TEORIE VĚDY / THEORY OF SCIENCE / XXXVI / 2014 / 1 FROM NEAR TO FAR: MARIA SHORT AND THE PLACES AND SPACES OF SCIENCE IN EDINBURGH FROM 1736 TO 1850 Abstract: A relatively unknown woman named Maria Th eresa Short opened a popular observatory in 1835 in Edinburgh – a time and place where men of science and property had long failed to make a viable space for astronomy. She exhibited scientifi c instruments to a general public, along with a great telescope and a walk-in camera obscura that projected live views of the city and continues to delight audiences to this day. To better understand Short's accomplishments, achieved as scientifi c and public life became increasingly closed to women, this study explores her largely untold story, and maps some of the places of science around it. Finding local contingencies, multiple sites and practices by diverse groups, it proposes that tensions within the connections between science and spectacle and the use of popularization to promote its professionalization produced gaps that even a marginal fi gure like Maria Short could inhabit and exploit. Keywords: camera obscura; observatory history; optical instruments; popularization; professionalization; University of Edinburgh; women and science Zblízka do dáli: Maria Short a místa a prostory vědy v Edinburghu v letech 1736 až 1850 Abstrakt: Relativně neznámá žena jménem Maria Th eresa Short otevřela roku 1835 v Ediburghu lidovou hvězdárnu – v době a v místě, kde mužové vědy a majetku dlouho selhávali při vytváření životaschopného proctor pro astronomii. Short vystavovala pro široké publikum vědecké nástroje a také velký dalekohled i camera obscuru, do níž šlo vejít a pozorovat živoucí dění ve městě a která poskytuje divákům zážitky dodnes. Abychom lépe porozuměli úspěchům, jichž Short dosáhla, zatímco se vědecký a veřejný život ženám výrazněji uzavíral, tato studie probádává její z větší části nevyřčený příběh a kolem něj mapuje některá z míst vědy. Na základě nalezení lokálních podmíněností, vícenásobných míst a praktik různých skupin, tato studie přichází s propozicí, že napětí vznikající ze spojení vědy a spektáklu a z užití popularizace k podoře profesionalizace vytvářelo mezery, které mohla i marginální osobnost jako Maria Short obsadit a využívat jich. Keywords: camera obscura; dějiny observatoří; optické nástroje; popularizace; profesionalizace; Univerzita v Edinburghu; ženy a věda ALISON REIKO LOADER Concordia University 1455 de Maisonneuve Blvd W., Montreal, Quebec H3G 1M8 Canada email / alison.loader@concordia.ca ////// tematická studie / thematic article /////////////////////// 16 Introduction Near the top of the Royal Mile and overlooking the grounds of Edinburgh Castle, sits a popular attraction called Th e Camera Obscura and World of Illusions. Its Victorian tower, replete with fi ve stories of optical instruments and illusions, is topped by a rooft op periscope that projects live views of the city and its surroundings onto a white tabular screen located in a dark interior chamber. Th e device is a camera obscura and its principles have been known for thousands of years, with smaller, portable versions being commonly associated with histories of painting and photography.1 Less theorized are the walk-in camera obscuras for sightseeing that appeared throughout the nineteenth century at picturesque locations in Britain, Europe and North America (see Figure 1). Like a real-time cinema but without the capacity to record or replay, the Edinburgh camera obscura has delighted audiences since 1855, and is unique for its urban prospects. Moreover its associations are not only spectacular. Historians of sociology and urban planning know the site for its previous incarnation as Outlook Tower, so-named by Patrick Geddes who adopted the building as his headquarters forty years aft er the camera's installation. Founder of the "regional survey movement" and the Sociological Society of Great Britain, Geddes bought the tower in 1892 and refi tted it as a "utopian vision" that would have visitors shift their outlooks through its views and maps of Edinburgh and surroundings.2 Intent on studying and improving the conditions of urban life, the "world's fi rst sociological laboratory" provided a geographic model which, laid out from top to bottom as a series of displays depicting local to regional to global erudition, demonstrated the interactions of societal units.3 While a "dramatic spatial articulation of Geddes's entire philosophy of knowledge," the tower's previ1 Research on camera obscuras in general can be found in Martine BUBB, La Camera obscura: Philosophie d'un appareil. Paris: L'Harmattan 2010; Jonathan CRARY, Techniques of the Observer: On Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth Century. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 1990; Helmut GERNSHEIM – Alison GERNSHEIM, Th e History of Photography from the Camera Obscura to the Beginning of the Modern Era. London: Th ames & Hudson 1969; J. H. HAMMOND, Th e Camera Obscura: A Chronicle. Bristol: Hilger 1981; Jack WILGUS – Beverly WILGUS, Th e Magic Mirror of Life: An Appreciation of the Camera Obscura [online]. 2008. Available at: <http://brightbytes.com/cosite/cohome.html> [cit. 18. 8. 2013]. 2 Nick BURTON – Hilary FRASER, "Mirror Visions and Dissolving Views: Vernon Lee and the Museological Experiments of Patrick Geddes." Nineteenth-Century Contexts, vol. 28, 2006, no. 2, p. 146 (145160). 3 Charles ZUEBLIN, "Th e World's First Sociological Laboratory." American Journal of Sociology, vol. 4, 1899 no. 5 (577592). Alison Reiko Loader 17 ous history is no less intriguing, if much less known.4 Its origin as Short's Observatory, devised to introduce scientifi c instruments to a broader public, forms the core of this study. Th is paper explores its early history, and some of the places and spaces of science surrounding and supporting the enterprise's original 1835 establishment on Calton Hill. Figure 1. Interior of the New York Central Park camera obscura, Frank Leslie's Popular Monthly, 1877. Drawing me to this story is the mysterious Maria Th eresa Short, who opened and operated her eponymous popular observatory even as public and scientifi c life was becoming increasingly barred to most women. Transformed in the eyes of local authorities from a "helpless and unprotected female" to an public nuisance, her fi rst venture closed in 1850 through 4 David N. LIVINGSTONE, Putting Science in Its Place: Geographies of Scientifi c Knowledge. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 2003, p. 35. From Near to Far 18 a forcible eviction from Calton Hill by the Edinburgh Town Council.5 Soon aft er, Short bought the building on Castlehill, erected a tower for her camera obscura and reopened. Short's Observatory operated for four decades more. While Geddes employed her rooft op device as one of Outlook Tower's chief attractions, Short's identity (though never certain) nevertheless receded from view.6 A First Visit to Outlook Tower, the guidebook produced by Geddes and colleagues in 1906 reports, Tradition indicates the building itself as the town mansion of the "Laird of Cockpen"; but to our fathers and grandfathers it was known as "Short's Observatory," from the Edinburgh Optician of that name who fi rst established the little museum of astronomical instruments and scientifi c toys which this succeeds.7 Constructing a history that excludes women (notably mothers and grandmothers), the pamphlet obscures the "Edinburgh Optician" and reduces her project to "littleness". However, in correcting such historiographic slights, investigations of enterprising women like Maria Short can be more than female entries in a "history of great men" that, as Londa Schiebinger cautions, "oft en retains the male norm as the measure of excellence [... without attending to] the more usual patterns of women working in science."8 Opening historical analyses beyond the trope of "original discoveries" brings new questions and new possibilities to the fi eld by revealing a dense set of activities that includes participation by women and others omitted or obscured by disciplinary exclusion.9 Th is paper makes no claims about the 5 Th omas FLEMING, "Subscription Letter." 1831. National Library of Scotland, Edinburgh / MS 3918 / 6566; "Th e LORD PROVOST said he had had more annoyance with this woman, during the last eighteen months, than with all the other business of the Council," in "Short's Observatory." Th e Scotsman, June 19, 1850, p. 3. 6 Veronica Wallace questions the identity of Maria Short because she would have been much older than census records suggest, but there is no way to verify if Short had lied about her parentage or her age. See Veronica WALLACE, "Maria Obscura." Edinburgh Review, vol. 88, 1992, pp. 101–109. For other texts on Short (that cite Wallace), see Mary BRÜCK, Stars and Satellites: Women in Early British and Irish Astronomy. London – New York: Springer 2009; and "Maria Short." In: EWAN, E. et al. (eds.), Th e Biographical Dictionary of Scottish Women: From the Earliest Times to 2004. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press 2007. 7 A First Visit to Outlook Tower. Edinburgh: Geddes and Co. 1906, p. 5. 8 Londa SCHIEBINGER, Th e Mind Has No Sex: Women in the Origins of Modern Science. Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1989, p. 6. 9 Avril MADDRELL, Complex Locations: Women's Geographical Work in the UK 1850–1970. Chichester, UK – Malden, MA : Wiley-Blackwell 2009, p. 338. Alison Reiko Loader 19 epistemological merits of Short's pursuits: Sir J.A.H. Macdonald who visited her establishment as a boy, recalled that the "scientifi c part of the exhibition was farcical to a degree."10 Rather, an examination of her activities and their context can broaden understandings of the tensions between science and spectacle in nineteenth-century Britain. Extending the notion of popularization beyond the discursive, it widens perceptions of early optical media technologies by including operations and operators otherwise considered marginal, subversive and unauthorized. While Geddes's Outlook Tower off ered local to global views, Short's microscopes, telescopes, and camera obscura exhibited bodies from the minuscule to the celestial and this paper follows a similar pattern. It expands from narrow to increasingly wider angles of view-seeking spaces where an unknown and unmoneyed woman might have fi t even where, by many accounts, she did not belong. Beginning at close range, details of individual biographies converge into a hapless history of local observatory-building. Little is known about Maria Short, but archives reveal a feisty personality emerging from a family that tangled with the university and city elite through numerous attempts to establish an observatory in Edinburgh and confl icts over a telescope made by James Short.11 James (Maria's uncle) was the protégé of University of Edinburgh's Chair of Mathematics, the lauded Colin Maclaurin who had not only initiated the fi rst eff orts to build an observatory in the city but moreover began Edinburgh's scientifi c and medical ascendency with his appointment in 1725 (along with the hiring of anatomy 10 J. H. A. MACDONALD, Life Jottings of an Old Edinburgh Citizen. Edinburgh: Ballantyne 1915, p. 200. 11 Besides WALLACE's 1992 article and the few texts that reference it, the history of Maria Short (and her family) emerges in the footnotes of secondary literature on the history of astronomy in Edinburgh and biographies of James Short. See D.J. BRYDEN, "Th e Edinburgh Observatory 1736–1811: A Story of Failure." Annals of Science, vol. 47, 1990, pp. 445–474; David Myles GAVINE, Astronomy in Scotland 1745–1900. Unpublished PhD Th esis. Th e Open University 1981; Gerard L'E. TURNER, "Eighteenth-Century Scientifi c Instruments and their Makers." In: PORTER, R. (ed.), Th e Cambridge History of Science: Eighteenth-century science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2003, pp. 511–535; and Gerard L'E. TURNER, "James Short, F.R.S., and His Contribution to the Construction of Refl ecting Telescopes." Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London, vol. 24, 1969, no. 1, pp. 91–108. Beginning with the footnotes of some of these sources, additional archival material was uncovered in the Edinburgh City Archives (ECA), the National Archives of Scotland (NAS), Th e National Library of Scotland (NAS) and the University of Edinburgh Library and University Collections. Information about the history of Short's Observatory was also shared and exchanged with Andrew Johnson, the director and manager of Edinburgh's Camera Obscura and World of Illusions. From Near to Far 20 chair Alexander Monro primus).12 As the city's foremost institutional place of science, the University of Edinburgh, its administrative structure and pedagogical approaches, as well as city's scientifi c societies feature in my second level of study that, like the camera obscura, off ers local views. From this vantage, images of economic self-interest and popularity contests emerge from spaces dominated by the very men whose positions Maria Short used to legitimate her own. Pictured in Maria's Edinburgh and underpinning her projects are local responses to contemporary shift s in national and Western science, including an interest in opening science to lower classes, parallel to a growing resentment of elite dilettantism by those who sought recognition as scientifi c professionals. Movements described as the professionalization of science that may have helped drive citizens to Short's door, and include the involvement of actors such as Edinburgh physicist and polemicist David Brewster, however demand a larger scope. I complete this initial stage of study on Maria Short and her history with an expansive albeit brief view that examines the transformation of science through a feminist lens, seeking spaces of women who like her have been obscured in histories that are founded on the very notions of professionalization (men in pursuit of scientifi c discovery) that ignore them. From the eighteenth to early nineteenth centuries, women were involved in the diff usion, reception and practice of science throughout the Western world when Schiebinger argues that, "noble networks and craft production gave women a defi nite – if limited – place in science."13 While further constrained through the separation of public and domestic space concurrent to professionalization, there are spaces for women that could help account for the training, network and audience that facilitated Maria Short's project to off er "the sublime truths of science" to a public that was no longer "confi ned to the wealthy and the learned."14 12 Jack MORELL, "Science in Manchester and the University of Edinburgh, 1760–1840." In: CARDWELL, D. (eds.), Artisan to Graduate: Essays to Commemorate the Foundation in 1824 of the Manchester Mechanics' Institution. Manchester: Manchester University Press 1974, p. 40 (39–54). 13 SCHIEBINGER, Th e Mind Has No Sex, p. 245. 14 WALLACE, "Maria Obscura," p. 104. Alison Reiko Loader 21 Part I: Short Stories in Closeup Th e Arrival of Maria Short Maria Short arrived in Edinburgh in 1827 – unknown, long orphaned, and the last of her line – to claim as her inheritance the Great Telescope, an old but valuable instrument around which she would later create a business of spectatorship. Th e twelve-foot device had a metal refl ector of superior optical quality that had been polished by Maria's uncle, the renowned telescope maker James Short, and brought from his workshop in London to Edinburgh by Th omas Short (James's brother and Maria's father). Th omas planned to display the instrument for profi t in an observatory of his own. However, when the city and university off ered to fund his project in 1776, Th omas agreed to bar any female relatives from inheriting the telescope or his Calton Hill lease.15 A half century later a stranger claiming to be his daughter Maria mounted an aggressive campaign to reverse this arrangement and retrieve the telescope from the city's possession. She held Town Council responsible for her and her family's hardships. For in exchange for ownership of the instrument, the city's leaders had promised an observatory that would earn a living for the Short family. It remained unfi nished until 1791 – long aft er Th omas had passed, and his wife and small children had been evicted from the site and its meagre earnings. In a letter dated March 22, 1828 to the Lord Provost of Edinburgh, Maria wrote, I feel it is unnecessary to state to you my Lord that a bargain is equally obligatory on both contracting parties, my Father's part in the Second Contract aft er having given up the Instrument was to exclude his Daughters, this he did by the bargain. Th e plain and obvious duty the Magistrate had to perform was to erect in a reasonable time a building suffi cient for the proper application of the instrument. Th is they did not do. And it is on this circumstance and the losses to which it subjected my family I ground my Claim.16 Maria eventually won her case, perhaps out of recognition of the unacknowledged wrong. When changes in building plans had overrun the observatory budget and the Lord Provost that oversaw the scheme died in offi ce, the Town Council under his successors stopped paying the bills. Th e half-fi nished observatory, with the telescope situated in Th omas Short's house, held little attraction for scientifi c researchers or general audiences. 15 BRYDEN, "Th e Edinburgh Observatory," p. 461. 16 Edinburgh City Archives, Bundle 105 D/8. From Near to Far 22 Never earning more than £8 annually, as Th omas grew frail with age, the employment of an assistant at a £10 yearly salary caused upkeep to exceed income.17 An incomplete observatory in Edinburgh's history however was hardly an anomaly, and Maria Short's claiming of the Great Telescope was merely the last of a series of struggles over the prized instrument. Observatory Building and False Starts Observatory building in Edinburgh may aptly be called a "history of failure," with eff orts thwarted by lack of funds, mismanagement, politics and general disinterest dating from 1736.18 Soon aft er an initial proposal by Colin Maclaurin, local disruptions associated with the Porteous Riots, as well as the city's preference for building up facilities for the university's medical school, caused the fi rst of many delays.19 Th e professor nevertheless raised considerable capital for the project, beginning with a donation from the Earl of Morton in 1741, and he prepared to begin construction in 1744. Th e following year however saw Scotland preoccupied with the 1745 Jacobite Rising and Maclaurin, who helped organize Edinburgh's defence, fell ill and in 1746, passed away. His successor Matthew Stewart inherited the observatory fund, but apart from a wooden model commissioned to Alexander Short (most likely Maria's second uncle), no progress was made. Stewart spent much of the money on himself – a discovery made when James Short inquired into the state of the account during a 1766 visit. Stewart made "a twofold and negative contribution to the observatory project" and what little remained, would go towards the observatory of Th omas Short a decade later.20 Th e Brothers Short and the Great Telescope Th e Great Telescope that inspired Th omas Short to build an observatory begins with his brother the celebrated optician, James Short. Th e third of the four Short brothers (orphaned in 1720), James studied at the University of Edinburgh, and was bound for an ecclesiastic career when he shift ed 17 BRYDEN, "Th e Edinburgh Observatory," p. 463. 18 Ibid. 19 Th e Porteous Riots culminated in the lynching of John Porteous in September 1736. A captain of the city guard, Porteous had ordered the fi ring of shots into the crowd during a public execution earlier that year. See "Porteous Riots." Encyclopaedia Britannica [online], s. v. Available at: <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/471069/Porteous-Riots> [cit. 18. 8. 2013] 20 BRYDEN, "Th e Edinburgh Observatory," p. 457. Alison Reiko Loader 23 his academic interests towards science and began polishing refl ectors for telescopes in the university rooms of his mentor, Maclaurin.21 Much like his older brothers John and Alexander, James left Scotland to pursue his fortune. James fi rst travelled to London as a royal tutor in 1736 (the year of the fi rst observatory proposal and city riots), but soon gained offi cial recognition for his talent as an optician. Th e following year at the age of 27, he became a founding member of the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh with Maclaurin and its president (James's main patron) the Earl of Morton, while the Royal Society of London elected him Fellow.22 In 1838 James established a permanent workshop on Surrey Street in London and selling to observatories, expeditions and amateur astronomers all over Europe, he achieved outstanding success: his impeccable craft smanship oft en enabled him to charge more than twice the normal price for his telescopes.23 Th omas, who was one year younger, remained in Scotland, also working as an instrument maker. Th ough the brothers maintained contact, the quality of their relationship is uncertain and may have been strained by Th omas's incompetence, which Maclaurin had made note of in a cautionary letter written in 1743.24 Upon his death in 1768, James (who had never married) willed only £100 of his fortune (valued at nearly £20,000) to Th omas – leaving most of his earnings to those who arguably did not need it (the children of their wealthy brother John in Virginia and Lady Mary Douglas, daughter of the Earl of Morton).25 21 James Short may have ascended to the position of Astronomer Royal in 1765 had he not been blocked by his former supporter, the Earl of Morton, then also president of the Royal Society. Morton withdrew his support following disagreements over the problem of longitude. James Short was a vocal participant in scientifi c circles, he encouraged achromatic-telescope maker John Dollond and chronometer maker John Harrison, and participated as an offi cial observer, writer, and telescope supplier in the global projects to chart the 1761 and 1769 transits of Venus. See TURNER, "James Short, F.R.S and His Contribution". 22 Ibid., p. 92–94. 23 TURNER, "Eighteenth-Century Scientifi c Instruments," p. 528; TURNER, "James Short, F.R.S. and His Contribution," p. 91. 24 Tristram N CLARKE – A. D. MORRISON-LOW – Allen David Cumming SIMPSON, Brass & Glass: Scientifi c Instrument Making Workshops in Scotland. National Museums of Scotland 1989, p. 3-4. 25 Both John and Alexander predeceased James so Th omas was his only surviving sibling. For details of James's legacies to his relatives, see TURNER, "James Short, F.R.S. and His Contribution," p. 95, notes 31–35. David Brewster reports that the £1000 left to Lady Douglas was reverted to Th omas Short, see David BREWSTER, "James Short." In: Th e Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, vol. 17. Edinburgh: J. & E. Parker 1832, p. 264. For information on the descendants of John Short, see "Some Notes on the Short Family of Staff ord and King George Counties, Virginia." In: Genealogies of Virginia Families, Volume IV. Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing 1981, p. 802 (798–816). From Near to Far 24 Th omas challenged the will but was defeated by his sixteen-year-old nephew James (John's oldest son). Th omas nevertheless took over the Surrey Street workshop for eight years (possibly working for a time with young James) and completed his brother's outstanding orders.26 Aft er his nephew died, he was left with an unwanted but valuable telescope. James Short had been working on a large telescope refl ector at the time of his death and since its original buyer, the king of Denmark could no longer honor the commission (which Th omas valued at 12,000 guineas), Th omas completed the instrument and took it back with him to Edinburgh.27 Th omas planned to construct a relatively modest building in Edinburgh to exhibit the Great Telescope and live off entry fees. Th e instrument boasted a greater magnifi cation power than any other telescope in the world, so Town Council agreed to lease him property on Calton Hill for ninety-nine years for a one-penny payment, with the provision that they could set the admission price for university students.28 However the observatory project expanded, beginning with Th omas seeking subscriptions to build a more ambitious building. Following a suggestion by anatomy professor Alexander Monro (secundus), the university off ered what remained of its observatory fund and proposed a more elaborate edifi ce designed by James Craig (planner of Edinburgh's New Town).29 A new agreement was struck, except the revised contract favoured only Th omas's two grandsons (James and Th omas Douglas) and any future sons and their sons as heirs.30 Th omas remarried in 1777 and with his much younger bride, Jacobina Downie, began his second family. When building plans changed again aft er visiting architect Robert Adam suggested that the observatory be made to resemble a small fortress, 26 On young James' death in Lisbon, see TURNER, "James Short F.R.S. and His Contribution," p. 95. 27 BRYDEN, "Th e Edinburgh Observatory," p. 459. Th e king of Denmark was likely Christian VII who was judged mentally incompetent shortly aft er his accession in 1766. Th e 12,000 guinea valuation by Th omas short was a mistake or gross exaggeration published in the Caledonian Mercury, 3 June 1776. James made a 12–foot refl ector in 1742 for £600, and another in 1752 for the king of Spain for £1200, see BREWSTER, "James Short," p. 264. Elizabeth Douglas, the wife of Th omas's grandson wrote that the telescope was worth £1200, see ECA Bundle 105, "Act of Council fi xing fees to be paid by the Students for access to Observatory, 4th December 1793." 28 ECA Bundle 105. "Act of Council Granting to Th os Short half an acre of Ground of the Calton Hill, 22 May 1776." 29 GAVINE, p. 219. 30 ECA Bundle 105. "Act of Council altering the terms of the Tack to be granted to Th os Short, 10 July 1776." Alison Reiko Loader 25 Th omas was happy to oblige as the new plan included housing for the Shorts. Funds were quickly exhausted and the observatory was left unfi nished and unusable. Its gothic tower became home to the telescope as well as Th omas, Jacobina and their growing family, while legal battles over outstanding building fees waged on. In 1784, plumber William Scott took the telescope's refl ector (the handiwork of James Short) as security and even though it was the city's property and the city's debt, the Shorts took Scott to court at their own expense to retrieve their only, albeit limited, source of income.31 With Th omas's sudden death in 1788, Jacobina Downie, by terms of the 1776 contract lost her home (the gothic tower) and only means of support (the optical instruments inside). Th omas's only surviving son died soon aft er his father (the small boy buried in his father's grave) and Downie, pregnant at the time of her husband's death gave birth to a girl.32 Everything they had passed to Th omas's adult grandson James Douglas by his fi rst marriage, much to Downie's chagrin. With her new suitor John McFadzen and other accomplices, the recent widow and new mother, tried to forcibly take back the building and its contents, "under cloudy night and armed with blunderbusses, pistols, swords, cutlasses and other lethal weapons."33 Th ough found innocent of "riot and assault," Downie's situation worsened with fi nes, legal fees and McFadzen jailed. She died seven years later in 1796 – leaving her and Th omas's three young daughters at the mercy of litigious relatives trying to tap their small trust fund to pay their late mother's debts.34 Th e Short girls 31 BRYDEN, "Th e Edinburgh Observatory," p. 466. 32 Th e SCOTLANDS PEOPLE database (housed at the National Archives of Scotland) has digitized records listing James Short (aged 3years 1 month) as having passed away 25 March 1788, twelve days aft er the death of Th omas Short. Jacobina's pregnancy and delivery that same year is recounted by her former lawyer for her criminal case in a civil suit he brought against her in 1789 trying to collect his legal fees, see "Answers for Robert RENTON writer in Edinburgh to the Bill of Suspension off ered for Jacobina Downie, 29 August 1789." NAS CS271/30364. 33 James BOSWELL, "Aff airs in Scotland." Th e Scots Magazine, vol. 51, 1789, pp. 47–48. A transcript of witness testimonies at the trial of Jacobina Downie, John McFadzen, David Drysdale and William Smith is located in the Edinburgh City Archives, SL1233/1/4. 34 Th e Scotland's People database lists Downie as the spouse of John McFadzen having died on 3 March, 1796. Downie and McFadzen were recognized as married in spite of their own objections in a suit brought against them by James and Margaret Douglas (Th omas Short's grandchildren) forfeiting Downie's right to a Short family trust fund due to her having remarried, see Session Papers 1792, vol. 64, no. 11 and 12 in the Campbell Collection at the Advocacy Library in Edinburgh. Regarding suits initiated by family members against the daughters of Jacobina Downie and Th omas Short, see NAS CS231/D6/2; CS235/M/9/10; CS232/M/18/6,. From Near to Far 26 slip from public record around 1799, when all remaining family members refused to act as legal guardians.35 In the meantime, James Douglas and his family paid for the retrieval of the instruments that Downie had earlier removed, repaired the building and its contents, and completed the observatory in 1791. However being unable to attract serious use or investment from the university or Town Council, Douglas returned to sea by 1793 leaving his wife Elizabeth Beverly to act in his stead. Beverly, who had three children to care for, petitioned the City with documents that demonstrated how her family had personally paid for the maintenance of city property, asking to be recompensed and demanding that Town Council meet the terms set forth by the 1776 agreements.36 Council did nothing but fi x a maximum yearly admission fee for university students. Beverly died two years later with her husband still at sea and it appears that neither the Douglases nor their subsequent tenant, optical instrument-maker Robert Bowman, profi ted from admission fees.37 With James Douglas still absent from Scotland in 1807, his tenant George Young complained about the storage of gunpowder within the Observatory walls and Town Council responded by proclaiming the original agreement forfeited and ordering his immediate removal.38 Th e Astronomical Institution, 1811 In 1811, when private citizens founded the Astronomical Institution of Edinburgh, the city still lacked a proper observatory. Seven years later, the association had the observatory Douglas had completed, demolished to make space for a newer construction. Th e Playfair building, designated as the Royal Observatory in 1822, was fi nally outfi tted in the 1830s, though the quality of its instruments was much disparaged. David Brewster in his 1832 Edinburgh Encyclopaedia noted, It is sincerely to be regretted by every friend to science, as well as to the scientifi c reputation of Edinburgh, that, from want of funds, proper instruments have not 35 NAS CS231/D6/2 Item 10. 36 ECA Bundle 105, "Act of Council fi xing fees to be paid by the Students for access to Observatory, 4th December 1793." 37 BRYDEN, "Th e Edinburgh Observatory," p. 468–471. Beverly died 17 February 1795, see SCOTLANDS PEOPLE database. Th ere is no record of death for James Douglas who may have emigrate or died at sea. 38 ECA Bundle 105. "Decreet of Declarator and Removing agains Mssrs James and Th omas Douglas and George Young, 1807." Alison Reiko Loader 27 yet been provided, nor a salary for an observer, that might enable him to devote his attention entirely to the pursuits of astronomy.39 Th e fi rst Astronomer Royal for Scotland (Th omas Henderson) took offi ce in 1834, but according to a later account by the fi ft h royal observer (Ralph Allen Sampson), the observatory equipment remained, "at that date, and indeed up to the year 1889 [...] meagre and defective."40 For well over a century, making space for astronomy in Edinburgh was fraught with missteps and setbacks arising from a hapless combination of bad timing and carelessness. Th at contemporary observatories – such as Leiden (1633), Paris (1667), Greenwich (1675), Berlin (1711), Uppsala (1741) and Dublin (1785) – were already long established may indicate a misalignment of priorities between those who wanted a proper observatory in Edinburgh and those with the ability to make that happen. Th e succession of confl icts over an old but powerful telescope suggests, at least symbolically, that the rightful heirs to tradition and long range vision for a time remained an issue far from settled. Short's Observatory Maria Short prevailed when Town Council granted her the Great Telescope, although they probably never imagined that she would employ the sixtyyear old device in her own observatory, which according to that city's history, she would establish in record time. Maria however hadn't intended to exhibit the instrument; but rather hoped only to secure herself a comfortable income. Unable to fi nd a single buyer willing to pay a suffi cient amount, she attempted to sell the telescope by lottery and as well, entreated the Duke of Buccleuch to personally place her application for a royal pension (which had been endorsed by the Lord Provost of Edinburgh) into the hands of the British monarch.41 Maria attempted a number of letter campaigns, appending to each printed reproductions of a message of goodwill that read, 39 David BREWSTER, "Observatory." In: Th e Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, vol. 14. Edinburgh: J. & E. Parker 1832, p. 571. 40 R. A. SAMPSON, "Astronomy." In: British Association for the Advacement of Science (eds.), Edinburgh's Place in Scientifi c Progress: Prepared for the Edinburgh Meeting of the British Association by the Local Editorial Committee. Edinburgh: W. & R. Chambers 1921. p. 31 (31–33). 41 Regarding Short's application for a Royal pension, see Short's letters to the Duke of Buccleuch, the British monarch and John Tait found in NAS GD224/588/7 Papers of the From Near to Far 28 University Chambers Edinburgh, 27th Febry. 1830 Madam, We, the undersigned, most willingly concur in bearing testimony to your Uncle's high reputation as an Optician; to the great service he did to Astronomical and Optical Science, and to the honor that accrued to the British Nation in having produced so distinguished a Character. We are etc etc [signed] Geo H Baird D.D. Principal John Leslie Prof. of Nat. Philosophy William Wallace Prof of Mathematics John Wilson Professor of Moral Philosophy42 When all other schemes failed, Maria Short used the professors' letter to gather subscriptions to raise the funds to buy additional optical instruments and construct her exhibition.43 All this she completed within eight years of her fi rst appeal to the City. What displeasure that must have caused signatory William Wallace, who had initially voiced doubts about Maria's identity and proposed that the telescope go to the university or the Astronomical Institution where he acted as interim observer.44 At a Town Council meeting in 1834, complaints against Maria Short's plan to erect a popular observatory on Calton Hill, including a new letter from Wallace, were read along with a petition from the Astronomical Institution that argued, [T]he testimony in Miss Short's favour appended to her paper so industriously circulated, was given for a very diff erent purpose from that which it has been employed. Its object was to enable her to sell in some way an old instrument Montague-Douglas–Scott Family, Dukes of Buccleuch. Letters and documents sent out for Short's lottery scheme are among the papers of the Philosophical Society in NLS Acc4534/13. 42 William WALLACE – John BAIRD – John LESLIE – John WILSON, "Letter to Maria Short." February 12, 1829 43 A printed subscription package for Short's Popular Observatory with an illustration of the Great Telescope, a copy of the professors' letter and a letter from Short supporter Th omas Fleming (dated 21 May 1831) can be found in the Mills Union Catalogue of Walter Scott Correspondence at the National Library of Scotland Reference 15616, NLS MS 3918 / 65–66. 44 William WALLACE, "Letter to the Lord Provost of Edinburgh." May 15, 1928, ECA Bundle 105 D/8. Alison Reiko Loader 29 which belonged rightfully to the public, but which a former Town Council, in the exercise of an easy generosity, gave her as a boon.45 Like Wallace and the other petitioners who requested that the city's magistrates stop the construction of the "paltry show box" with the "spacious name of an observatory," Solicitor-General Henry Cockburn decried Maria's plans to build a camera obscura on Calton Hill as "a profanation of that sacred ground," fearing it would "henceforth become the receptacle of Panoramas, Caravans of wild beasts, and all manner of public show boxes."46 In his journal (published in 1874) Cockburn, would write of the situation, "I instantly assailed the Council, and excited the press, and agitated in all quarters, and the result has been that the grant is rescinded!" adding later, "Th ey have since rescinded this rescission, and the abominable edifi ce is rising."47 Town Council approved Short's revised plans in September 1834, ironically on the very day they welcomed Th omas Henderson, the new Astronomer Royal to his poorly equipped post.48 None of the complainants mentioned that the grounds of the Royal Observatory already housed a camera obscura on Calton Hill. For the Astronomical Institution had included a popular observatory in its own mandate and the camera obscura outfi tted in the gothic tower (Th omas and Jacobina's old home!) had long served as its "chief object of attraction to visitors."49 Maria Short's venture thus competed with and detracted from the institution that had been decades in the making. Along with her camera obscura and uncle's telescope (which had the advantage of showing an upright image of city views in daytime),50 Maria exhibited solar microscopes that projected magnifi cations of the minute into the monstrous, a chromatope that as a new kind of magic lantern projected a series of dissolving views, an electric telegraph that could connect Britain to the continent, as well as numerous other technological devices that few might otherwise experience (see Figure 2). Perhaps preferring the simpler attractions of a third camera obscura on Calton Hill, installed in Nelson's Monument in 1849, and its proprietor, their tenant, the courteous Mr. Kerr, Town Council took steps to 45 Th e Scotsman, July 23, 1834, p. 3. 46 Ibid. 47 Henry COCKBURN, Journal of Henry Cockburn: Being a Continuation of the Memorials of His Time, 1831–1855. Volume I. Edinburgh: Edmonston and Douglas 1874, p. 61–62. 48 ECA, "Town Council Minutes." Volume 217, 23 September 1834, p. 169–174. 49 BREWSTER, "Observatory," p. 571. 50 WALLACE, "Maria Obscura," p. 105. From Near to Far 30 Figure 2. Handbill from Short's Observatory on Calton Hill, c1835–1850. Alison Reiko Loader 31 close Short's Observatory in 1850, having for years been "worried to death by this woman."51 Th ey raised Maria's rent, refused her off ers to both buy out Kerr and rebuild her wooden building in stone, and then elected to withdraw her lease because by passing out handbills to attract visitors, she had "disobeyed the regulations of the Council."52 Maria, now Mrs. Henderson (having married in 1843), appealed multiple times and counted both city councillors and citizens among her supporters. Protesting the motion of removal, council member David Ridpath argued for Maria's business as "a source of innocent and instructive amusement, which is also resorted to annually by thousands of strangers...the want which cannot be supplied otherwise, " and a petition with 4000 signatures demanded it be preserved for the "benefi t of the public".53 Th e subject of removal had councillors refusing to approve of the minutes of several Town Council meetings from June to October 1850, and following the execution of an order made in the absence of some of the Council members, on September 27, 1850, "the Observatory was invaded at an early hour, the Instruments were thrown out upon the hill, and the building demolished."54 In his "Reasons of Dissent and Protest," councillor Robert Ritchie called the incident "harsh and precipitate," while newspapers reported Ridpath's complaint that it had been an act intended to "destroy science."55 Th ough ignobly ousted from her fi rst site and obliged to rebuild in a location of lesser prominence, Maria Short had already achieved what seems impossible. She appeared out of nowhere, and enduring active opposition from the political and intellectual elite, in practically no time built a business on little more than an old name and a old telescope – neither of which may have been rightfully hers. Th at she used her alleged family ties to Edinburgh science, turned its instruments into popular spectacles, and polarized City leaders suggests that in her time and place, science had cachet, but its meanings and spaces were more fl uid than fi xed. Th e next level of analysis may further account for the unfortunate history of observatory-building in Edinburgh and demonstrate that Maria's mix of nepotism, spectacle, private sponsorship, and popularization capitalized on methods already employed 51 Th e Scotsman, July 4, 1849; June 12, 1850. 52 Th e Scotsman, January 23, 1850; June 19, 1850. 53 ECA "Town Council Minutes." Volume 254, 18 June 1950, p105; 10 July 180, p154. 54 ECA "Town Council Minutes." Volume 254, 22 October 1850, p443. 55 Ibid.; "Short's Observatory," Th e Scotsman 2 October 1850; "Town Council Proceedings," Th e Caledonian Mercury, 3 October, 1850. From Near to Far 32 within the local institutional albeit transforming spaces of science before and during her time. Part II: Local Vistas of Science in the City Th e University of Edinburgh Historian Roy Porter characterizes the eighteenth century as an era of "assimilation [and] consolidation," quoting Margaret Jacob's assertion that it was then that, "scientifi c knowledge became an integral part of Western culture."56 In earlier times, the lack of stable places for science obliged practitioners to seek their own cover, fi nding protection in various religious organizations, courts or schools since universities were meant to train clergy, educate gentlemen and prepare individuals for civil service. However, conditions were changing in the eighteenth century with the increasing establishment of scientifi c academies and state-funded posts, and the growing presence and authority of science in the public sphere (through societies, lectures, salons, and museums). Yet Porter's assertion that, "Science never presented a united front,"57 cautions against assumptions that developments were uniform or universal. Th e development of science spread unevenly throughout both social and geographic spaces, producing gaps that allowed for marginal actors like Maria Short. In Edinburgh, the structure and operation of its university shaped the local and patriarchal character of science by encouraging certain practices and specializations. Th e core group of the city's scientifi c community comprised its university professors – typically native Scots and all men, hired by Town Council, at least middle class, and oft en related to another member of faculty.58 Taking medicine, mathematics, astronomy, philosophy and natural sciences into account, the second half of the eighteenth century saw at most forty science chairs at any one time. Th e annual salaries for these tenured positions ranged from zero for chemistry to £ 128 for botany, which professors supplemented with income derived directly from class fees or by changing disciplines for more money – in an arrangement that encouraged 56 Roy PORTER. "Introduction." In: PORTER, R. (ed.), Th e Cambridge History of Science: Eighteenth–century Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2003, p. 3 (1–19). 57 Ibid., p. 13. 58 William CLARK, "Th e Pursuit of Prosopography of Science." In. PORTER, R. (ed.), Th e Cambridge History of Science: Eighteenth-century Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2003, p. 222 (211–237). Alison Reiko Loader 33 teaching and discouraged specialization. Describing the University of Edinburgh, William Clark writes And one of the famous universities of the age amounted to a rather small community, bound by ties of blood not only spilt in faculty meetings. Scottish universities remained complex and inter-related moral communities, not unlike craft guilds. Here as in traditional societies, the private life remained fused with the public or professional life.59 Jack Morrell, who has written extensively about the University of Edinburgh, calls its old system "pre-bureaucratic." 60 Th e school was controlled by its municipal patrons, through the thirtythree members of Town Council, from its founding in 1583 until Scottish university reforms in 1833. Along with its civic responsibilities, Town Council supervised the maintenance and administration of the university including hiring and paying base salaries to most of the professoriate. While open to negligence, corruption and nepotism, Morell observes that during the eighteenth century, Town Council acquitted itself rather well, transforming the school from a small college of arts and divinity into a university of medicine and science, and increasing enrollment at a time when many British and European schools saw fewer students. It achieved eighteenthcentury renewal by remodeling the school aft er the Universities of Leyden and Utrecht. Replacing the medieval system of regency, which comprised limited teaching terms for recent graduates, it sought talent for tenured chairs responsible for specifi c subjects and expanded medical teaching by adding faculty positions and introducing clinical instruction, building and renovating local infi rmaries. "Th e fi nancial interests of the city were directly connected with the ability of professors to attract students to its university."61 Th is coupled with the relatively small size of its faculty fostered a local discourse of celebrity-scholars and scientifi c heroes. Maria Short would later draw on this culture to promote her cause to Town Council and prospective supporters by calling herself, "Daughter and Niece of men celebrated for their Genius ..." 62 59 Ibid., p. 226. 60 Jack MORELL, "Science and Scottish University Reform: Edinburgh in 1826." Th e British Journal for the History of Science, vol. 6, 1972, no. 1 (39–56). 61 Ibid., p. 43. 62 Maria SHORT, "Letter to Town Council, 22 March 1928." ECA, Bundle 105 D/8. From Near to Far 34 By claiming blood ties to James Short, Maria also connected herself to one of the university's most signifi cant hires: Colin Maclaurin, the renowned Professor of Mathematics who had been James's mentor and who initiated the fi rst observatory scheme. Th e other momentous hire was Alexander Monro primus, the fi rst of three Alexander Monros that would occupy the chair of anatomy and whose 1720 appointment was championed by his father, John Monro (former Deacon of Surgeons, and ex offi cio Town Council member) at the expense of two existing lecturers. Both Monro and Maclaurin would be crucial to determining the shape of science in Edinburgh. Monro primus's ability to attract students from outside the city would facilitate the building of its "famous school of anatomy" and reputation for medicine.63 Maclaurin, on the other hand, was elected as an outstanding researcher championed by Isaac Newton having become a fellow of the Royal Society in London at the age of 21. Lifetime tenures for Monro, Maclaurin and their colleagues were meant to promote Lehrfreiheit (academic freedom), so their reputations as scholars and educators would benefi t both the university and the city. Maclaurin, however, had a terrible teaching record: at Aberdeen's Marischal College, he had collected his salary while ignoring school duties because he was too busy tutoring the son of Lord Polwarth, and then he neglected to resign until a year aft er being hired in Edinburgh.64 Still, D. J. Bryden reports that Maclaurin attended to his Edinburgh post, attracting about "a hundred pupils every year...[and] enthusiastic for the higher branches of mathematics, teaching a syllabus that also embraced the useful applications of the discipline."65 Maclaurin's previous record and improved attitude towards university work likely correlated with Town Council's unique payment structure. As an alternative to high fi xed salaries such as those enjoyed by faculty at Oxford and Cambridge, Edinburgh's low base salaries supplemented by class fees were meant to promote pedagogy and discourage sinecure. Along with the reputation of its faculty, Morell cites fl exibility and relative openness as being among the attractions held by the University of Edinburgh. Th ough Sophia Jex-Blake, in petitioning for the right of women to obtain medical degrees from Edinburgh, argued that within its original Charters "no words are used which in any way exclude women," like other 63 Jack MORELL, Science, Culture, and Politics in Britain, 1750–1870. Aldershot – Brookfi eld: Variorum 1997, p. 6–7. 64 Ibid., p. 85–86. 65 BRYDEN, "Th e Edinburgh Observatory," p. 448. Alison Reiko Loader 35 universities it was eff ectively closed to women.66 However, the school was more open than many of its contemporaries – enrollment required no religious affi liations, entrance examinations or prerequisites, and tuition and subsistence costs were relatively low.67 Th is benefi tted the city by attracting students from elsewhere, while supplying a relatively inexpensive education to its own citizens. Low class fees meant poorer (lower middle class) students could attend school at least part-time, but connecting fees directly to teaching wages motivated professors to seek large class sizes since each student would represent a relatively small income. All students had the option of taking any classes they chose, in any order or in any quantity and professors focused on individual courses rather than complete programs of study, making graduation a low priority.68 University teaching in Edinburgh consisted primarily of lecture courses and demonstrations of experiments, specimens and scientifi c apparatuses when appropriate. Practical work outside of lecture halls may have included fi eld trips and excursions to the Natural History Museum or the Botanic Gardens, but laboratory teaching was practically nil before 1840, possibly because it could not accommodate large numbers. More ambitious students took local private classes (which could admit women) or continued their studies elsewhere, while others might become part of a larger local audience for science initiated by a professoriate eager for their fees. Adopting diverse entrepreneurial approaches to student recruitment, three Edinburgh professors – Robert Jameson, John Leslie and Th omas Charles Hope – blurred showmanship with scientifi c pedagogy.69 All active during the 1820s (around the time when Maria Short arrived in Edinburgh), each signifi cantly augmented their incomes by fi nding ways to attract large 66 Sophia JEX-BLAKE, "Appendix: A Brief Summary of the Action of Declarator brought by Ten Matriculated Lady Students against the Senatus of Edinburgh University 1872–1873." In: Medical Women: A Th esis and A History. New York: Source Book Press 1970, p. 10. On women and medical training in 19th century Britain, see Véronique MOLINARI, "'Schools of their Own': Th e Ladies Medical College and the London School of Medicine for Women." In: D. ANDREOLLE – V. MOLINARI (eds.), Women and Science, 17th Century to Present. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars 2011, pp. 99–124. On midwifery training at Scottish Universities before 1830, see Eileen Janes YEO, "Medicine, Science and the Body." In: L. ABRAMS – E. J. YEO (eds.), Gender in Scottish History Since 1700. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press 2006, pp. 141–142 (140–169). On the general exclusion of women from institutions, see SCHIEBINGER, Th e Mind has No Sex, p. 10–36. 67 On the openness of the University of Edinburgh, see MORELL, "Science in Manchester." 68 MORELL, "Science in Manchester," p. 45. 69 MORELL, "Science and Scottish University Reform," p. 48–55. From Near to Far 36 numbers to their classrooms, thereby building a local audience for popular science by associating science with spectacle. Regius Professor of Natural History Jameson, "a feeble lecturer who lacked charisma," increased his class from 50 to 200 by 1826 by attracting students and numerous townspeople through off ering a comprehensive list of lecture topics for the already popular subject, showing numerous specimens, hosting fi eld trips, making himself available outside class hours, and as Regius Keeper of the Natural History Museum, off ering free admission to all of his students. 70 When John Leslie, shift ed chairs in 1819 from Mathematics to Natural Philosophy, his base salary dropped from £148 to £52 making him more aware than ever of his dependence on student fees. When visiting France in 1814, Leslie learned that French savants earned £5000-£6000 per year, and so his request was relatively modest when he suggested to Scottish University Commissioners that annual professorial incomes be increased to £300.71 Unable to make his subject compulsory for medical students (which would have doubled his enrollment), Leslie's class size remained steady at 150 students from 1819 to 1826, although he off ered a broad range of topics, with about 1000 lectureexperiments. Still the lack of prerequisites and the consequently low mathematics ability of many students frustrated Leslie, obliging him to adapt his pedagogical approach. Leslie attempted to fi x the challenges inherent to uneven aptitudes and expectations, by proposing two classes: "the specialized and mathematical; and the elementary, qualitative and popular."72 Th ough his bid to off er an advanced class ultimately failed, his elementary class begun in the 1826-1827 academic year was exceedingly popular. Still Leslie never achieved class sizes like those of chemistry professor Th omas Charles Hope. Th ough he was given no base salary, Hope taught a popular, practical and compulsory subject and built on those advantages by eschewing research altogether. Regularly lecturing to over 500 students at once with large, custom-built demonstration apparatuses, Morell claims, "One person in 300 in Edinburgh attended his lectures." 73 In 1826, when Hope admitted women to his class, Henry Cockburn (who would later try to stop the establishment of Short's Observatory on Calton Hill) snidely reported that some students even brought dates.74 Four years later, David Brewster (who had deplored the equipment of the Royal Observatory) criticized the state 70 Ibid., p. 49. 71 Ibid., p. 51. 72 Ibid., p. 52. 73 Ibid., p. 54. 74 Ibid., p. 55. Alison Reiko Loader 37 of Scottish science by parodying the mercenary showmanship of university classes: No sooner is a professor installed behind the counter of his lecture-room than it becomes his single object to enrich himself with the fees of his ready-money customers. His handbills announce the quality of his wares; – the cups and balls and the fi re-works of science are summoned into requisition, and by the legerdemain and alchemy of his art he transmutes his baser metals into gold.75 With income and class expenses mostly dependent on class fees, the faculty were essentially "freelance independent teachers" in a system that rewarded class size over student excellence, where "every man and his fee were welcome."76 While low salaries prompted instructors to earn extra money through private instruction (which would have been available in some instances to women), the focus on class size could provide additional educational opportunities (as in the case of Hope) making the Scottish university system more open than aft er its 1833 reform.77 Although there is no evidence of Maria Short having any scientifi c instruction, the structure of the University of Edinburgh aff ected her and her observatory-building predecessors in at least three ways. First, the low base salary and competition for students may have prompted Maclaurin's successor Matthew Stewart to deplete the observatory fund that might have paid for the completion and equipping of Th omas's observatory, which would have considerably changed Maria's circumstances. Second, reliant on class enrolment and patrons for income and research funds, university professors themselves articulated science with popularity. Instead of embezzlement, most professors wanting to improve their fi nances would apply tactics such as chair-hopping for better base pay or more popular subjects, and sought alternative means of support such as private tutoring, public lecturing or elite patronage – all activities that depended on gaining favour outside the exclusive and masculine domain of academia. University policy therefore multiplied the sites of science across the city and opened them to the participation of women and other amateurs through the extracurricular activities of its faculty, while inside some classrooms it took spectacular eff ect. Th ird, lack of funding for 75 David BREWSTER, "[Review of] Refl exions on the Decline of Science in England and on Some of its Causes by Charles Babbage (Reprinted from Th e Quartery Review, Volume.43). London, 1830." In: Debates on the Decline of Science. New York: Arno Press 1975, p. 326 (305–342). 76 MORELL, "Science and Scottish University Reform," p. 46. 77 YEO, "Medicine, Science and the Body," p. 157. From Near to Far 38 equipment and facilities encouraged affi liations between researchers and private individuals and institutions, and that fostered University and Town Council involvement and interference with the projects of Maria Short and her predecessors. Societies and Patrons Steven Shapin argues that audiences were essential to the support of nonmedical sciences in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Whereas medicine had achieved the critical mass to form a professional community by the 1730s, other sciences lacked substantial numbers of experts to constitute a professional peer group.78 Th is was largely due to Town Council's focus on medical studies as a strategy to enhance university enrolment and bring student money to the city, and its policies of hiring only one professor per scientifi c topic and paying little for research and equipment. Th us when Alexander Monro primus became ill in 1737 and could no longer lead the likewise ailing Medical Society, Colin Maclaurin transformed it from a society of medical specialists into the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh (or the Society for Improving Arts and Sciences and particularly Natural Knowledge), including in its forty-fi ve person membership, fi ft een "Gentlemen who do not make Philosophy or Physick their particular Profession."79 Maclaurin and his colleagues well understood the advantages of elite patronage; societies could create reciprocal relationships by giving nonscientifi c but moneyed members status-enhancing cultural capital through association. For these relationships to succeed, scientists needed to adopt the following strategies: 1) appeal to the interests of the most powerful members of their audience; 2) turn science into a pleasurable social activity; 3) draw connections between science and general culture; and 4) communicate information using familiar pedagogical styles, namely humanistic and philosophical discourse.80 While numerous scientifi c societies developed in diff erent places across Britain, each had audiences with uniquely local characters. For example, from 1799 to 1803 the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society (founded in 1781) had twenty-six members with half being merchants and manufacturers, and only one listed as a gentleman.81 Th e Manchester elite preferred experi78 Steven SHAPIN, "Th e Audience for Science in Eighteenth-Century Edinburgh." History of Science, vol. 12, 1974, p. 98 (95–121). 79 Ibid., p.99. 80 Ibid., p.166. 81 CLARK, "Th e Pursuit of Prosopography of Science," p. 227. Alison Reiko Loader 39 mental chemistry and physics to botany or natural history, since the former were more relevant to local industry.82 However, Shapin explains: Th e Edinburgh commercial classes were as yet insignifi cant and politically impotent; local medical men were numerous, but relatively poor. Th ere was no real alternative to seeking cultural patronage and approval among the gentry and aristocrats.83 Landed gentry and their relations, the great lawyers, formed the chief supporters of non-medical science in Edinburgh and their "overarching concern – the 'improvement' of the Scottish nation" was both cultural (to be more like the English aristocracy) and agricultural (since land reform had turned feudal clan chiefs into landowners).84 Wanting to increase profi ts from farming and mineral rights, which could also help improve their social standing, Edinburgh elites counted agriculture, horticulture, geology and meteorology among their primary scientifi c interests. Other sciences would have needed to justify their local utility to obtain substantial patronage. In a 1741 bid to raise funds for an observatory, Colin Maclaurin explained that astronomy could help navigation and trade, and be useful for "ascertaining the geography of this Country even of the distant parts," while seventy years later Sir George Mackenzie attempting the same, called astronomy "the most noble, as well as the most useful of the sciences."85 Shapin notes the "desperate time" experienced by Mackenzie's Astronomical Institution to fi nance the city observatory in 1818.86 Except for the Earl of Morton (who initiated contributions to Maclaurin's observatory fund and championed James Short), it seems that few among the Edinburgh elite cared much for planets, moons and stars. Yet in their eff orts to raise funds for an astronomical observatory, professors and enthusiasts promoted astronomy to the nonscientifi c, and introduced the notion of a popular observatory, perhaps inadvertently preparing ground for Maria Short. Professionalization and Reform Although the Royal Observatory had its own camera obscura and popular observatory, its relationship to Short's Observatory was not simply one of 82 SHAPIN, "Th e Audience for Science," p. 109. 83 Ibid., p. 110. 84 Ibid., p. 101. 85 BRYDEN, "Th e Edinburgh Observatory," p. 451, 445. 86 SHAPIN, "Th e Audience for Science," p. 113. From Near to Far 40 competition. Considering Maria's project an aff ront, the Astronomical Institution worried that its proximity might compromise their elite status and prestigious location on Calton Hill – the "Acropolis" to the "modern Athens" that was nineteenth-century Edinburgh.87 Th ose wanting to elevate science might deplore any reminder of the classroom showmanship and patronage, they sought to suppress. In Maria Short's time, science was changing. Its spectacular and popular nature emerged from the salary structure of the university, but contemporary movements towards professionalization would see that shift , along with its traditional reliance on patronage. Yet the movement was not only based on the desire for stable funding. By the early decades of the nineteenth century, problems wrought by the entanglement of the scientifi c with the aristocratic emerged amidst other disruptions within science and politics. Th e Royal Society of Edinburgh (founded in 1783) had evolved out of Maclaurin's Philosophical Society and from its dubious beginnings, the RSE was entangled and indebted to Tory politics to the dismay of young middle class Whigs, who resented its "illiberal exclusiveness."88 Henry Brougham, a member of the infl uential "Edinburgh Review circle" lamented, Th e Royal Societies are sunk in a sort of inertia, or at least are so much ruled by party, and what is more by political party, and still worse by aristocratical politics, – that their labours are useless to science.89 In London, a large and wealthy population with diverse interests had led to multiple specialized scientifi c societies that threatened its Royal Society, which had been increasingly denigrated by some of its scientifi c members for admitting too many amateurs distinguished only by title and affl uence. Dissatisfaction with the RS climaxed with Cambridge mathematics professor Charles Babbage's 1830 Refl ections on the Decline of Science in England and Some of its Causes. Babbage criticized dilettantism while recommending state encouragement and the professionalization of science, which he argued was already in place in Prussia and France.90 In England, Babbage wrote, "It 87 John BRITTON, Modern Athens, Displayed in a Series of Views; or, Edinburgh in the Nineteenth Century. Bronx: B. Blom, 1969 [1831]. 88 Steven SHAPIN, "Property, Patronage, and the Politics of Science: Th e Founding of the Royal Society of Edinburgh." Th e British Journal for the History of Science, vol. 7, 1974, no. 1, p. 38 (1–41). 89 Ibid., p. 39 (1–41). 90 Charles BABBAGE, Refl ections on the Decline of Science in England. Farnborough: Gregg 1969, p. 31–32. Alison Reiko Loader 41 appears that scarcely any man can be expected to pursue abstract science unless he possess a private fortune, and unless he can give up all intention of improving it." Babbage's call to arms was swift ly adopted by Edinburgh physicist and editor David Brewster, who was struggling fi nancially and unhappy with the Royal Society of Edinburgh where he worked as its Secretary for several years.91 Responding to Babbage's polemic, Brewster lamented the lack of fi nancial support for Scottish scientifi c societies or its members, and argued that Edinburgh professors required better salaries to pursue research and thus advance themselves, the university and the country.92 Along with William Vernon Harcourt, Babbage, and numerous other sympathizers, Brewster founded the British Association for the Advancement of Science (BAAS) in 1831. Brewster's original hope for the organization was that it would agitate for the state sponsorship of science, whereas the BAAS by 1834 was "relatively indiff erent to the question of direct national support for men of science."93 Instead the BAAS concerned itself with the promotion of science through public engagement and traveling events. Th ere were other movements afoot in Edinburgh's spaces of science in the early decades of the nineteenth century with both school and social reform. In July 1826, Home Secretary Robert Peel established the Scottish Universities Commission to investigate the fi ve universities. At the time, revitalized and new institutions such as the medical schools of Glasgow, Cambridge, Dublin and London University off ered serious competition to the University of Edinburgh for students and new faculty, while Town Council battled with the University Senate for control of school administration. Town Council remained in charge of two-thirds of the chairs and each new appointment was scrutinized for evidence of partisan corruption, nepotism and ignorance.94 At the same time, the Edinburgh Whigs founded alternative institutions including the School of Arts in 1821 by Leonard Horner, which became the model for Henry Brougham's Mechanics Institutes. In 1832, the Edinburgh Philosophical Association extended scientifi c instruction from the elite and artisanal to the petty bourgeoisie, off ering inexpensive lectures aft er business hours to clerks and shopkeepers by capitalizing on the local surplus of expertise. Shapin writes that this new mercantile participation in science was beyond the control of Tories, Whigs, or the phrenologists who tried to 91 MORELL, Science, Culture, and Politics in Britain, p. 1–10. 92 BREWSTER, "[Review of] Refl exions on the Decline," p. 325–326. 93 MORELL, Science, Culture, and Politics in Britain, p. 10. 94 MORELL, "Science and Scottish University Reform," p. 39–45. From Near to Far 42 use the EPA to further their own interests in the diff usion of science.95 While the intellectual elites of this period envisioned science as a career, others used science to legitimate or undermine existing orders. However, the incommensurability of national goals and local needs halted alliances between scientifi cally minded reformers and the lower classes. Short's Observatory emerged in this period, amidst the promotion of science to broader audiences and its exploitation by various factions with competing aims. Th e responses to Maria Short and her project reveals the shift ing and uncertain character of local science. Th e Short name evoked the academic heroes of the previous century, while her spectacles could draw on the prestige of science and tempt those wanting better views of the stars. University payment structures had long made popularization integral to scientifi c life in Edinburgh, while astronomy had failed to attract suffi cient local fi nancial support to properly equip an observatory. Moreover, the promotion of science by those who would see it professionalized and those who would see it reformed, had helped extend the audience for science beyond institutional walls. While Short's Observatory may have benefi tted from these local practices of science, it hardly means that a woman like Maria Short could expect an easy time. Part III: Th e Broad Point of View Had Maria Short been her father's son, she might have received an inheritance without question, she might have attended university, she might have become a professor, and she might have joined a scientifi c society. However, all these routes were closed because she was a woman, and because she was a woman in nineteenth-century Britain, she would fi nd participating in public and therefore scientifi c life an increasingly disparaged task. Two related and parallel trends emerged in Maria's time: 1) a discourse of separate spheres that would gender space into public (male) and private (female); and 2) the professionalization of science that would elevate its status by moving its practices away from the domestic spaces where women's contributions could more easily take place. It is possible that the 1850 eviction of Short's Observatory from Calton Hill aft er fi ft een years of operation signifi es that, by the mid-nineteenth century, these ideologies had taken full hold. Recall 95 Steven SHAPIN, "'Nibbling at the teats of science': Edinburgh and the Diff usion of Science in the 1830s." In: INKSTER, I – MORRELL, J. (eds.), Metropolis and Province: Science in British Culture 1780–1850. London: Hutchinson Education 1983, pp. 151–178. Alison Reiko Loader 43 that it was the distribution of handbills (publicity) that proved to be Maria's fi nal, unforgivable off ense. Understanding the role that gender played in the separation of spaces around Short's Observatory requires considerably more research. Much of the history of science in Edinburgh dates back to the 1970s and before the 1990s, both historians of science and feminist scholars tended to ignore the histories of women and science.96 Th us historiographical, as well as historical, marginalization of women makes the study of their experiences challenging albeit essential and it requires the untangling of discourse (such as the absence and domesticity of women) from lived experience. Th e example of Maria Short suggests that the separation of women from scientifi c and public space was more prescriptive than descriptive, and the involvement of numerous women in the promotion of science as writers, audience members and social facilitators problematize divisions between public and private.97 Are society, entertainment, and informal education – activities pursued and directed by both women and men – private, domestic, or amateur? Scientifi c research and production by women was not uncommon before ideologies of separate space and professionalism. Without the necessity of university education or other credentials required to work in public domains, women could practice science at home, though later as increasingly "invisible assistants" to male relatives.98 Noblewomen could gain limited access to scientifi c knowledge by off ering public recognition and patronage in exchange for private instruction by scientifi c men of lesser rank, channelling knowledge into writing or using their connections to run salons and act as social go-betweens. Following craft traditions, which valued practical skill including calculation, illustration and observation over "book learning," women of humbler birth participated in household workshops as "daughters and apprentices, wives assisting their husbands, independent artisans, or widows who inherited the family business."99 96 Marina BENJAMIN, "Introduction." In: BENJAMIN, M (eds.), Science and Sensibility: Gender and Scientifi c Enquiry, 1780–1945. Oxford–Cambridge: B. Blackwell 1991, p. 4 (1–23). 97 On women and science writing, see Barbara T. GATES – Ann B. SHTEIR (eds.), Natural Eloquence: Women Reinscribe Science. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press 1997, pp. 3–24. On women in science societies, see Rebekah HIGGIT – Charles W. J. WITHERS, "Science and Sociability: Women as Audience at the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1831–1901." Isis, vol. 99, 2008, no. 1, pp. 1–27. 98 SCHIEBINGER, Th e Mind Has No Sex, p. 245. 99 Ibid., p. 67. From Near to Far 44 Two home-based fi elds that saw the participation of women well into the nineteenth century relate directly to observatory use. First, a number of women were active in astronomy, which (like entomology) followed "craft traditions" since its practitioners lived in or near their spaces of study. Between 1650 and 1710, 14% of German astronomers were women, while outside Germany, Margaret Flamsteed (1670–1739) and Elizabeth Helvius (1643–1697), worked alongside their spouses and managed their posthumous publications.100 British astronomy also saw women actively doing research in Maria Short's time. Comet-fi nder Caroline Herschel (1750–1848), who had been groomed by her brother Astronomer Royal William Herschel fi rst as an opera singer and then as an assistant-astronomer, became the fi rst woman to publish in the Royal Society's Philosophical Transactions (although she could not be a society member).101 Fellow honorary (but not offi cial) member of the Royal Astronomical Society, Scottish writer Mary Somerville (1780–1872), the "Queen of Science" took advantage of early widowhood and a supportive second spouse to pursue mathematics and astronomy.102 While perhaps not as submissive or self-eff acing as Herschel, Somerville took care to publicly conform to feminine ideals "so as not to appear transgressive."103 As a socialite in Edinburgh, her charm and talent drew the attention and encouragement of its local intellectuals including future mathematics professor William Wallace.104 Th e reputation of Maria Short, however was much less genteel. Upon making the decision to remove Short's Observatory from Calton Hill, the Lord Provost of Edinburgh complained that, "he had had more annoyance with this woman, during the past eighteen months, than with all other business of the Council."105 Th e scientifi c instrument trade was the other craft tradition connected to Short's work. Alison Morrison-Low researched the participation of women from the late eighteenth to nineteenth centuries by studying street directories and census occupation listings – uncovering numerous 100 Women in astronomy in Germany, as elsewhere, worked beside male relatives and not in offi cial positions. For example, when Maria Winkelmann applied to replace her husband as assistant astronomer in 1710 at the Academy of Berlin, her petition was denied despite having partnered in his research. See SCHIEBINGER, Th e Mind Has No Sex, p. 79–98. See also BRÜCK, Stars and Satellites, p. 1–7. 101 SCHIEBINGER, Th e Mind Has No Sex, p. 262–263; BRÜCK, Stars and Satellites, p. 25–44. 102 BRÜCK, Stars and Satellites, p. 67–79. 103 YEO, "Medicine, Science and the Body," p. 158. 104 MADDRELL, Complex Locations, p. 40. 105 "Town Council Proceedings," Th e Scotsman, June 19, 1850, p. 3. Alison Reiko Loader 45 British women instrument-makers including opticians and telescope-makers in London and Edinburgh. Morrison-Low estimates that the numerically small and geographically limited instrument trade had a workforce of thousands with female participants numbering in the hundreds.106 Many identifi ed by her research were likely widows although the nature of their work (as business managers or artisans) cannot be determined, nor the duration of their ownership (some may have been in the process of closing or preparing to transfer the business to male heirs). Also absent from her study were women employed by shops run by men. Still her study indicates a trade characterized by small family businesses that would have included widows, wives and daughters. Maria Short was not even the fi rst woman to operate a camera obscura on Calton Hill. Th e Astronomical Institution paid Agnes MacArthur from June 1816 onwards as "Keeper of the Camera," and aft er their "Keeper of the Observatory" (her father) Peter MacArthur passed away, Agnes herself wrote to the Institution secretary recommending her fi ancé.107 Since Maria was orphaned by age 8 and little is known of her life before 1827, there is no way of knowing where or whether she learned about astronomy or the instrument trade. A letter attesting to her identity indicate that she and her sister Margaret studied arithmetic and writing, and that Maria spent some time abroad.108 All else is speculation. As the posthumous daughter of Th omas Short, her mother Jacobina, an older sibling or the family friends that took in the Short sisters may have given her additional instruction. She may have even reunited with the Douglases, Th omas's grandchildren from his fi rst marriage. Otherwise, Maria could have educated herself with popular astronomical books and charts, and if lacking experience, hired knowledgeable employees to operate her instruments.109 Th e appearance of competency likely outweighed her need for actual technical ability. 106 A.D. MORRISON-LOW, "Women in the Nineteenth-Century Scientifi c Instrument Trade." In: BENJAMIN, M (eds.), Science and Sensibility: Gender and Scientifi c Enquiry, 1780–1945. Oxford–Cambridge: B. Blackwell 1991, pp. 89–117. 107 On Agnes MacArthur's wages, see Astronomical Institution, "Treasurer's Account Book, 1812–1834," p. 19. Regarding her letter to James Nairn (the Institution secretary), see "Minute Book." Volume 1 (1811–1831), 26 April 1830, p. 285–286. On the removal of the Institution's camera obscura, see "Minute Book." Volume 2 (1831–1847), 11 November 1839, p. 150. Copies of all three books are stored on microfi lm at the National Archives of Scotland, NAS RH4/153. 108 Chris CAMPBELL, "Letter of Attestation," May 23, 1828. Edinburgh City Archives, Bundle 105 D/8; Th omas FLEMING, "Subscription letter." 109 WALLACE, "Maria Obscura," p. 105. From Near to Far 46 Given that women had worked to promote science (as popular writers and social directors), astronomers, observatory keepers and instrument-makers, the operation of a popular observatory by an optician's daughter and niece of a renowned telescope-maker was perhaps not all that absurd to many of her compatriots. Conclusion Th e Edinburgh of Maria Short and her popular observatories witnessed political, social, and economic upheaval. In the period roughly between 1790 and 1830, Britain experienced "widespread economic change" in its industrial regions resulting in a "social revolution" and the emergence of "signifi cant social groups and institutions." 110 Amidst the turbulence, it seems plausible that the savvy could fi nd space for remarkable action. When Maria Short arrived in Edinburgh in the late 1820s, the city was still without a working observatory, due as much to local indiff erence as to misfortune. Th e traditional and entangled arbiters of science in Edinburgh – men of the university, Town Council and the Royal Society – were besieged by internal confl icts and reformist tendencies, while others sought to diff use science towards new non-elite networks. Audiences for science had been primed in multiple quarters (sometimes for decades), with showmanship practiced by university professors seeking greater class enrolment for greater renumeration, researchers courting society patrons, would-be professionals seeking public support, and reformers reaching out to lower classes. As science writers and social mavens, women had already been engaged in the popularization of science, and Short emerged out of craft -oriented, home-based fi elds with traditions of female participation – astronomy and instrument-making. Yet it is remarkable that an unknown woman built two popular observatories beginning with little more than an aging instrument and the name of a long dead uncle. Better educated, more prominent and wealthier men had failed for years to adequately equip just one site to explore the stars above Edinburgh. While city fathers, elite amateurs and men of science wrangled over questions of status and accessibility, Maria Short exhibited technologies that revealed the movements of celestial, urban and miniature bodies to an avid 110 Ian INKSTER. "Introduction: Aspects of the History of Science and Science Culture in Britain, 1780–1850 and Beyond." In: INKSTER, I – MORRELL, J. (eds.), Metropolis and Province: Science in British Culture 1780–1850. London: Hutchinson Education 1983, p. 40 (11–54). Alison Reiko Loader 47 public. Mapping the historic and social background of her activities with an analogous set of magnifi cations suggests that her unexpected establishment of the sensational Short Observatories is a signifi cant and rather spectacular case of instrumentalizing the right space at the right time. From Near to Far