 The M anual 'The How' In this part, w e w ill guide you through the interdisciplinary research process. W e begin by pointing out the different phases of this process, then describe it in its entirety and indicate w hich parts are of particular interest for interdisciplinary researchers. In short, w e guide you through the problem and the research question, the theoretical fram ew ork, the m ethods and techniques of research, data collection and analysis, and finally, the discussion and conclusion. A s integration is a defining characteristic of interdisciplinary research, different integration techniques that w ere briefly introduced in chapter 5 w ill be illustrated w ith exam ples of previous student research projects. T he steps you need to take to com plete an interdisciplinary research project m ight overw helm you. A s an undergraduate, for exam ple, you m ight not feel com fortable dissecting the theoretical background of your ow n discipline. B ut do not be discouraged: you w ill find that after going through the process a couple of tim es, you w ill increasingly feel at ease being an interdisciplinary researcher. A ll beginnings are hard, to som e degree. B ut w hen you have the right m indset and attitude, you w ill succeed! 52 53 An Introduction to Interdisciplinary Research Chapter 7 The interdisciplinary research process Phase 1 O rientation You m ight start your research process by choosing a topic that fits your interests, or a problem that you w ould like to solve. In all cases, you need to explore the topic, find out w hich disciplines have som ething relevant to say about it, and then decide w hether an interdisciplinary approach is justified at all. In short, you have to go through an orientation phase. A challenge for interdisciplinary research is ensuring each relevant discipline is reflected in the choice and w ording of the research topic and that at this early point of the project no single discipline is dom inant. Furtherm ore, you have to form ulate a prelim inary research question to define the focus of your research (see chapter 8). T his form s the basis to create a theoretical fram ew ork (see chapter 9 ), w hich you w ill develop in the next phase. Phase 2 Preparation P reparing a scientific research requires the developm ent of a theoretical fram ew ork, usually draw n from a literature search: scientists build upon the w ork of predecessors and colleagues, as w as m entioned in chapter 2. T he theoretical fram ew ork that m ust be developed is the result of a thorough literature research, gives an overview of the 'state of the art' (the m ost relevant theories and data on the research topic), and provides a system ized analysis of the m ost im portant findings. In the case of interdisciplinary research, this overview w ill consist of publications from different disciplines. W hile analyzing the different disciplinary parts of the theoretical fram ew ork, you need to be constantly aw are of the different disciplinary points of view (see figures 1 and 2 in chapter 1) w ith regard to the topic. T his aw areness of the differences betw een disciplinary perspectives w ill enable you to seek or create com m on ground (as w ill be explained in detail in chapter 10 ) at a later stage. A s w e have seen in part 1, finding com m on ground form s the basis for the integration of (som e of) the different disciplinary insights into the problem . T he integration of such insights w ill enable you to ask an insightful integrated interdisciplinary research question (step 4, explained in chapter 9 ). A fter you have identified the com m on ground betw een the disciplines involved, it is tim e to think of the best w ay to answ er your research question. W hat are the sub-questions arising from your m ain research question and w hich disciplines can address these questions? P lease note that sub-questions can be both interdisciplinary and m onodisciplinary. In addition, you should also consider w hich m ethods and techniques are m ost suitable to answ er the subquestions (see chapter 10 ). A s m entioned in part 1, it is im portant to note that the chosen m ethod(s) and technique(s) partly determ ine the kinds of results you w ill obtain. In certain cases, it w ill be useful to integrate m ultiple disciplinary research m ethods and techniques in order to get to a m ore com plete answ er to your questions (see chapter 10 ). Subquestion Subquestion Subquestion Interpret results, discuss research and draw conclusion(s) Data collection and analysis Research m ethods and design Finalize research question Develop theoretical fram ework Form ulate prelim inary research question Identify problem or topic Research process Finilization Preparation Orientation PhaseData 12345678 Figure 9 The IIS m odel for interdisciplinary research In this m odel for the interdisciplinary research process, w e use different steps (blue boxes in the m iddle of the figure) reflecting the tasks you m ust com plete in a specific phase of your research (indicated in the left m argin). A lthough you m ay som etim es need to return to a previous step, the order of steps is m ore or less fixed and you should not skip a single one. A s an obvious exam ple, you cannot analyze data that you have not yet collected. H ow ever, it is im portant to realize that you need to think one step ahead (i.e. you need to know how you are going to analyze your data before you start collecting them ). For this reason, w e have grouped together several steps in the follow ing phases of the interdisciplinary research process: O rientation, P reparation, D ata collection and analysis, and Finalization. 128 129 An Introduction to Interdisciplinary Research References Research projects undertaken by IIS students { { N oyon, L. (2012). Bachelor thesis: "M aar dat zijn Sentim enten!" Een O nderzoek naar de O ngem akkelijke Relatie tussen Rechtspraak en een Gepolitiseerde Veiligheidsobsessie. { { O lthof, M ., Bulters, T. & Zw ennes, O . (2011). Bachelor thesis: Een Analyse van de Toepassing van Real-tim e Stress Diagnosesystem en voor het Dagelijks Leven. { { Post, P., van der Roest, E. &. W itteveen, F. (2012). Bachelor thesis: Patroonvorm ing op de Schelp van L. castrensis. { { Schram , R. (2012). Bachelor thesis: Vrijwilligerstoerism e, een Vloek of een Zegen? { { Sier, R., D reef, C., Jansen, A. & Ter Beek, R. (2011). Bachelor thesis: Sym m etrische Schoonheid: een Evolutionair M echanism e dat O pen Staat voor Socio-culturele Invloeden. { { van	W ijchen,	D.,	Hibender,	J.	&	Am ersfoort,	R.	(2012).	Bachelor	thesis: Hoe Beïnvloedt het Em pathisch Verm ogen M enselijke Inter-tem porele Beslissingen m et Betrekking tot Geld? Colophon University of Am sterdam T he U niversity of A m sterdam (U vA ), w ith som e 30 ,0 0 0 students, 5,0 0 0 staff, and a budget of m ore than 6 0 0 m illion euros, is one of the largest com prehensive universities in Europe. Teaching and research at the U vA are conducted at seven faculties: the H um anities, Social and B ehavioural Sciences, Econom ics and B usiness, Law , Science, and M edicine and D entistry, w ith program s offered in alm ost every field. The Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies T he Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies (IIS) is a know ledge center for interdisciplinary learning and teaching. Each year, the institute provides a diversity of interdisciplinary education to som e 3,30 0 students enrolled in bachelor's or m aster's program s or open courses. In recent years, dozens of lecturers in different disciplines from w ithin and outside the U vA have contributed to education or other activities in the institute. T he Institute is a 'laboratory' for interdisciplinary experim ents and projects that m ight lead to new interdisciplinary courses, teaching m ethods, or program s. T he IIS conducts assignm ents and projects for clients both w ithin and outside the U vA . It also advises on interdisciplinary education. 130 Colophon Editors • Prof. dr. Steph B.J. Menken: Professor of Evolutionary Biology at the Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics and Scientific Director of the IIS, Faculty of Science, UvA. • Dr. M. Keestra: Assistant professor of philosophy at the IIS Faculty of Science, UvA and President of the international Association for Interdisciplinary Studies. Authors • L. Rutting MSc: Lucas is a lecturer at the IIS. He specializes in ecology and socio-ecological systems. • G. Post MSc: Ger is a lecturer at the IIS. His specialty is brain and cognitive sciences. • M. de Roo MSc: Mieke is a lecturer at the IIS. Her specialty is human and political geography. • S. Blad MSc: Sylvia is a former lecturer at the IIS. She specializes in the philosophy of biology. • L. de Greef MSc: Linda is a programme manager at Het Onderwijslab, IIS. She specializes in interdisciplinary teaching and learning. Contact Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies Science Park 904 1098 XH Amsterdam Tel. +31 20 525 51 90 www.iis.uva.nl Onderwijslab-iis@uva.nl