Summer 2012 115 115 Blameworthy Environmental Beliefs Daniel C. Fouke* 7KRPDV+LOO-UKDVIDPRXVO\DUJXHGWKDWZKDWUHDOO\ERWKHUVXVDERXWHQYLURQPHQWDOGHJUDGDWLRQLVEHVWGLVFRYHUHGE\DVNLQJ :KDWNLQGRISHUVRQZRXOGGRVXFKDWKLQJ"μ%HOLHIV VRPHRIZKLFKDUHEODPHZRUWK\DUHDPRQJWKHWKLQJVWKDWGHÀQHZKDWNLQGRISHUVRQRQH LV:KDWZHFDUHDERXWLVUHÁHFWHGLQZKHWKHURQH*VHSLVWHPLFSUDFWLFHVDOLJQZLWKRQH*VFRUH PRUDOFRQYLFWLRQVDQGFRPPRQVWDQGDUGVRIGHFHQF\2XUPRUDOVHQVLWLYLWLHVDUHUHÁHFWHG LQZKDWZHDWWHQGWRDQGUHÁHFWXSRQ:KDWZHGRQRWQRWLFHFDQEHDUHVXOWRIFXOSDEOH LQGLIIHUHQFHRUVHOIGHFHSWLRQ(QYLURQPHQWDOEHOLHIVIRUPHGZLWKQHJOLJHQWGLVUHJDUGIRU WKHULVNVWKH\FUHDWHIRURWKHUVDUHUHÁHFWLRQVRIDYLFLRXVPRUDOFKDUDFWHU%HOLHIVRIFLWL]HQV KDYHFRQVHTXHQFHV7KH\GHWHUPLQHZKDWSROLWLFLDQVZLOOUHVSRQGWRDQGZKDWSROLFLHVWKH\ ZLOOLQWURGXFH,GHRORJLFDOFRPPLWPHQWVKDYHEHHQVKRZQWRLQÁXHQFHZKDWRQHWDNHVWREH the facts about risks. When the ethical dimensions of environmental beliefs and ignorance DUHXQFKDOOHQJHGVRFLHW\GULIWVPRUDOO\(PSKDVL]LQJWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQFRPPRQO\ shared moral convictions (more basic than ideological commitments) and risky environmental EHOLHIVDQGDFWLRQVKDVPRUHSRWHQWLDOWRFUHDWHHQYLURQPHQWDODZDUHQHVVWKDQWKHFXUUHQW IRFXVRQHQYLURQPHQWDOVFLHQFHDQGWKHHFRQRPLFEHQHÀWVRIEHWWHUHQYLURQPHQWDOSROLFLHV * Department of Philosophy, University of Dayton, 300 College Park, Dayton, OH 45469-1546; HPDLO'DQLHOIRXNH#QRWHVXGD\WRQHGX)RXNH*VSULPDU\UHVHDUFKKDVEHHQLQHDUO\PRGHUQSKLORVRphy. He is the author of Philosophy and Theology in a Burlesque Mode: John Toland and the Way of Paradox 1HZ<RUN3URPHWKHXV%RRNVDQGThe Enthusiastical Concerns of Dr. Henry Moore: Religious Meaning and the Psychology of Delusion /HLGHQ(-%ULOO 0RUHUHFHQWO\KHKDV EHHQZRUNLQJLQSROLWLFDODQGHQYLURQPHQWDOSKLORVRSK\DQGKDVSXEOLVKHG Democratic Deliberation DQG0RUDO$ZDUHQHVVμJournal of Public Deliberation DUWKWWSVHUYLFHVEHSUHVVFRP MSGYROLVVDUWDQG +XPDQVDQGWKH6RLOμEnvironmental Ethics 2 17KRPDV+LOO-U ,GHDOVRI+XPDQ([FHOOHQFHDQG3UHVHUYLQJ1DWXUDO(QYLURQPHQWVμLQ5RQDOG Sandler and Philip Cafaro, eds., Environmental Virtue Ethics 1HZ<RUN5RZPDQDQG/LWWOHÀHOG 2005), pp. 47, 50. INTRODUCTION  7KRPDV+LOO-UKDVDUJXHGWKDWDVNLQJ :KDWNLQGRISHUVRQZRXOGGRVXFKD WKLQJ"μEHVWFDSWXUHVRXUPRUDOUHDFWLRQWRHQYLURQPHQWDOGHJUDGDWLRQ1 That quesWLRQOHDGVWRDZKROHVHULHVRIIXUWKHUTXHVWLRQV2QHRIWKHUHDVRQVSHUVRQVDFWLQ WKHZD\VWKH\GRLVWKHSDUWLFXODUEHOLHIVWKH\KROG6RDPRQJWKHWKLQJVZHPXVW IXUWKHUDVNDUH :KDWNLQGRISHUVRQZRXOGKROGDQGEHPRWLYDWHGE\WKHEHOLHIV WKDWOHDGKLPRUKHUWRGRWKHNLQGVRIWKLQJVKHRUVKHGRHV"μ2ULQFDVHVZKHUHWKH DFWLRQVDUHEDVHGRQLJQRUDQFHZHPLJKWDVN :KDWNLQGRISHUVRQZRXOGEH ignorant of the facts that might dissuade him or her from doing the kinds of things KHRUVKHGRHV"μ)XUWKHUPXFKRIWKHKDUPWKDWLVRFFXUULQJWRWKHHQYLURQPHQW LVEDVHGRQ LQDFWLRQ&LWL]HQV DQGSROLWLFLDQV WKUHDWHQ WKHZHOIDUHRIKXPDQLW\ because they do nothing to halt systematic degradation of the environment. This LVFOHDUO\WKHFDVHZLWKUHJDUGWRFOLPDWHFKDQJH7RHIIHFWLYHO\DGGUHVVLWZRXOG KDYHUHTXLUHGUDGLFDOSROLFLHVLQWURGXFHGGHFDGHVDJR\HWHYHQQRZWKH8QLWHG ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS116 Vol. 34 6WDWHVLVQRZKHUHQHDUDJUHHPHQWRQDFRXUVHRIDFWLRQ2QHZKRH[DPLQHVWKHLVVXHVFORVHO\ZRXOGFRQFOXGHWKDWZHDUHLQWKHPLGVWRIDQHQYLURQPHQWDOFULVLV1RW only the American Academy of Sciences, but academies of science in South Africa, the United Kingdom, Brazil, Canada, Italy, India, China, Japan, France, Russia, Mexico, and Germany have issued statements urging immediate action on climate FKDQJH%XWFOLPDWHFKDQJHLVIDUIURPWKHRQO\HQYLURQPHQWDOSUREOHPZHIDFH7R PHQWLRQRQO\DIHZRWKHUVWKHLQFUHDVLQJO\UDSLGGHFOLQHRISROOLQDWRUVSODFHVRXU IRRGVXSSO\DWULVNRXUZDWHUVDUHVRSROOXWHGWKDWZHDUHUHJXODUO\ZDUQHGWROLPLW WKHQXPEHURIÀVKZHHDWDQGHYHU\SHUVRQRQWKHSODQHWFDUULHVDFKHPLFDOERG\ burden, so that one of the most intimate, healthful, and loving human acts-breastIHHGLQJ3IRUFHVQHZPRWKHUVWRZHLJKWKHULVNRIH[SRVLQJWKHLULQIDQWVWRWKHWR[LQV that contaminate mother's milk.26RZHPXVWDOVRDVN :KDWNLQGRISHUVRQV ZRXOGKROGEHOLHIVWKDWSURGXFHUHVLVWDQFHWRDFWLRQXQGHUFLUFXPVWDQFHVVRGLUHDQG WKUHDWHQLQJ"μ :KDWNLQGRISHUVRQVZRXOGEHLJQRUDQWRIVXFKLPSRUWDQWIDFWV WKDWPLJKWPRWLYDWHKLPRUKHUWRDFW"μ:KLOHLWLVREYLRXVWKDWH[FXVLQJFRQGLWLRQV FDQH[LVW,DUJXHWKDWLQVHHNLQJWRDQVZHUWKHVHTXHVWLRQVZHZLOOÀQGWKDWVRPH cases of environmental beliefs or ignorance are vicious or culpable. CULPABLE IGNORANCE, RECKLESSNESS, AND NEGLIGENCE  3HRSOHZKRVHIDOVHEHOLHIVRULJQRUDQFHOHDGWKHPWRDFWLRQRULQDFWLRQGRQRW intentionally harm others. But our language, and our legal system, contains adjecWLYHVIRUEODPHZRUWK\EXWXQLQWHQWLRQDOZURQJGRLQJWKHV\QRQ\PVcarelessness, recklessness,3 and negligence1HJOLJHQFHDQGFXOSDEOHLJQRUDQFHRFFXUZKHQDJHQWV GRQRWSD\DWWHQWLRQWRRUDUHLJQRUDQWRIWKHULVNVWKH\LPSRVHXSRQRWKHUV+RZ FDQRQHEHPRUDOO\EODPHZRUWK\IRUYLRODWLQJDQRUPXQNQRZLQJO\"&XOSDELOLW\ in such instances, must rest upon the claim that one oughtWREHDZDUH3RQHought WRNQRZ'LVFXVVLRQVRImens rea JXLOW\PLQGμE\OHJDOVFKRODUVVKHGVRPHOLJKW on these issues. To be guilty of most crimes, a defendant must have committed the criminal act-the actus reus-in a certain mental state-the mens rea. For example, to be criminally liable for robbery, the action must be accompanied by the intention to SHUPDQHQWO\GHSULYHWKHRZQHURIKLVSURSHUW\%XW.LPEHUO\)HU]DQEULQJVXSDQ H[DPSOHWRVKRZWKHFRPSOH[LW\RIGHWHUPLQLQJZKDWFRQVWLWXWHVD JXLOW\PLQGμ in cases of recklessness and negligence. She asks us to imagine a man rushing ODWHWRZRUNZKRVHHVD\HOORZOLJKWLQWKHLQWHUVHFWLRQDKHDGZKLFKKHH[SHFWVWR turn red just as he approaches the intersection, but he decides to drive through the LQWHUVHFWLRQDQ\ZD\$VKHGRHVDSHGHVWULDQZDONVLQIURQWRIKLVFDUDQGLVVWUXFN dead. This act makes him guilty of criminal homicide, but the degree and nature of 26HH)ORUHQFH:LOOLDPV 7R[LF%UHDVW0LONμNew York Times Magazine-DQXDU\KWWS ZZZQ\WLPHVFRPPDJD]LQH72;,&KWPO 3 RecklessnessLVGHULYHGIURPWKHQRZDUFKDLFYHUEto reck,PHDQLQJ WRFDUHRUKDYHFRQFHUQIRUμ Summer 2012 117BLAMEWORTHY ENVIRONMENTAL BELIEFS KLVJXLOW3 ZKHWKHULWLVPXUGHUPDQVODXJKWHURUQHJOLJHQWKRPLFLGHμ3GHSHQG on his mental state at the time. He is not guilty of murder because he did not intend WRNLOOWKHSHGHVWULDQ1RUDFFRUGLQJWRWKHPRGHUQSHQDOFRGHZDVKHUHFNOHVV because he did not consciouslyGLVUHJDUGD VXEVWDQWLDODQGXQMXVWLÀDEOHULVNμWKDW he might kill someone. He did not think to himself, "Well, I might kill someone, EXW,DPJRLQJWRGRLWDQ\ZD\EHFDXVH,GRQRWZDQWWRDUULYHODWHWRZRUNμ6RPH GRFRQVFLRXVO\HQJDJHLQULVN\EHKDYLRU$ZRPDQGULYLQJWRDEDUWRJHWGUXQN ZKLOHIXOO\DZDUHRIWKHGDQJHUVVKHZRXOGSRVHRQKHUGULYHKRPHZRXOGEHJXLOW\ RIUHFNOHVVEHKDYLRU)HU]DQFDOOVWKLVNLQGRIEHKDYLRU SXUHUHFNOHVVQHVVμ4  :DVWKHPDQUXVKLQJWRZRUNQHJOLJHQW"7KDWZRXOGUHTXLUHWKDWKHEH PHUHO\ XQUHDVRQDEO\ XQDZDUH RI WKH VXEVWDQWLDO DQG XQMXVWLÀDEOH ULVNμ KH WRRN:KDW GLVWLQJXLVKHVUHFNOHVVQHVVIURPQHJOLJHQFHLVDZDUHQHVVDQGIRUHVLJKW$UHFNOHVV DJHQWLVDZDUHRIWKHULVNEXWWDNHVLWZKLOHDQHJOLJHQWDJHQWLVXQDZDUHRIDULVN WKDWKHRUVKHRXJKWWRKDYHEHHQDZDUHRIDQGLVJXLOW\RIFXOSDEOHLJQRUDQFH :KHQLWLVLPSRVVLEOHWRNQRZWKHULVNVLJQRUDQFHLVQRWFXOSDEOHEXWDQH[FXVH )HU]DQDUJXHVWKDWKHRUVKHZDVPRUHWKDQQHJOLJHQW$QH[DPSOHRIQHJOLJHQFH ZRXOGEHIRUH[DPSOHIDLOLQJWRHYHQEHDZDUHWKDWRQHZDVUXQQLQJDUHGOLJKW and risking the death of a pedestrian because one is busy adjusting the radio. This SHUVRQGLGFRQVFLRXVO\UXQWKHUHGOLJKWDQGNQHZWKDWGRLQJVRZDVULVN\EHKDYior. Ferzan's complaint against the modern penal code is that it does not recognize WKHJXLOWRIWKLVVRUWRIEHKDYLRUDQGGHÀQHV SXUHUHFNOHVVQHVVμDVWKHPLQLPDO OHYHORIFXOSDELOLW\)HU]DQFDOOVIRUFULPLQDOL]DWLRQRIZKDWVKHFDOOV RSDTXHO\ UHFNOHVVμDFWRUV3SHRSOHZKRFRQVFLRXVO\HQJDJHLQULVN\EHKDYLRUZKLOHIDLOLQJ WRWKLQNWKURXJKDQGZHLJKWKHULVNVDVWKH\RXJKWWR   E\WKHLUFKRLFHVWR HQJDJHLQGDQJHURXVDFWLRQVWKHVHSHRSOHKDYHVKRZQWKHPVHOYHVWREHFXOSDEOH DQGWKXVGHVHUYLQJRISXQLVKPHQWVLQFHWKH\NQRZWKHGDQJHURXVQHVVRIWKHLU DFWVDQGWKHUHIRUHFDQGHFLGHZKHWKHUWRFRPPLWWKRVHDFWVμ5 But moving from FULPLQDOWRPRUDOFXOSDELOLW\FDQZHVD\RI$PHULFDQFLWL]HQVDQGSROLWLFLDQVWKDW they consciously engage in environmentally risky behavior or consciously support SROLFLHVWKDWSRVHULVNVWRRWKHUV"2IWHQWKLVLVQRWDQHDV\TXHVWLRQWRDQVZHU If one does not believe that an environmental threat is occurring, can one reasonably be blamed for supporting risky policies or not supporting policies designed to ORZHUWKHULVNV"7KHPRVWVHULRXVHQYLURQPHQWDOULVNVDUHV\VWHPDWLFDOO\LPSRVHG by political and economic systems. Whether one takes the problem seriously enough WRDFWGHSHQGVSDUWO\RQRQH*VFRQÀGHQFHLQWKHUHVSRQVLYHQHVVRIJRYHUQPHQW,Q JHQHUDO$PHULFDQVKDYHYHU\OLWWOHFRQÀGHQFHLQWKHLUJRYHUQLQJLQVWLWXWLRQVDQG it must be admitted that it is for good reason. But the beliefs of citizens and policy makers are one of the obstacles to adopting policies that mitigate environmental ULVNV:KLOHRQHRIWKHPRVWLPSRUWDQWREOLJDWLRQVRIFLWL]HQVKLSLVWRNQRZEDVLF 4 .LPEHUO\)HU]DQ &ULPLQDO/DZ2SDTXH5HFNOHVVQHVVμJournal of Criminal Law and Criminology 2 5 Ibid., pp. 599, 601. ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS118 Vol. 34 IDFWVUHOHYDQWWRGHFLVLRQVDERXWZKDWSROLFLHVWRVXSSRUWWKLVUHVSRQVLELOLW\LVQRW HDVLO\PHWEHFDXVHRIWKHPDQ\VRFLDOIRUFHVWKDWLQÁXHQFHWKHIRUPDWLRQRIEHOLHI For example, VXSSRVHWKDW-RHZDVUDLVHGLQDIDPLO\WKDWIUHTXHQWO\UDQWVDERXW HQYLURQPHQWDO ZDFNRVμWKHLUVRFLDOLVWDJHQGDDQGGHVLUHWRVHL]HRUFRQWUROWKH SURSHUW\RIIUHHGRPORYLQJFLWL]HQVWKH MXQNμVFLHQFHWKH\XVHWRVXSSRUWWKHLU claims, and the exaggeration of environmental problems by the media. Suppose -RH*VSDUHQWVQHYHUWXUQWKHGLDOIURPDSDUWLFXODUUDGLRVWDWLRQWKDWZLWKRXWH[FHSWLRQ HVSRXVHV VLPLODUYLHZV DQG VXSSRVH WKDW -RH UHJXODUO\YLVLWVZHEVLWHV debunking climate change and the seriousness of environmental degradation. Joe LVVXUURXQGHGE\ LQIRUPDWLRQμWKDWDVVXUHVKLPWKDWWKHDJHQGDRIHQYLURQPHQWDOLVWVLVQRWEDVHGRQWUXVWZRUWK\VFLHQFHEXWEDVHVHOIVHUYLQJDQGXQSDWULRWLF PRWLYHV(QYLURQPHQWDOGLVLQIRUPDWLRQLVZLGHO\GLVVHPLQDWHGDQG3HWHU-DFTXHV has extensively documented the vast sums of money and effort spent on deluding people through such things corporately funded conservative think tanks.6 Indeed, VRPHVWXGLHVKDYHVKRZQWKDWDPRQJWKRVHZKRSULPDULO\JHWWKHLULQIRUPDWLRQ IURP)R[1HZVWKHJUHDWHUDWWHQWLRQWKH\SD\WRWKHQHZVWKHPRUHOLNHO\WKH\DUH to have false beliefs on some important issues.7  -RH*VSDUHQWVKLVIDYRULWHWHOHYLVLRQDQGUDGLRSURJUDPVDQGDZKROHQHWZRUN RIVLWHVRQWKHZHEUHLQIRUFHKLVYLHZVGDLO\-RHWUXVWVRQO\VRXUFHVWKDWFRQÀUP KLVYLHZVDQGUDUHO\ERWKHUVWRH[SRVHKLPVHOIWRRWKHUV:K\VKRXOGLWEHRWKHUZLVHZKHQVRPDQ\LQKLV WUXVWHGVRFLDOFLUFOHGHIDPHWKHVHRWKHUVRXUFHVRI LQIRUPDWLRQ":KHQKHGRHVKHDURWKHUSRLQWVRIYLHZKHLPPHGLDWHO\GLVPLVVHV WKHLUFUHGLELOLW\-RHKDVLQVRPHVHQVHEHHQEUDLQZDVKHGDQGWKURXJKVHOHFWLYH DWWHQWLRQSDUWLFLSDWHVLQFRQWLQXLQJWREUDLQZDVKKLPVHOI8QGHUFRQGLWLRQVVXFK DVWKHVHFDQLWUHDOO\EHVDLGWKDWKLVEHOLHIVDUHPRUDOO\EODPHZRUWK\"&RXOGKH UHDOO\EHOLHYHRWKHUZLVH"  2UVXSSRVH3DPZDVUDLVHGLQDIDPLO\WKDWIDWDOLVWLFDOO\DGRSWVWKHDWWLWXGHWKDW WKHUHLVQRSRLQWLQZRUU\LQJRULQYROYLQJRQHVHOILQDFWLYHFLWL]HQVKLSEHFDXVH the deck is stacked against the little people. Pam does not inform herself about policy, electoral politics, or ecologically important facts because there is no point LQZRUU\LQJDERXWWKLQJVWKDWFDQ*WEHFKDQJHG-RHKDVPLVWDNHQEHOLHIVEXW3DP LVFRQYLQFHGWKDWVKHLVSRZHUOHVVDQGEHFDXVHRIWKLVEHOLHIVKHLVVLPSO\LJQRUDQW of the relevant facts and absent of concern. Excusing conditions seem to absolve ERWK-RHDQG3DPRIEODPHIRUWKHLUEHOLHIV<HWVRPHRIXVZRQGHUZKHWKHUVXFK destructive beliefs and attitudes might indeed be culpable. 6WHYHQ6YHUGOLNVXUYH\VWKHGLIIHULQJPHWKRGVE\ZKLFKSKLORVRSKHUVKDYHWULHG WRDQDO\]HWKHIRXQGDWLRQVRIWKHPRUDOGLVFRPIRUWVRPHRIXVIHHOZKHQFRQIURQWHG ZLWKVXFKFDVHV2QRQHYLHZZKLFKKHWUDFHVWR$ULVWRWOHRQHLVFXOSDEO\PLVWDNHQ 6 Peter Jacques, Environmental Skepticism6XUUH\(QJODQG$VKJDWH  76WHYHQ.XOO&OD\5DPVD\DQG(YDQ/HZLV 0LVSHUFHSWLRQVWKH0HGLDDQGWKH,UDT:DUμPolitical Science Quarterly:LQWHU 2:RRGV,QVWLWXWH5HSRUW )UHTXHQW9LHZHUV RI)R[1HZVDUH/HVV/LNHO\WR$FFHSW6FLHQWLVWV*9LHZVRI*OREDO:DUPLQJμ 'HFHPEHUKWWS ZRRGVVWDQIRUGHGXGRFVVXUYH\V*OREDO:DUPLQJ)R[1HZVSGI Summer 2012 119 only if, at some earlier time one intentionally or negligently brought about a sequence RIHYHQWVWKDWOHGWRDGRSWLQJDPLVWDNHQEHOLHIRQZKLFKRQHODWHUDFWHGRUZKLFK FDXVHGRQHWRRPLWDFWLQJZKHQRQHVKRXOGKDYH8 For example, suppose a medical GRFWRUDQGDQHOHFWULFLDQDUHRQDVXEZD\ZKHQDZRPDQVXFFXPEVWRDVHULRXV ailment that requires immediate attention. Suppose this ailment is an instance of DQHSLGHPLFWKDWKDVEHHQVZHHSLQJWKURXJKWKHFLW\6XSSRVHWKDWWKHGRFWRUOHW XVFDOOKLP 'U'LQZLGG\μZRXOGKDYHNQRZQKRZWRWUHDWKHURQWKHVSRWLIKH KDGNHSWXSZLWKKLVSURIHVVLRQDOUHDGLQJEXWKHGLGQRWWDNHWKHWLPHWRUHDGWKH PHGLFDOMRXUQDOVFRQWDLQLQJWKLVYLWDOLQIRUPDWLRQ1HLWKHU'U'LQZLGG\QRUWKH HOHFWULFLDQKDVWKHNQRZOHGJHRIKRZWRWUHDWKHU%XW'U'LQZLGG\DQGQRWWKH HOHFWULFLDQZRXOGEHFXOSDEOH'LQZLGG\KDVWKHQHFHVVDU\H[SHUWLVHDQGWUDLQLQJ DQGLVREOLJDWHGE\KLVSURIHVVLRQDOUROHWRNQRZVXFKWKLQJV'U'LQZLGG\LVFXOSDEOHEHFDXVHKHRXJKWWRKDYHNQRZQEXWDFWHGQHJOLJHQWO\DWVRPHHDUOLHUWLPH NQRZLQJO\WDNLQJWKHULVNRIEHLQJXQHTXLSSHGWRKHOSYLFWLPVRIWKHHSLGHPLF  0LFKDHO=LPPHUPDQDQG+ROO\6PLWKDUHH[SRQHQWVRIWKLV $ULVWRWHOLDQYLHZμ DFFRUGLQJWRZKLFKWREHFXOSDEOHIRUDQLJQRUDQWDFWRQHPXVWEHFXOSDEOHIRUWKH LJQRUDQFHWKDWSURGXFHGWKDWDFW=LPPHUPDQFODLPVZLWKRXWH[SODQDWLRQWKDW RQH LVQHYHULQFRQWURORIZKHWKHURQHLVLJQRUDQWμ6RLIWKHLJQRUDQFHLVFXOSDEOHLW PXVWEHGHULYHGIURPLWVUHODWLRQVKLSZLWKVRPHWKLQJHOVHWKDWLVGLUHFWO\FXOSDEOH That culpable act must involve the agent's belief that he or she is doing something immoral. Since the ignorance is only a consequence of the culpable act, it is not FXOSDEOH LQ LWVHOIRU VXEVWDQWLDOO\μFXOSDEOH=LPPHUPDQFODLPV WKDW WXUSLWXGH GHSHQGVXSRQ D  FRJQLWLYH FRQQHFWLRQμEHWZHHQ WKH DJHQW DQG VRPH VKDPHIXO DFWE\ZKLFKKHVHHPVWRPHDQWKDWWKHDJHQWPXVWEHOLHYHWKDWWKHDFWLRQPLJKW bring about some harm or substantial risk.9 So to be culpable for being unable to UHVFXHWKHSDVVHQJHURQWKHVXEZD\'U'LQZLGG\PXVWKDYHFRQVLGHUHGWKHULVNV RIQRWUHDGLQJUHSRUWVRQKRZWRWUHDWYLFWLPVRIWKHHSLGHPLFEXWWKHQWKRXJKW VRPHWKLQJOLNH ,QVWHDG,*PJRLQJWRSOD\ZLWKP\PRGHOWUDLQVμ)XUWKHUPRUH 'U'LQZLGG\PXVWEHOLHYHWKDWWKLVDFWLRQLVPRUDOO\ZURQJ=LPPHUPDQZRXOG say that there is no culpability in Joe's active opposition to environmental reform RU LQ3DP*V IDLOXUH WR WDNHDFWLRQ WRDGGUHVVHQYLURQPHQWDOSUREOHPVKRZHYHU XUJHQWWKH\DUHEHFDXVHWKHLUEHOLHIVZHUHQRWSUHFHGHGE\FRQVFLRXVGHFLVLRQVWR FUHDWHULVNVE\DGRSWLQJFHUWDLQEHOLHIVRUIRUHJRLQJWKHSXUVXLWRINQRZOHGJH  +ROO\ 6PLWK FODLPV LJQRUDQFH LV FXOSDEOH ZKHQ LW LV D UHVXOW RI DQ DFW RI  EHQLJKWLQJμ3 DQLQLWLDODFWLQZKLFKWKHDJHQWIDLOVWRLPSURYHRUSRVLWLYHO\ LPSDLUVKLVFRJQLWLYHSRVLWLRQμZKLFKSURGXFHVD VXEVHTXHQWDFWLQZKLFKKHGRHV ZURQJEHFDXVHRIKLVUHVXOWLQJLJQRUDQFHμ7KHEHQLJKWLQJDFWSURGXFHVDNLQGRI HSLVWHPLFGLVDELOLW\,QFDVHVVXFKDVWKDWRI'U'LQZLGG\WKHLQLWLDODFWFDQEHDQ RPLVVLRQ7REHEHQLJKWLQJWKHDFWRIRPLVVLRQ PXVWEHREMHFWLYHO\ZURQJWKH agent could have acquired the requisite information, ought to have done so, but 8 Steven Sverdlik, "Pure Negligence," American Philosophical Quarterly 30 (1993): 139–40. 9 Michael Zimmerman, "Moral Responsibility and Ignorance," Ethics 107 (1997): 418–20. BLAMEWORTHY ENVIRONMENTAL BELIEFS ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS120 Vol. 34 IDLOHGWRIXOÀOOWKLVREOLJDWLRQμ7KHDJHQWPLJKWEHGRLQJWKHEHVWKHRUVKHFDQ JLYHQWKHGLVDELOLWLHVKHRUVKHKDVEURXJKWXSRQKLPRUKHUVHOI%XWWKHDJHQWZLOO EHFXOSDEOHIRU WKHSULRUEHQLJKWLQJDQGZLOOEHUHVSRQVLEOHIRU WKHVXEVHTXHQW action or inaction it causes. One is to blame for the subsequent action only insofar DVRQHNQRZLQJO\ULVNHGLWLQWKHSULRUEHQLJKWLQJDFW10 Sverdlik criticizes Smith because he thinks that one can be guilty of negligence ZLWKRXWDSULRUEHQLJKWLQJDFWHYHQZKHQRQHKDVQRWGHOLEHUDWHO\IDLOHGWRDFTXLUHNQRZOHGJH UHOHYDQW WRD ULVN ,QVWHDGRI ORFDWLQJ WKHEODPHZRUWKLQHVVRI QHJOLJHQFHLQDSULRUFRQVFLRXVDFWRIEHQLJKWLQJ6YHUGOLNLGHQWLÀHVWKHVRXUFHRI FXOSDELOLW\LQWKHIDLOXUHWRFRQVFLRXVO\LQWHUYHQHWKURXJK PRUDOUHÁHFWLRQμLQ WKHSURFHVVHVRIWKRXJKWWKDWXVXDOO\JRRQDXWRPDWLFDOO\DQGWKDWZKHQWKH\GR OHDGWRWKHXQZLWWLQJYLRODWLRQRIDQRUP2QHRXJKWWRUHÁHFWRQWKHUHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQRQH*VDFWLRQVDQGWKHPRUDOSULQFLSOHVWKDWRQHDOUHDG\DFFHSWV+HFDOOV DFWVUHVXOWLQJIURPWKHIDLOXUHWRGRVR SXUHQHJOLJHQFHμ11 For example, consider the doctor. Suppose that on the night before that fatal HYHQWZKHQKHKDGVHWDVLGHWLPHWRUHDGKLVPHGLFDOMRXUQDOVKHGHFLGHGÀUVWWR SOD\ZLWKKLVFKLOGUHQ6XSSRVHEHIRUHKHNQHZLWWKHWLPHZDVJRQH+HZDVWLUHG DQGIDFHGDORQJGD\WRPRUURZVRKHZHQWWREHGIRUJHWWLQJDERXWWKHMRXUQDOV 8SRQ6PLWK*VYLHZ'U'LQZLGG\ZRXOGQRWEHJXLOW\RIQHJOLJHQFHEHFDXVHKH GLGQRWFRQVFLRXVO\GHFLGHWRQHJOHFWKLVSURIHVVLRQDOUHDGLQJ%XWLWZRXOGVHHP that he is culpable. He did not exercise the diligence that he himself recognized as a duty, under circumstances that made it urgent he do so-the spreading epiGHPLF-RHGLGQRWWKLQNWRKLPVHOI ,RXJKWWRLQYHVWLJDWHWKHVFLHQWLÀFEDVLVIRU FRQFHUQVDERXWWKHORVVRIELRGLYHUVLW\DQGFOLPDWHFKDQJHVRWKDW,NQRZWKDW, DPRQWKHULJKWWUDFNLQP\YLHZVDQGWKHSROLFLHV,DPVXSSRUWLQJEXW,ZRQ*Wμ It never occurred to him to investigate because he is convinced that the science is PHUHSURSDJDQGD%XWLQPDWWHUVVRLPSRUWDQWDQGZKHQWKHULVNVDUHVRJUHDWKH ought to have been especially diligent in checking the credibility of his sources. %OLVVIXOO\LJQRUDQW3DPRXJKWWRKDYHLQYHVWLJDWHGZKHWKHULWLVWUXHWKDWFLWL]HQV FDQQRWPDNHDGLIIHUHQFHZKHWKHUWKHUHDUHHIIHFWLYHVWUDWHJLHVRISROLWLFDODFWLRQ DQGZKHWKHUWKHUHDUHLVVXHVRIVXFKJUHDWXUJHQF\WKDWRQHKDVDGXW\WRDFW+HU IDWDOLVPPLJKWKDYH\LHOGHGWRNQRZOHGJHRIKRZSROLWLFDODFWLYLW\OHGWRWKHIUHHLQJRIWKHHQVODYHGZRPHQ*VVXIIUDJHRUWKHZLQQLQJRIFLYLOULJKWV In SYHUGOLN*VFDVHVRI SXUHQHJOLJHQFHμWKHDJHQWLVYLRODWLQJDQRUPWKURXJK ULVN\EHKDYLRUDQGLVQRWDZDUHRILWEXWRXJKWWRKDYHEHHQ+HHPSKDVL]HVWKH GHJUHHWRZKLFKWKHPHQWDOVWDWHVWKDWOHDGWRSXUHQHJOLJHQFHDUHQRWGLVFUHWHRU deliberate actions but cognitive processes that occur automatically. We do sometimes deliberately develop morally important habits to avoid imposing risks, such DVFKHFNLQJRXUUHDUYLHZPLUURUVEHIRUHFKDQJLQJODQHV7KHVHKDELWVGRDZD\ ZLWKVRPHRIWKHQHHGWRFRQVFLRXVO\LQWHUYHQHLQFRJQLWLYHSURFHVVHV%XWRIWHQ 10+ROO\6PLWK &XOSDEOH,JQRUDQFHμPhilosophical Review 2 116WHYHQ6YHUGOLN 3XUH1HJOLJHQFHμAmerican Philosophical Quarterly   Summer 2012 121 KDELWVDORQHZLOOQRWJXLGHXVDULJKW,QVRPHLQVWDQFHVZHcan and ought to take GHOLEHUDWHVWHSVWRLQIRUPRXUVHOYHVRIZKDWLVQHHGHGWRPHHWRXUPRUDOREOLJDWLRQV7KHPRUDOSULQFLSOHVZHKROGJLYHXVUHDVRQVWRGRWKHWKLQJVZHGRDQG WKH\LQFOXGHLQYHVWLJDWLQJZKHWKHUWKHVHSULQFLSOHVDSSO\WRRXUEHKDYLRU0RUDOO\ FRQVFLHQWLRXVDJHQWVDUHFRPPLWWHGWRDOLJQLQJWKHLUDFWLRQVZLWKWKHLUPRUDOEHOLHIV DQGLQYHVWLJDWLQJZKHWKHUWKH\DUHOLNHO\WREHYLRODWLQJWKHP127KLVYLHZLVVXUHO\ ULJKWDVLWLVVLPSO\ZKDWLWPHDQVWRDFWUHVSRQVLEO\ James Montmarquet similarly characterizes culpable ignorance as the forming of EHOLHIVZLWKDQLQWHOOHFWXDOO\LUUHVSRQVLEOHDWWLWXGH13 Moreover, he argues against DVWULFWVHSDUDWLRQEHWZHHQLQWHOOHFWXDODQGPRUDOLUUHVSRQVLELOLW\ 126YHUGOLN 3XUH1HJOLJHQFHμ141–42. 13 James Montmarquet, "Culpable Ignorance and Excuses, Philosophical Studies    14 Ibid., p. 47. 15 Victor Tadros, Criminal Responsibility (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 90, 227. BLAMEWORTHY ENVIRONMENTAL BELIEFS [A]n important part of Hitler's intellectual LUUHVSRQVLELOLW\LVWKDWKHUHPDLQVFRQÀGHQW RIWKHWUXWKRIZKDWKHEHOLHYHVDQGVXSUHPHO\LQGLIIHUHQWWRWKHQHHGWRUHWKLQNRU UHLQYHVWLJDWHWKHVHEHOLHIVHYHQDVKHLVDZDUHRUFHUWDLQO\should KDYHEHHQDZDUH RIZKDWDPRUDOFDWDVWURSKHZRXOGHQVXHLIWKHVHEHOLHIVZHUHZURQJ$QXQZLOOLQJQHVV to reconsider one's beliefs, in any such circumstance, is morally irresponsible, to be sure-but it is also the height of intellectual irresponsibility.14 9LFWRU7DGURVPDNHVDVLPLODUSRLQWZKLOHGLVFXVVLQJDFRXUWFDVHLQZKLFKVRPHRQH VKRWDWDWDUJHWLQDIRUHVWZLWKRXWFKHFNLQJZKHWKHUVRPHRQHZDVZDONLQJWKURXJK it. The defendant pleaded not guilty, on the basis that he did not realize others might EHZDONLQJWKHUH7DGURVDUJXHVWKDWKLVDFWLRQZDVFXOSDEOHDQGKLVFKDUDFWHUYLFLRXVEHFDXVHKHIDLOHGWRDWWHQGWRWKHPRUDOVLJQLÀFDQFHRIUHDVRQVIRUQRWDFWLQJ DVKHGLG0RUDOHYDOXDWLRQVRIDJHQWVKHFODLPVGHSHQGERWKXSRQZKHWKHUWKH UHDVRQVWRSHUIRUPWKHDFWLRQZHUHUHDOO\MXVWLÀHGDQGZKHWKHUWKHDJHQWKDGWKH DSSURSULDWHDWWLWXGHWRZDUGWKHUHDVRQVDJDLQVW15 This must be correct. Sensitivity to the risks one imposes on others is a core moral responsibility, and insensitivity LVDYLFLRXVDQGEODPHZRUWK\PRUDODWWLWXGH SELF-DECEPTION  %XWLWLVQRWDOZD\VFOHDUZKHWKHUSHUVRQVcouldNQRZWKHULVNVWKH\DUHSRVLQJ6RPHWLPHVZHEHOLHYHZKDWZHDUHWROGRQJRRGDXWKRULW\DQGLWWXUQVRXWWR EHZURQJ6RPHWLPHVZHVHHPWRKDYHDFKRLFHEHWZHHQFRQÁLFWLQJDXWKRULWLHV 6RPHWLPHVZHPLJKW VXVSHQG FULWLFDO MXGJPHQW RXW RI DQ LGHRORJLFDO FRPPLWPHQW$QGVRPHWLPHVZHVLQFHUHO\KROGEHOLHIVEDVHGRQDGHVLUHWREHOLHYHZKDW LVFRPIRUWLQJDQGZLOOOHWXVRIIWKHKRRNUDWKHUWKDQWRIDFHXQSOHDVDQWIDFWV2I FRXUVHRQHZD\RIFRQWUROOLQJEHOLHILVWRHQJDJHLQDQRSHQPLQGHGLQTXLU\%XW WKHUHDUHRWKHUOHVVSUDLVHZRUWK\ZD\VRIFRQWUROOLQJRQH*VEHOLHIVEDVHGRQYLFLRXV epistemic attitudes. Let me illustrate. ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS122 Vol. 34  $IHZ\HDUVDJRZKLOHGLVFXVVLQJFOLPDWHFKDQJHZLWKP\FODVVVHYHUDOVWXGHQWV PHQWLRQHGWKDW(GKDGFRQYLQFHGWKHPWKDWLWZDVDOODIXVVDERXWQRWKLQJEDVHGRQ EDGVFLHQFH,DVNHG(GWRVKDUHKLVDUJXPHQWVEXWKHZDVXQZLOOLQJ,DVNHG(G WRVKDUHZLWKPHSULYDWHO\E\HPDLOWKHDUJXPHQWVDQGIDFWVWKDWKHKDGXVHGWR SHUVXDGHKLVIHOORZVWXGHQWV1RWVXUSULVLQJO\LWZDVWDNHQIURPZHEVLWHVGHYRWHG WRGHEXQNLQJFRQFHUQVDERXWJOREDOZDUPLQJ,ZURWHKLPDORQJPHPRDGGUHVVLQJ DVEHVW,FRXOGWKHFODLPVRIWKHVH FOLPDWHVNHSWLFVμVHQWFRSLHVRIUHSRUWVVXPPDUL]LQJWKHVFLHQWLÀFEDVLVIRUFOLPDWHFKDQJHDQGUHFRPPHQGHGWKDWKHZDWFK a broadcast of a panel discussion of the subject by scientists from our university. 7RP\GLVDSSRLQWPHQWKHQHLWKHUZDWFKHGWKHEURDGFDVWQRUUHDGWKHPDWHULDO, VHQWKLP/DWHULQWKHVHPHVWHUZHZHUHGLVFXVVLQJWKHHQYLURQPHQWDOSUREOHPV DVVRFLDWHGZLWKXVLQJFRDODVDVRXUFHRIHQHUJ\,PHQWLRQHGVXFKIDPLOLDUIDFWVDV mercury, sulfur dioxide, and particulate pollution that pose risks to human health. (GFRPSODLQHGWKDW,ZDVEHLQJRQHVLGHG,WKRXJKW,KDGEHHQGLVFXVVLQJRQO\ XQFRQWURYHUWHGIDFWVVR,DVNHGKLPZKDW,KDGOHIWRXW+HGHFOLQHGWRDQVZHU 7KHVWXGHQWVSUHVVHG(GWREDFNXSKLVFRPSODLQWXQWLOKHÀQDOO\UHYHDOHGWKDWKLV IDPLO\KDVRZQHGDQXPEHURIFRDOPLQHVRYHUVHYHUDOJHQHUDWLRQV+LVIDPLO\ KHVDLGKDGSURYLGHGKLPPXFKUHOLDEOHLQIRUPDWLRQWKDWQRVHULRXVKDUPVZHUH FRQQHFWHGZLWKWKHXVHRIFRDORURWKHUIRVVLOIXHOV,WVHHPVFOHDUWKDWWKHGHVLUH WRWKLQNZHOORIKLVIDPLO\DQGWKHEXVLQHVVWKDWSURYLGHGHQRXJKZHDOWKWRVHQG him to a very expensive private college shaped his assessment of the evidence DQGPRWLYDWHGKLPWRDYRLGH[SRVLQJKLPVHOIWRLQIRUPDWLRQWKDWZRXOGSODFHKLV family in a bad light.  $WDQHLJKERUKRRGSDUW\,PHWDQHZQHLJKERU ,ZLOOFDOOKLP-RKQ'XULQJ our conversation I brought up the topic of climate change. Noticing a sneer on KLVIDFH,DVNHGKLPZKHWKHUKHZDVFRQFHUQHGDERXWLW6LJQLÀFDQWO\KLVÀUVW UHVSRQVHZDVWKDWWKHUHZDVQRWKLQJWKDWFRXOGEHGRQHDERXWLWDQ\ZD\XQOHVVRQH ZHUHZLOOLQJWRORZHURQH*VOLIHVW\OHZKLFKKHZDVnot-RKQZKRKDVDPDVWHU*V GHJUHHLQHQJLQHHULQJVWDWHGWKDWKHZRUNHGIRUDJURXSLQWKH$LU)RUFHWKURXJK ZKLFKKHKDGDFFHVVWRLQIRUPDWLRQWKDWZDVQRW RSHQVRXUFHGμDQGZKLFKWRtally debunked claims about anthropogenic increases in levels of carbon dioxide DVZHOODVWKHFRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQ&22 and climate change. Further, he claimed DFFHVVWRGRFXPHQWDU\HYLGHQFHSURYLQJWKDWWKHHQYLURQPHQWDOPRYHPHQWZDV XQGHUWKHGLUHFWLRQRIVRFLDOLVWVZKRIHOWLWZDVWKHEHVWKRSHRIDGYDQFLQJWKHLU agenda after the collapse of communism in the Soviet Union. Over several months ZHH[FKDQJHGPHPRV,VXPPDUL]HGWKHFDVHIRUDQWKURSRJHQLFFDXVHVRIFOLPDWH FKDQJHEDVHGRQVRPHVFLHQWLÀFSDSHUV,KDGUHDGDQGFRQYHUVDWLRQVZLWKSK\VLcists and biologists at the University of Dayton. He claimed that the research of his JURXSFOHDUO\VKRZHGWKHVHDUJXPHQWVWREHEDVHGRQEDGVFLHQFH,SUHVVHGKLPWR VKDUHWKDWUHVHDUFKZLWKPHDQGKHVHQWPHZKDWVHHPHGWREHDWHFKQLFDODFFRXQW using atomic absorption spectrometry to prove that it is physically impossible for increased levels of CO2WRFDXVHFOLPDWHFKDQJH,VSHQWVHYHUDOZHHNVVHDUFKLQJ WKURXJKGDWDEDVHVRIVFLHQWLÀFMRXUQDOVVXFKDVPhysical Review, for any discussion Summer 2012 123 RIWKLVSRVLWLRQEXWWRQRDYDLO8VLQJ*RRJOH,ÀQDOO\IRXQGUHIHUHQFHVWRRQH DUWLFOHRQWKHVXEMHFWRQVRPHZHEVLWHVGHYRWHGWRSURPRWLQJVNHSWLFLVPDERXW FOLPDWHFKDQJH3DQRQOLQHDUWLFOHE\DZHEPDVWHUZLWKDGHJUHHLQSK\VLFVWKDWKH VHOISXEOLVKHGRQWKHZHEVLWHKHUXQVIRUDFRPPXQLW\QHWZRUN,WZDVLGHQWLFDOWR -RKQ*VZULWHXSRIKLV JURXS*VUHVHDUFKμ,IXUWKHUIRXQGWKDWWKHDUWLFOHFRQWDLQHG VLJQLÀFDQWPDWKHPDWLFDOHUURUV:KHQ,FRQIURQWHG-RKQDERXW WKLVSODJLDULVP KHFODLPHGWRNQRZQRWKLQJDERXWLWDQGVDLGWKDWKHZDVMXVWWU\LQJWRVKDUHWKH ZRUNRIKLVJURXSZLWKPH,WVHHPVOLNHO\WKDWKLVGHVLUHWRPDLQWDLQKLVFXUUHQW levels of consumption created unconscious biases that led to a selective analysis RIWKHHYLGHQFH%XWLWGRHVQRWVHHPSRVVLEOHWKDWKHVRPHKRZGHFHLYHGKLPVHOI LQWREHOLHYLQJWKDWKHDQGKLVJURXSZHUHWKHDXWKRUVRIWKHUHSRUWKHSODJLDUL]HG ,WVHHPVPXFKPRUHOLNHO\WKDWKLVEHOLHILQ IUHHPDUNHWμFDSLWDOLVPOHGKLPWR IHHOMXVWLÀHGLQWHOOLQJDFRQVFLRXVOLH/LNH+XPH*VUHOLJLRXVHQWKXVLDVW KHPD\ NQRZKLVQDUUDWLYHWREHIDOVHDQG\HWSHUVHYHUHLQLWZLWKWKHEHVWLQWHQWLRQVLQ WKHZRUOGIRUWKHVDNHRISURPRWLQJVRKRO\DFDXVHμ16 Over the years, a famous radio broadcaster frequently railed against the claim WKDWWKHUHLVVLJQLÀFDQWVFLHQWLÀFDJUHHPHQWRQFOLPDWHFKDQJHDQGLWVFDXVHV6R ,ZDVVXUSULVHGRQHGD\WRKHDUKLPDGPLWWKDWWKHUHwasZLGHFRQVHQVXVDPRQJ VFLHQWLVWV%XWKHDUJXHG WUXHVFLHQFHμ LVEDVHGRQVNHSWLFLVPDQGVFLHQWLVWV ZKRDJUHHZLWKHDFKRWKHURQFOLPDWHFKDQJHDUHQRWEHLQJ VNHSWLFDOμVRWKHLU YLHZVDUHLGHRORJLFDODQGQRWVFLHQWLÀF1RWRQO\KDGKHGLUHFWO\FRQWUDGLFWHGKLV ORQJKLVWRU\RIFODLPLQJWKDW WKHUHZDVQRVFLHQWLÀFFRQVHQVXVRQFOLPDWH WKLV MDZGURSSLQJDUJXPHQWLPSOLHVWKDWWKHUHFDQQHYHUEHVXFKDWKLQJDVSRVLWLYH DGYDQFHPHQWRIVFLHQWLÀFNQRZOHGJH+HKDGVHWXSWKHJDPHVRWKDWLIWKHFRLQ WXUQVXSWDLOVKHZLQVDQGLILWWXUQVXSKHDGVKLVRSSRQHQWVORVH,IWKHUHLVQR VFLHQWLÀFFRQVHQVXVWKHQFODLPVDERXWFOLPDWHFKDQJHDUHXQVFLHQWLÀF,IWKHUHLV DFRQVHQVXVWKHQLWLVQRW WUXHVFLHQFHμ  +HUHZHKDYHWKUHHLQVWDQFHVRISHRSOHVRVWURQJO\HQWUHQFKHGLQIDOVHEHOLHI that they are able to ignore or deny contrary, authoritative evidence or engage in blatant self-contradiction. Sartre famously accounted for self-deception as a kind RIEDGIDLWKLQZKLFK 16 David Hume, Enquiries Concerning Human Understanding and Concerning the Principles of MoralsUGHG2[IRUG&ODUHQGRQ3UHVVSS2 17 Jean Paul Sartre, Being and NothingnessWUDQV+D]HO%DUQHV1HZ<RUN3RFNHW%RRNV p. 89. BLAMEWORTHY ENVIRONMENTAL BELIEFS ,PXVWDVDGHFHLYHUNQRZWKHWUXWKWKDWLVPDVNHGIRUPHDVWKHRQHGHFHLYHG%HWWHU \HW,PXVWNQRZWKDWWUXWKYHU\SUHFLVHO\LQRUGHUWRKLGHLWIURPP\VHOIWKHPRUH FDUHIXOO\3DQGWKLVQRWDWWZRGLIIHUHQWPRPHQWVRIWHPSRUDOLW\ZKLFKZRXOGSHUPLW us to reestablish a semblance of duality, but in the unitary structure of one and the same project.17 Self-deception, on this account, is an entirely conscious activity. In contrast, ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS124 Vol. 34 *HRUJH2UZHOO*VDFFRXQWRIGRXEOHWKLQNDFFRXQWVIRUVHOIGHFHSWLRQDVDNLQGRI PHQWDOKLGHDQGVHHNLQZKLFKRQHOHDUQVWRIRUJHWDEHOLHIDQGWKHQUHFDOOLWDV WKHRFFDVLRQGHPDQGV 18*HRUJH2UZHOONineteen Eighty-Four/RQGRQ0DUWLQ6HFNHUDQG:DUEXUJ S 19 Robert Caro, The Years of Lyndon Johnson: Master of the Senate1HZ<RUN9LQWDJH%RRNVSS 2 20 Diane Vaughan, Uncoupling: Turning Points in Intimate Relationships 1HZ<RUNDQG2[IRUG Oxford University Press, 1986), p. 42. 7R NQRZ DQG QRW WR NQRZ WR EH FRQVFLRXV RI FRPSOHWH WUXWKIXOQHVVZKLOH WHOOLQJ FDUHIXOO\FRQVWUXFWHGOLHVWRKROGVLPXOWDQHRXVO\WZRRSLQLRQVZKLFKFDQFHOOHGRXW NQRZLQJWKHPWREHFRQWUDGLFWRU\DQGEHOLHYLQJLQERWKRIWKHPWRXVHORJLFDJDLQVW ORJLFWRUHSXGLDWHPRUDOLW\ZKLOHOD\LQJFODLPWRLW    WRIRUJHWZKDWHYHULWZDV QHFHVVDU\WRIRUJHWWKHQWRGUDZLWEDFNLQWRPHPRU\DJDLQDWWKHPRPHQWZKHQLW ZDVQHHGHGDQGWKHQSURPSWO\WRIRUJHWLWDJDLQDQGDERYHDOOWRDSSO\WKHVDPH process to the process itself.18  8QUDYHOLQJ6DUWUH*VSDUDGR[LFDODFFRXQWZRXOGUHTXLUHDOHQJWK\GLVFXVVLRQRIKLV PHWDSK\VLFVDQGSV\FKRORJ\WKDW,FDQQRWSXUVXHKHUH/LNHZLVH2UZHOO*VDFFRXQW LVSODFHGZLWKLQDWRWDOLWDULDQFRQWH[WWKDWFDQQRWVWUDLJKWIRUZDUGO\EHDSSOLHGWR the cases I have been discussing. The people I have been describing do not seem WRKDYHLQWHQWLRQDOO\IRUPHGIDOVHEHOLHIV<HW,EHOLHYHWKDWERWKWKHLQDFWLRQWKH EHOLHIVPRWLYDWHDQGWKHEHOLHIVWKHPVHOYHVDUHEODPHZRUWK\ Some do intentionally deceive themselves. Robert Caro describes Lyndon JohnVRQ*VFDSDFLW\IRUVHOIGHFHSWLRQDVRQHRIWKHPRVWSRZHUIXOZHDSRQVRIKLVSROLWLFDO DUVHQDO+HTXRWHV-RKQVRQDVVD\LQJ :KDWFRQYLQFHVLVFRQYLFWLRQ<RXVLPSO\ haveWREHOLHYHLQWKHDUJXPHQW\RXDUHDGYDQFLQJLI\RXGRQ*W\RX*UHDVJRRGDV GHDG7KHRWKHUSHUVRQZLOOVHQVHWKDWVRPHWKLQJLVQ*WWKHUHμ&DURREVHUYHVWKDW ZKHQLWZDVSROLWLFDOO\H[SHGLHQW /\QGRQ-RKQVRQFRXOGmake himself believe in an argument even if he had never believed in it before, even if he had believed LQDQRSSRVLWHDUJXPHQW3DQGHYHQLIWKHDUJXPHQWGLGQRWDFFRUGZLWKWKHIDFWVμ +LVDVVRFLDWHVFDOOHGWKHSURFHVVE\ZKLFKKHDFKLHYHGWKLVFRQYLFWLRQ UHYYLQJ XSμ2QHRIWKHPGHVFULEHGLWWKLVZD\ +HFRXOGVWDUWWDONLQJDERXWVRPHWKLQJDQG FRQYLQFHKLPVHOILWZDVULJKWDQGJHWDOOZRUNHGXSDOOZRUNHGXSDQGHPRWLRQDO DQGZRUNDOOGD\DQGDOOQLJKWDQGVDFULÀFHDQGVD\¶)ROORZPHIRUWKHFDXVH*3 ¶/HW*VGRWKLVEHFDXVHLW*Vright*μ -RKQVRQZRXOGEHOLHYHLWwas right-no matter ZKDWKHKDGEHOLHYHGEHIRUHμ19  $SDUDOOHOFDVHFDQEHIRXQGLQ'LDQH9DXJKDQ*VDFFRXQWRIKRZSHRSOHPDUULHG RUOLYLQJWRJHWKHULQLWLDWHDVHULHVRIHYHQWVWKDWZLOOUHVXOWLQVHSDUDWLRQE\MXVWLI\ing resentment against their partner. A primary strategy is to validate a decision WR XQFRXSOHμE\ÀQGLQJSHUVRQVZLWKLQRQH*VVRFLDOFLUFOHRUHYHQSURIHVVLRQDO FRXQVHORUVZLWKZKRPWRGLVFXVVWKHIDLOLQJVRIRQH*VSDUWQHU$VDUHVXOW WKH ÁDZVLQSDUWQHUDQGUHODWLRQVKLSDVVXPHDUHDOLW\WKH\GLGQRWSRVVHVVEHIRUHμ20 Summer 2012 125 :KHQ9DXJKDQDVNHGKHUVXEMHFWVZKHWKHULQUHWURVSHFWWKH\LQWHQWLRQDOO\WULHG to shift responsibility for the failure of the relationship to their spouses. Some DGPLWWHGWKDWWKH\GLGDOWKRXJKRWKHUVZHUHXQFHUWDLQ21  $OIUHG0HOHKDVGHYHORSHGRQHRIWKHPRVWZHOONQRZQSV\FKRORJLFDODFFRXQWV RIVHOIGHFHSWLRQ+HGUDZVXSRQWKH=LYD.XQGD*VZRUNRQPRWLYDWHGUHDVRQLQJZKLFKVKHGHÀQHVDV DQ\ZLVKGHVLUHRUSUHIHUHQFHμZKLFKLQÁXHQFHVWKH formation of beliefs. One can be motivated by a desire to arrive at an accurate conclusion or to arrive at a particular, desiredFRQFOXVLRQ.XQGDVKRZVWKDWZKHQ the motivation is accuracy, reasoners expend more cognitive effort, attend more carefully to relevant information, and process it more deeply, often using more FRPSOH[UXOHV'HFLGLQJKRZPXFKRQHZDQWVWRUHDFKDQDFFXUDWHFRQFOXVLRQLV DVWUDWHJLFGHFLVLRQWKHFRVWRIWKHHIIRUWVPXVWEHZHLJKHGDJDLQVWWKHXWLOLW\RI an accurate conclusion.22  .XQGDDFNQRZOHGJHVZHDUHQRWIUHHWRIRUPDEHOLHIVLPSO\EHFDXVHZHGHVLUH WR6KHSURSRVHVWKDWVRPHWLPHVWKHZRUU\WKDWP might be true motivates a search IRUFRQGLWLRQVXQGHUZKLFKP might not be true. For example, one might search for UHDVRQVWRWKLQNWKDWDQHQYLURQPHQWDOVWXG\ZDVSRRUO\FRQGXFWHGIRULQIRUPDWLRQWKDWVRPHVFLHQWLVWVGLVSXWHLWVÀQGLQJVIRUSDVWVFLHQWLÀFSUHGLFWLRQVDERXW environmental problems that turned out to be false, etc. One attempts to construct DUDWLRQDODQGSHUVXDVLYHMXVWLÀFDWLRQWKDWSHUPLWVRQHWRGUDZDGHVLUHGFRQFOXVLRQ ZKLOHPDLQWDLQLQJDQDSSHDUDQFHRIREMHFWLYLW\WKDWLVLOOXVRU\EHFDXVHRQHGRHVQRW UHDOL]HWKDWRQH*VGHVLUHVDUHPRWLYDWLQJRQH*VUHDVRQLQJ2QHLVQRWDZDUHWKDWLI RQH*VJRDOVZHUHDFFXUDF\RQHZRXOGQRWVHOHFWWKHVDPHLQIRUPDWLRQIRUDWWHQWLRQ RUHYDOXDWHLWDVRQHKDVDQGRQHZRXOGEHDZDUHRIWKHVWURQJHUMXVWLÀFDWLRQIRU the opposite conclusion.23 Mele argues that self-deception is a type of biased belief or cognitive illusion that is motivated, but not by an intention to self-deceive. Among the sources of XQPRWLYDWHGELDVHVDUHYLYLGQHVVRILQIRUPDWLRQZKLFKPDNHVLWPRUHOLNHO\ WREHDWWHQGHGWRWKLVFDQEHDUHVXOWRIRQH*VLQWHUHVWVKRZFRQFUHWHWKHLQIRUPDWLRQLVLWVSRZHUWRHYRNHLPDJHU\RULWVSUR[LPLW\WKHWHQGHQF\WRIRFXVRQ the objects or events most accessible to perception, memory, or imagination, (3) WKHFRQÀUPDWLRQELDV3WKHWHQGHQF\ZKHQWHVWLQJDK\SRWKHVLVWRVHDUFKPRUH IRUDQGPRUHUHDGLO\UHFRJQL]HWKDWZKLFKFRQÀUPVUDWKHUWKDQGLVFRQÀUPVRQH*V K\SRWKHVLVDQGWKHWHQGHQF\WRVHDUFKIRUFDXVDOH[SODQDWLRQVLQÁXHQFHGE\ WKHDERYHELDVHVWKDWUHVXOWVLQUHJDUGLQJUHODWLRQVKLSVDVFDXVDOZKHQWKH\DUH QRWZKLFKLQWXUQLQÁXHQFHVIXWXUHLQIHUHQFHV24 While these sources of biased beliefs are simple mental tendencies not motivated by desires, Mele holds that they can be activated by our desires. The desire to 21 Ibid., p. 102. 22 Ziva Kunda, "The Case for Motivated Reasoning, Psychological Bulletin  2 23,ELGSS2 24$OIUHG50HOH 5HDO6HOI'HFHSWLRQμBehavioral and Brain Sciences  2 BLAMEWORTHY ENVIRONMENTAL BELIEFS ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS126 Vol. 34 believe PFDQLQFUHDVHWKHYLYDFLW\RUSURPLQHQFHRIGDWDWKDWWHQGWRFRQÀUPP, LQÁXHQFHWKHK\SRWKHVHVRQHFRQVLGHUVDQGVRRQZLWKRXWWKHDJHQWHYHULQWHQGLQJ to deceive herself. The desire to believe P can lead one to discount evidence against PWKDWZRXOGRWKHUZLVHEHUHFRJQL]HGDVVWURQJDQGWRUHJDUGZHDNHYLGHQFHIRU P as stronger than it is. Desire can also activate the tendency to search for and be PRUHVHQVLWLYHWRZKDWVHHPVWRFRQÀUPP. Mele supports his theory by discussing an experiment. Eighty-six male underJUDGXDWHV DQG VHYHQW\ÀYHZRPHQZHUH DVNHG WR UHDG DQ DUWLFOH FODLPLQJ WKDW ZRPHQVKRXOGDYRLGDOOIRUPVRIFDIIHLQHEHFDXVHLWLQFUHDVHV WKHFRQFHQWUDWLRQ RIDVXEVWDQFHFDOOHGF$03LQWKHEUHDVWμZKLFKOHDGVWRÀEURF\VWLFGLVHDVH DVVRFLDWHGLQLWVDGYDQFHGVWDJHVZLWKEUHDVWFDQFHUμ:RPHQZKRKHDYLO\FRQVXPHG FDIIHLQHH[SUHVVHGVLJQLÀFDQWO\ORZHUFRQYLFWLRQRIWKHGDQJHUWKDQZRPHQZKR FRQVXPHGOLWWOHRUWKHPDOHVXEMHFWV$SODXVLEOHH[SODQDWLRQLVWKDWIHPDOHVZKR FRQVXPHGODUJHDPRXQWVRIFDIIHLQHZHUHELDVHGE\WKHGHVLUHWR SUHVHUYHRSWLPLVP DERXWWKHLUIXWXUHKHDOWKμ7KLVH[SODQDWLRQLVJLYHQIXUWKHUFUHGHQFHE\DQRWKHU VWXG\LQZKLFKWKHULVNVRIFDIIHLQHZHUHVDLGWREHIDLUO\QHJOLJLEOH,QWKDWVWXG\ ZRPHQZKRKHDYLO\FRQVXPHGFDIIHLQHZHUHQROHVVFRQYLQFHGWKDWWKRVHZKR consumed little.25 Anna Nicholson has criticized Mele's theory. She argues that some sort of conscious intention must be involved in assessing the implications of evidence DQGGHWHUPLQLQJZKLFKVKRXOGEHWKHIRFXVRIDWWHQWLRQ1LFKROVRQSURSRVHVWKDW WKHUHLVDEULHISHULRGLQZKLFKWKHDJHQWIRUPVDQLQWHQWLRQDOSODQRIDGRSWLQJDQ HSLVWHPLFDOO\XQZDUUDQWHGEHOLHIWKDWVXEVHTXHQWO\WULJJHUVDXWRPDWLFSURFHVVLQJ3 PHQWDOVFKHPDWKDWIDFLOLWDWHWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQRINQRZOHGJHDQGUDSLGLQWHUSUHWDWLRQ RIVWLPXOLLQZD\VWKDWIDYRUWKHEHOLHI$VWKHVFKHPDDUHUHSHDWHGO\DFWLYDWHG they becomes stronger and more automatic. "Eventually the schema for the belief that-P are chronically accessible and activated automatically in the context of any UHOHYDQWFXHVDQGLQWKHDEVHQFHRIFRQVFLRXVDFNQRZOHGJPHQWRULQWHQWLRQμ26 (YLGHQFH LVQRWFULWLFDOO\HYDOXDWHGRQDQ\ OHYHO7KHEHOLHI LVSULPHGZKHWKHU evidence supports or contradicts it. It seems to me that both types of self-deception occur. Nicholson's account seems to match Caro's description of Lyndon Johnson. But it seems implausible to claim WKDWWKHZRPHQUHVSRQGLQJWRWKHUHSRUWLQJRQFDIIHLQHDGRSWHGDGHOLEHUDWHSODQ to deceive themselves. Under either account, moral judgments can be applied to an agent's epistemic strategies and their motives in pursuing them. Are they seeking a FRPIRUWLQJRUXQFKDOOHQJLQJDQVZHU"$UHWKH\VHHNLQJWRSURWHFWFKHULVKHGEHOLHIV IURPVFUXWLQ\"$UHWKH\DYRLGLQJUHDVRQVIRUZK\WKHLUFRPSODFHQF\RUODFNRIDFWLRQLVEODPDEOH3UHDVRQVWKDWZRXOGUHTXLUHFKDQJLQJWKHZD\WKH\OLYHRUUHYHDO such obligations as political action or donating money to environmental causes? 25=LYD.XQGD 0RWLYDWHG,QIHUHQFH6HOI6HUYLQJ*HQHUDWLRQDQG(YDOXDWLRQRI&DXVDO7KHRULHVμ Journal of Personality and Social Psychology  2 26$QQD1LFKROVRQ &RJQLWLYH%LDV,QWHQWLRQDOLW\DQG6HOI'HFHSWLRQμTeorema 26 (2007): 45–58. Summer 2012 127  2QHFDQQRWEHEODPHGIRUZDQWLQJWREHRSWLPLVWLFDERXWRQH*VKHDOWKRUWKH IXWXUHSURVSHFWVRIKXPDQLW\%XWRQHFDQEHEODPHGIRUQRWZDQWLQJWRNQRZWKH nature and degree of socially created risks that are avoidable. Marcia Baron notes that 270DUFLD%DURQ :KDWLV:URQJZLWK6HOI'HFHSWLRQ"μLQPerspectives on Self-Deception, ed. Brian 0F/DXJKOLQDQG$PHOLH2NVHQEHUJ5RUW\%HUNHOH\8QLYHUVLW\RI&DOLIRUQLD3UHVVSS2 280DUN-RKQVRQ 6HOI'HFHSWLRQDQGWKH1DWXUHRIWKH0LQGμLQ0F/DXJKOLQDQG5RUW\Perspectives on Self-Deception, p. 85. 29%DURQ :KDWLV:URQJZLWK6HOI'HFHSWLRQ"μSS2 30,ELGSS2 BLAMEWORTHY ENVIRONMENTAL BELIEFS . . . my self-deception may prevent me from . . . seeing a problem or from seeing it as solvDEOHRU,PD\DVLQWKHFDVHLQZKLFK,GRQ*WIDFHXSWRWKHIDFWWKDWP\VRQLVUHWDUGHG be cruel because I insist on seeing something as it isn't. I may deceive myself in such a ZD\WKDW,FRQFHDOIURPP\VHOIWKHGDPDJHWKDW,DPGRLQJWRVRPHRQH,QRWKHUFDVHV P\VHOIGHFHLWPD\OHDGLQWRVHOIGHOXVLRQVRPHRQHZKRDOORZVP\RSLQLRQVWRVKDSH KLVDQGKLVVHOIGHOXVLRQPD\EOLQGKLPWRDSUREOHPWKDWKHPLJKWRWKHUZLVHUHGUHVV27  0DUN-RKQVRQFRPSDUHVVRPHNLQGVRIVHOIGHFHSWLRQWRFRZDUGLFH28 Because RIPHQWDOFRZDUGLFHZHDYRLGFRQIURQWLQJZKDWIULJKWHQVXVDERXWWKHZRUOGRXU UHVSRQVLELOLWLHVRURXUVHOYHV,WFDQDOVRLQYROYHKDUPWRRWKHUVDVZKHQRQHFRQvinces oneself that a drunken friend is capable of driving safely home or that the constantly bruised child of a friend is clumsy, and not a possible victim of abuse. 6HOIGLVKRQHVW\FDQQRWRQO\KDUPRWKHUVLWRIWHQKDUPVRQHVHOI7KHKDUPLWGRHV to oneself can be variously articulated as undermining autonomy, creating an inDXWKHQWLFVHOIRUZHDNHQLQJRQH*VDJHQF\%DURQWULHVWRJHWDWWKHQDWXUHRIWKLV KDUPE\HPEUDFLQJWKHFRPSDULVRQEHWZHHQGHFHLYLQJRWKHUVDQGGHFHLYLQJRQHVHOI I have suggested that deception is objectionable largely because it is manipulative, and WKDWPDQLSXODWLRQLQWXUQLVZURQJEHFDXVHLWXQGHUPLQHVWKHRWKHU*VDJHQF\%XWGRQ*W, XQGHUPLQHP\RZQDJHQF\ZKHQ,GHFHLYHP\VHOI":LWKUHVSHFWWRWKHDFWLYLWLHVDIIHFWHG E\P\RZQVHOILQGXFHGIDOVHEHOLHIVRUSLFWXUHV,OLPLWP\RZQDJHQF\,EULQJLWDERXW WKDW,RSHUDWHZLWKLQDGHTXDWHLQIRUPDWLRQRUDZDUSHGYLHZRIWKHFLUFXPVWDQFHV29 The primary difference is that deception of others undermines their agency all at RQFHDVLWZHUHZKHUHDVVHOIGHFHSWLRQGRHVVRJUDGXDOO\DQGFXPXODWLYHO\,WFDQ become a mental habit or strategy for avoiding unpleasant facts. Maintaining selfGHFHSWLRQUHTXLUHVWKHFRQVWDQWVWUDLQRIHYDGLQJRUUHLQWHUSUHWLQJQHZHYLGHQFH WRSUHYHQWWKHSULRUVHOIGHFHSWLRQIURPVKRZLQJLWVIDFH  7KHPRUHZHGXSHRXUVHOYHVWKHOHVVZHDUHDEOHWRDVVHVVHYLGHQFHIDLUO\WR EHRSHQWRDOWHUQDWLYHZD\VRIVHHLQJWKLQJVWRXQGHUVWDQGRXUVHOYHVDQGWREHLQ FRQWUROLQVRIDUDVWKLVLVSRVVLEOHRIKRZZHOLYHRXUOLYHV7KHPRUHZHGXSH RXUVHOYHVWKHOHVVZHDUHDEOHWREHUHVSRQVLEOHDJHQWV30 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS128 Vol. 34  7KHPRUHRQHLQYHVWVLQEHOLHYLQJZKDWLVFRQWUDU\WRWKHEHVWHYLGHQFHWKHPRUH LPSHWXVWKHUHLVWRZDUGPDLQWDLQLQJWKDWEHOLHI6LPSOHPLQGHGIRUPXODWLRQVWKDW reinforce one's self-deception can become more attractive as they make it easier WRDYRLGRSHQPLQGHGH[SORUDWLRQDQGFULWLFDOVHOIUHÁHFWLRQ7KH\PDNHLWHDVLHU WRHYDGHUHVSRQVLELOLWLHVWKDWZHKDYHQRULJKWWRHYDGHVXFKDVDGGUHVVLQJVHULRXV social problems and alleviating suffering.31  :KDWZHFDUHDERXWLVPDQLIHVWHGLQZKDWZHDWWHQGWRDQGUHÁHFWXSRQ:KDWZH GRQRWQRWLFHFDQEHDUHVXOWRIFXOSDEOHLQGLIIHUHQFHWRZDUGLWVPRUDOLPSRUWDQFH %RWKFRQVFLRXVLPSRVLWLRQVRIULVNVDQGIDLOLQJWRQRWLFHULVNVDUHUHÁHFWLRQVRID vicious moral character. A morally conscientious person thinks and feels differently than an excessively competitive, arrogant, greedy, or careless person. The same FKDUDFWHUWUDLWVDQGGHVLUHVWKDWSURGXFHEODPHZRUWK\DFWLRQVFDQSURGXFHEODPHZRUWK\EHOLHIV$SHUVRQFDQEHEODPHZRUWK\IRUWKHIDLOXUHWRGRVRPHWKLQJDERXW GHIHFWVLQFKDUDFWHURUXQZRUWK\GHVLUHVWKDWSURGXFHDQREYLRXVULVNRIIDLOXUHWR make the right moral choices.32  7KHUHDUHDQXPEHURIZD\VLQZKLFKPRUDOMXGJPHQWVFDQEHVWUDLJKWIRUZDUGO\ DSSOLHGWRVHOIGHFHSWLRQ%ODPHZRUWK\VHOIGHFHSWLRQOHDGVWRLPPRUDODFWV:LWKRXW DGLVSRVLWLRQWRWUXWKIXOQHVVZHFDQQRWXQGHUVWDQGZKDWLVPRUDOO\UHTXLUHGRIXV DQGDFWDFFRUGLQJO\&HUWDLQO\ZHDUHPRUDOO\UHTXLUHGWRH[HUFLVHGXHGLOLJHQFH DQGFRQFHUQWRHQVXUHWKDWZHDUHQRWYLRODWLQJPRUDOREOLJDWLRQVWKDWZHRXUVHOYHV ZRXOGDFNQRZOHGJH1RWWRGRVRLVPRUDOQHJOLJHQFH8QGHUVWDQGLQJDQGWDNLQJ responsibility for the consequences of our action is a requirement of living a morally PHDQLQJIXOOLIH7KLVSRLQWZDVGUDPDWLFDOO\EURXJKWKRPHWRPHDV,OLVWHQHGWRD remarkable episode of This American Life $FW9μ7KHHQWLUHKRXUZDVGHYRWHG WRIROORZLQJDJURXSRILQPDWHVDWDKLJKVHFXULW\SULVRQDVWKH\UHKHDUVHGDQG staged a production of the last act of Hamlet. As they assumed the roles of murderers and the murdered they came to understand the consequences and profound PRUDOGLPHQVLRQVRIWKHLUSDVWFULPHVDQGWRHPSDWKL]HZLWKWKHLUYLFWLPV2QH LQPDWHDFRQYLFWHGPXUGHUHUSOD\LQJWKHJKRVWRI+DPOHW*VIDWKHUGHVFULEHGKRZ XSRQÀUVWUHDGLQJWKHOLQHVWKH\ MXPSHGRXWμDWKLPDQGPDGHKLPIHHOWKLQJV KHKDGQRWIHOWEHIRUH+HIHOWWKDWWKHPDQZKRVHOLIHKHKDGWDNHQZDVVSHDNLQJ DQGPDNLQJKLPUHDOL]HIRUWKHÀUVWWLPHZKDWKHKDGGRQHWRKLP$QRWKHULQPDWH GHVFULEHGKLVSHUIRUPDQFHRI.LQJ&ODXGLXV*VVROLORTX\LQWKHFKDSHOZKHUHKH muses upon his sins, his regrets, and his inability to undo them. The actor looked XSZDUGXQDZDUHRIWKHDXGLHQFHDQGLWZDVKHVDLGDVLIWKDWVSHHFKZHUHKLV SUD\HUWR*RG,QOLVWHQLQJWRWKLVHSLVRGHDQGWKHWUDQVIRUPDWLRQVZURXJKWLQWKH LQQHUEHOLHIVDQGIHHOLQJVRIWKHVHYLROHQWRIIHQGHUVLWZDVSDOSDEOHWKDWWKH\ZHUH VWUXJJOLQJIRUDPHDQLQJIXOQHZOLIHE\GURSSLQJH[FXVHVMXVWLÀFDWLRQVGHQLDO DQG VHOIGHFHSWLRQ DERXW WKH FULPHV WKH\KDG FRPPLWWHG3HUKDSV LWZLOO VHHP 31%DURQ :KDWLV:URQJZLWK6HOI'HFHSWLRQ"μSS2 323HWHU$UHQHOOD &KDUDFWHU&KRLFHDQG0RUDO$JHQF\7KH5HOHYDQFHRI&KDUDFWHUWR2XU0RUDO &XOSDELOLW\-XGJPHQWVμSocial Philosophy and Policy   Summer 2012 129 RXWUDJHRXVWRFRPSDUHHQYLURQPHQWDODZDUHQHVVWRWKHVHWUDQVIRUPDWLRQVRIWKH LQQHUPRUDOOLYHVRIFRQYLFWHGPXUGHUHUVDQGUDSLVWV<HWLWUHYHDOVWKHLPSRUWDQFH of authenticity, integrity, and self-honesty to a life of moral meaning. THE ORGANIZATION OF DENIAL AND THE TRIVIALIZATION OF DESTRUCTION  ,QGLVFXVVLQJKRZ*HUPDQVFDPHWRDFFHSW+LWOHU*VSURJUDPIRUWKHH[WHUPLQDWLRQ RI WKH -HZV 6DELQL DQG 6LOYHU HPSKDVL]H WKH EXUHDXFUDWL]DWLRQ RI HYLO $OWKRXJKZHDUHUHVSRQVLEOHIRUDOOZHGRZHRQO\IHHOUHVSRQVLEOHIRUZKDWZH intend. Bureaucracies remove the sense of responsibility by instituting rules and SURFHGXUHV,WZDVWKHVHWKDWFLWL]HQVintentionallyIROORZHG(YHQZKHQVRPHDFWLRQZDVDJDLQVWWKHLULQFOLQDWLRQVFLWL]HQVFRXOGIROORZWKHPXQHQFXPEHUHGE\D JXLOW\FRQVFLHQFHEHFDXVHWKH\ZHUHRQO\GRLQJWKHLUMREV,QWKLVZD\HYLODFWLRQV FDQEHFRPHVRGLYRUFHGIURPRXULQWHQWLRQVWKDWHYHQWKRXJKZHDUHUHVSRQVLEOH IRUEULQJLQJWKHPDERXWZHGRQRWIHHOLW33 The ability to overcome the kinds of vices I have been discussing is often affected by our unconscious dependency upon others. Sabini and Silver discuss the problem RI PRUDOGULIWμ3WKHSURFHVVZKHUHE\DJURXSRILQGLYLGXDOVJUDGXDOO\FHDVHWR DFWRQWKHLUPRUDOFRPPLWPHQWV7RLOOXVWUDWHWKHPDQQHULQZKLFKSHUFHSWLRQLV LQÁXHQFHGE\VRFLDOFRQWH[WWKH\GLVFXVVDQH[SHULPHQWLQZKLFKVXEMHFWVZHUH UHTXLUHGWRSLFNZKLFKRIWKUHHOLQHVZDVWKHVDPHOHQJWKDVDVWDQGDUGOLQH7KH H[SHULPHQWZDVDUUDQJHGWRPDNHWKHGHWHUPLQDWLRQDVHDV\DVSRVVLEOH:KHQWHVWHG DORQHVXEMHFWVVXFFHHGHGRYHUQLQHW\SHUFHQWRIWKHWLPHEXWZKHQWKHH[SHULPHQW ZDVFRQGXFWHGZLWKDJURXSLQZKLFKFRQIHGHUDWHVJDYHWKHVDPHZURQJDQVZHU RYHUVHYHQW\ÀYHSHUFHQWRIWKHVXEMHFWVFRQFXUUHGZLWKWKHFRQIHGHUDWHV)XUWKHU DOORIWKHVXEMHFWVDQGQRWRQO\WKRVHZKRDJUHHGZLWKWKHFRQIHGHUDWHV H[KLELWHG DQ[LHW\GRXEWDQGFRQIXVLRQμDERXWWKHLUDQVZHUVWRWKLVWULYLDOTXHVWLRQ34 They FDPHWRTXHVWLRQWKHLURZQSRZHUVRISHUFHSWLRQ  ,IVXFKUHVXOWVDUHIRXQGLQWKHVLPSOHFRPSDULVRQRIOLQHVHJPHQWVKRZPXFK more easily might one's moral convictions be shaken if others express open disUHJDUGIRUFRPPRQVWDQGDUGVRIGHFHQF\WKURXJKHLWKHUWKHLUZRUGVRUDFWLRQV",I ZHGRQRWGLVVHQWZHPDNHRXUVHOYHVFRPSOLFLWLQWKHUHVXOWLQJPRUDOGULIW2QO\ if individuals make an open challenge can the tide be turned and moral clarity be introduced. 33 John Sabini and Maury Silver, Moralities of Everyday Life2[IRUG2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV 1982), p. 66. 34 Ibid, p. 47. BLAMEWORTHY ENVIRONMENTAL BELIEFS In making a moral reproach an individual's subjective, personal, inarticulate, and vague moral impressions become externalized for himself and others, and thus become DSDUWRI WKHVRFLDOSURFHVV,W LVDQLPSRUWDQWÀUVWVWHSLQWKHFU\VWDOOL]DWLRQRIWKH ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS130 Vol. 34 FRQVHQVXDOZURQJQHVVRIDSDUWLFXODUDFWLQDSDUWLFXODUFRQWH[W,IWKHPDNLQJRI DUHSURDFKFODULÀHVDQGFRQFUHWL]HVPRUDOSUHFHSWVWKHIDLOXUHWRGRVRDOORZVWKHPWR remain unclear both for others and for oneself.35 35 Ibid., p. 49. 36,ELGSS2 37$OEHUW%DQGXUD ,PSHGLQJ(FRORJLFDO6XVWDLQDELOLW\WKURXJK6HOHFWLYH0RUDO'LVHQJDJHPHQWμ International Journal of Innovation and Sustainable Development   3HRSOHRIWHQÀQGWKHPVHOYHVLQPRUDOSUHGLFDPHQWVZKHQWKH\SXUVXHDFWLYLWLHVWKDW VHUYH WKHLU VHOILQWHUHVWV EXW YLRODWH WKHLUPRUDO VWDQGDUGV E\ LQÁLFWLQJ KXPDQ DQG environmental harm. All too often, moral considerations yield to strong social forces favouring environmentally detrimental activities. People can rid themselves of the PRUDOSUREOHPKRZHYHUE\VHOHFWLYHO\GLVHQJDJLQJWKHLUPRUDOVHOIVDQFWLRQVIURP detrimental social policies and practices. This enables them to engage in the detrimental DFWLYLWLHVZLWKIUHHGRPIURPWKHUHVWUDLQWRIVHOIFHQVXUH37 Americans might also fail to connect environmental degradation to their moral commitments because they simply regard it as the inevitable price of doing busiQHVVIHHOSRZHUOHVVWRHVFDSHWKHGHPDQGVRIOLYLQJDQGZRUNLQJRUEHOLHYHWKDW WKHLQVWLWXWLRQVXSRQZKLFKRXUVRFLHW\LVIRXQGHGLQHYLWDEO\OHDGWRHQYLURQPHQWDO destruction. Like bureaucracies, our social and economic institutions lead us to feel QRUHVSRQVLELOLWLHVIRUWKHHYLOVZHEULQJDERXW'ULYHUVGRQRWLQWHQGWRGHJUDGH WKHHQYLURQPHQWZKHQWKH\ÀOOWKHLUYHKLFOHVZLWKJDVROLQHWHQGWKHLUJUDVVODZQV KHDWWKHLUKRPHVZLWKHOHFWULFLW\SURGXFHGE\WKHFRPEXVWLRQRIFRDORUEX\ERWWOHG ZDWHU,QGLYLGXDOO\ZHRIWHQKDYHOLWWOHFKRLFH<HWFROOHFWLYHO\ZHDUHUHVSRQVLEOH  (PSLULFDOUHVHDUFKZRXOGEHUHTXLUHGWRHVWDEOLVKWKLVFODLPEXWWKHUHLVUHDVRQ WRWKLQNWKDWHQYLURQPHQWDO LVVXHVKDYHDORZSURÀOHEHFDXVH$PHULFDQVHLWKHU do not believe that they have serious moral dimensions, or, like the members of 2QHPLJKW VXSSRVH WKDWJURXSVZKRHQJDJH WRJHWKHU LQKLGHRXVDFWVRIYLROHQFHHLWKHU disregard the morality of their actions or have come to see them as morally acceptable. But Sabini and Silver discuss a study of delinquent gangs that found each boy in the gangs SULYDWHO\WURXEOHGDERXWKLVEHKDYLRUEXWXQZLOOLQJWRH[SUHVVWKLVRSHQO\ZLWKRWKHUPHPEHUV&ROOHFWLYHO\WKH\GULIWHGLQWRDFWLYLWLHVRIZKLFKQRQHRIWKHLQGLYLGXDOVDSSURYHG36 Had some openly expressed their reservations, perhaps the moral concerns they privately KHOGZRXOGKDYHVRFLDOO\FU\VWDOL]HG(QYLURQPHQWDORUJDQL]DWLRQVRIWHQUHVWWKHLUFDVHRQ VFLHQWLÀFDQGLQFUHDVLQJO\HFRQRPLFJURXQGV3HUKDSVWKHIUXVWUDWLQJODFNRISURJUHVVDQG periodic backlash of citizens and politicians can only be overcome by open discussion of WKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQHQYLURQPHQWDOGHJUDGDWLRQDQGWKHSULQFLSOHVE\ZKLFKZHFRPPRQO\GHÀQHPRUDOGHFHQF\  3ROOVRI$PHULFDQHOHFWRUDOFRQFHUQVXVXDOO\ÀQGHQYLURQPHQWDOFRQFHUQVQHDU the bottom of the list and environmental risks are rarely mentioned in political FDPSDLJQV2QHFDQVSHFXODWHRQZK\WKH\KDYHVROLWWOHSROLWLFDOFXUUHQF\$OEHUW Bandura notes that Summer 2012 131 WKH JDQJVPHQWLRQHG DERYH WKH\ GR QRW YRLFH WKHLU GLVFRPIRUWZLWK D VRFLHW\ that marginalizes the health of its citizens and children, and so a social consensus DURXQGWKHVHLVVXHVQHYHUFU\VWDOL]HV,QWKLVVHQVHZHFROOXGHZLWKHDFKRWKHUWR minimize environmental risks. In many circles neighbors, friends, and colleagues are largely silent on the subject. When someone expresses great depth of concern DERXWHQYLURQPHQWDOGHJUDGDWLRQDQGZKDWLWERGHVIRUWKHIXWXUHRIKXPDQLW\WKH reaction is sometimes that this gloomy person has breached some unspoken rule of polite speech.  $QRWKHUIDFWRUZHOOHVWDEOLVKHGE\HPSLULFDOUHVHDUFKLQ FXOWXUDOFRJQLWLRQμLV WKHLQÁXHQFHWKDWFRPPLWPHQWVWRVSHFLÀFLGHRORJLHVDQGPRUDOV\VWHPVKDYHRQ SHUFHSWLRQVRIULVN7KH FXOWXUDOWKHRU\RIULVNμSUHGLFWVDWWLWXGHVWRZDUGULVNXVLQJ VHWVRIYDOXHVWKDWIRUPVSHFLÀF ZRUOGYLHZVμ([DPSOHVRIVXFKZRUOGYLHZVDUH HJDOLWDULDQLVPRUVROLGDULVPZKLFKUHJDUGVHQYLURQPHQWDOKD]DUGVZLWKFRQFHUQ and favors addressing them by regulating forms of commerce that produce social LQHTXDOLW\,QGLYLGXDOLVPZKLFKH[SHFWVSHUVRQVWRWDNHFDUHRIWKHLURZQQHHGV ZLWKRXWVRFLDODVVLVWDQFHLVFRPPLWWHGWRIUHHPDUNHWHQWHUSULVHRSSRVHGWRJRYHUQment intervention, and tends to dismiss the validity of claims about environmental ULVNV+LHUDUFKLVWVHPEUDFHDVRFLDOVWUXFWXUHLQZKLFKJRRGVDUHGLVWULEXWHGRQ WKHEDVLVRIVXFKÀ[HGFKDUDFWHULVWLFVDVJHQGHUFODVVRUOLQHDJHDQGDUHVNHSWLFDO about claims of approaching environmental catastrophes because they challenge the competence of the social and governing elite.38  7KHVHGLYHUVHV\VWHPVRIYDOXHSURGXFHWKH FXOWXUDOHYDOXDWRUμPRGHORIULVN DVVHVVPHQWZKLFKHPSKDVL]HVKRZSDUWLFXODUYLVLRQVRIMXVWLFHDQGYLUWXHGHWHUPLQH ERWKZKDWULVNVRQHLVZLOOLQJWRLPSRVHDQGZKDWRQHEHOLHYHVWREHWKHIDFWVDERXW WKRVHULVNV 38'DQ.DKDQHWDO )HDURI'HPRFUDF\$&XOWXUDO(YDOXDWLRQRI6XQVWHLQRQ5LVNμHarvard Law Review 2 39,ELGSS2 40 Ibid., p. 1095. BLAMEWORTHY ENVIRONMENTAL BELIEFS Guided by judgment-infused emotions and motivated by their need to preserve their fundamental ties to others, individuals naturally conform their perceptions of both the FRVWVDQGEHQHÀWVRIVXFKDFWLYLWLHVWRWKHSRVLWLYHRUQHJDWLYHVRFLDOPHDQLQJVZLWK ZKLFKWKRVHDFWLYLWLHVDUHLPEXHGE\FXOWXUDOQRUPV,QVXPLQGLYLGXDOVDGRSWVWDQFHV WRZDUGULVNVWKDWH[SUHVVWKHLUFRPPLWPHQWWRSDUWLFXODUZD\VRIOLIH39 (QYLURQPHQWDOSROLWLFVEHFRPHVDV\PEROLFFRQÁLFWRYHUZKDWFRQVWLWXWHVWKHLGHDO VRFLHW\WKDWLVOLWWOHFRQFHUQHGZLWKWKHDFWXDOIDFWV40 Each group strives to enact OHJLVODWLRQWRSURPRWHLWVRZQYDOXHVDQGVRFLDOVWDWXVDQGWRGHPHDQWKHRWKHUV 2QHZD\RIGHIXVLQJWKLVVLWXDWLRQLVWRÀQGZD\VRIFRPPXQLFDWLQJHQYLURQPHQWDO IDFWVDERXWULVNVWKDWDIÀUPWKHVWDWXVRIWKHYDULRXVSDUWLHV$YDVWHPSLULFDOOLWHUDWXUHKDVVKRZQZD\VWRGHFUHDVHFRQÁLFWWKURXJKFDUHIXOO\VWUXFWXUHGSURFHGXUHV ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS132 Vol. 34 for public deliberation.41 The deliberative model is based, among other things, on the recognition that 41 The bibliography for this research is immense. A good starting point is the Center for Deliberative Democracy at KWWSFGGVWDQIRUGHGXUHVHDUFK 423HWHU$UHQHOOD &KDUDFWHU&KRLFHDQG0RUDO$JHQF\7KH5HOHYDQFHRI&KDUDFWHUWR2XU0RUDO &XOSDELOLW\-XGJPHQWVμSocial Philosophy and Policy   43'DQLHO&)RXNH 'HPRFUDWLF'HOLEHUDWLRQDQG0RUDO$ZDUHQHVVμJournal of Public Deliberation QR DUWKWWSVHUYLFHVEHSUHVVFRPMSGYROLVVDUW 44 Bryan Norton, Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management (Chicago and /RQGRQ8QLYHUVLW\RI&KLFDJR3UHVVS 7KHFDSDFLWLHVRIFULWLFDOVHOIUHÁHFWLRQDQGVHOIUHYLVLRQDUHQRWVLPSO\VRPHLQGLYLGXDO properties that some individuals have the moral luck to possess. Their acquisition and GHYHORSPHQWGHSHQGRQDQLQWHUSHUVRQDOSURFHVVEHWZHHQWKHDJHQWDQGRWKHUKXPDQ beings. The ability to control one's character is a process that often requires some form of socially created transformational opportunity being made available to an individual ZKRKDVWKHFDSDFLW\WRWDNHDGYDQWDJHRILW42 ,KDYHHOVHZKHUHGLVFXVVHGZD\VRIFUHDWLQJVXFKWUDQVIRUPDWLRQDORSSRUWXQLWLHV through deliberative forums,43 but I am not so naïve as to think that institutionalL]LQJVXFKIRUXPVFDQEHGRQHHDVLO\RUZLWKLQWKHIRUHVHHDEOHIXWXUH6XFKIRUXPV WDNHPRQH\WLPHDQGLQVWLWXWLRQDOVXSSRUWWRRUJDQL]HDQGKDYHOLPLWHGLQÁXHQFH on the public at large. Bryan Norton has set forth a carefully developed account of KRZHIIHFWLYHIRUXPVFRXOGEHDQGLQDIHZFDVHVKDYHEHHQRUJDQL]HGWRSURPRWH DGDSWLYHPDQDJHPHQW+RZHYHUKHVHHPVWRPLQLPL]HDFHQWUDOSUREOHPZKHQKH ZULWHV $GDSWLYHPDQDJHPHQWUHTXLUHVQRPRUHWKDQWKDWDFRPPXQLW\UHVSHFW VFLHQFHDQGH[SHULHQFHDVWKHEHVWDUELWHURIGLIIHULQJRSLQLRQVμ44$VZHKDYHVHHQ IDLOXUHWRUHVSHFWRUDWWHQGWRWKHÀQGLQJVRIVFLHQFHLVRQHRIWKHFHQWUDOREVWDFOHV ZHIDFH7KHUHLVQRVLOYHUEXOOHWWRVROYLQJWKHSUREOHPV,KDYHEHHQGLVFXVVLQJ ,QWKHPHDQWLPHWKRVHZKRDUHFRQFHUQHGZLWKHQYLURQPHQWDOGHJUDGDWLRQVVKRXOG OHDUQWRVSHDNSODLQO\LIGLSORPDWLFDOO\DERXWWKHPRUDOGLPHQVLRQVRIZKDWRXU FLWL]HQVEHOLHYHEODPHZRUWK\LQDGYHUWHQFHWRULVNDQGWKHPRUDOUHVSRQVLELOLW\WR form accurate environmental beliefs. CONCLUSION The myths and rhetoric of anti-environmentalism and the indifference of ordinary FLWL]HQVHQFRXUDJHWKHWDNLQJRILQFDOFXODEOHULVNVZLWKWKHIXWXUHRIRXUSODQHWDQG KXPDQZHOIDUH,WLVRQHWKLQJWRWDNHULVNVIRURQHVHOILWLVTXLWHDQRWKHUWRULVN the livelihoods, health, and future opportunities of others. In times of despair, I try WRFRPIRUWP\VHOIZLWKWKHWKRXJKWWKDWSDUHQWVGRORYHWKHLUFKLOGUHQDQGJUDQGSDUHQWVWKHLUJUDQGFKLOGUHQ,OLNHWRWKLQNWKDWWKH\ZRXOGQRWNQRZLQJO\H[SRVH WKHPWRJUDYHULVNV%XWWKH\ZLOOFRQWLQXHWRGRVRXQWLOWKH\EHFRPHDZDUHRIWKH consequences of their beliefs and the policies, or lack of policies, they encourage. Summer 2012 133 7KH\PXVWEHVKRZQWKHFRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQHQYLURQPHQWDOGHJUDGDWLRQQRWWR QHZYDOXHVEXWWRZKDWWKH\DOUHDG\YDOXHWKHPRVW&UHDWLQJWKLVDZDUHQHVVZLOO QRWEHHDV\EXWZHPXVWÀQGZD\VWRFRPPXQLFDWHWKHHWKLFDOUHVSRQVLELOLWLHVRI FLWL]HQVWRLQIRUPWKHPVHOYHVDERXWWKHIXWXUHWKDWDZDLWVXVLIZHFRQWLQXHGRZQ WKHSDWKRIZDQWRQGLVUHJDUGIRURXULPSDFWRQWKHQDWXUDOV\VWHPVWKDWVXVWDLQXV &RQIURQWLQJFLWL]HQVZLWKWKHFRQÁLFWEHWZHHQWKHLUEDVLFPRUDOEHOLHIVDQGWKH dangers of careless disregard for environmental issues is treacherous terrain. Outside RIWKHFRQWUROOHGIUDPHZRUNRIGHOLEHUDWLYHIRUXPVHQYLURQPHQWDOLVWVZLOOKDYHWR EHYHU\FDUHIXOKRZWKH\SURFHHG$QDFFXVDWRU\DWWLWXGHZRXOGEHFRXQWHUSURGXFWLYHEXWVRPHKRZFLWL]HQVPXVWEHSHUVXDGHGWRFULWLFDOO\UHÁHFWXSRQWKHLUPRVW GHHSO\KHOGYDOXHVDQGKRZWKH\UHODWHWRWKHLQYHVWLJDWLRQDQGPRUDOHYDOXDWLRQ RIULVNVLPSRVHGXSRQRWKHUV:HPXVWÀQGZD\VWRSODFHSROLWLFDOLGHRORJLHVLQ WKHFRQWH[WRIDODUJHUVHWRIYDOXHVZHVKDUH  :HFDQDJUHHZLWK LQGLYLGXDOLVWVμWKDWVHOIVXIÀFLHQF\DQGWDNLQJUHVSRQVLELOLW\ IRURXUOLYHVLVDYLUWXHZKLFKLQFOXGHVWDNLQJUHVSRQVLELOLW\IRUGHWULPHQWDOHIIHFWV ZHLQGLYLGXDOO\DQGFROOHFWLYHO\LPSRVHRQRWKHUV,WDOVRLQFOXGHVFRQIURQWLQJWKH WUXHFRVWVRIWKLQJVDQGKRZWKH\DUHGLVWULEXWHG3H[WHUQDOLWLHVJHQHUDWHGE\VXFK WKLQJVDVKRZZHH[WUDFWDQGSURFHVVQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHVRXUPRGHVRISURGXFWLRQ DQGKRZDQGZKHUHZHEXLOG(YHQVXFKDÀUP LQGLYLGXDOLVW DV0LOWRQ)UHHGPDQEHOLHYHGWKDWWKHUHLVVRPHWKLQJZURQJZLWKDV\VWHPWKDWPDNHVRWKHUVSD\ WKURXJKLOOKHDOWKIRUWKHSURGXFWVZHSXUFKDVH45 We need to communicate that HQYLURQPHQWDOSUREOHPV3H[WHUQDOLWLHVRU QHLJKERUKRRGHIIHFWVμ3DUHSUREOHPV RIFROOHFWLYHDFWLRQOLNHEXLOGLQJKLJKZD\VDQGEULGJHVRUSURWHFWLQJWKHVDIHW\RI our food) that can only be solved by public policies. Individualists may be led to agree that some values are more fundamental than such things as "keeping governPHQWRXWRIRXUOLYHVμ We must also communicate the true value of ecosystems and the services they SURYLGH7RVLQJOHRXWMXVWDIHZRIWKHVHVHUYLFHVFRQVLGHUORZO\LQVHFWVDQGWKHLU many important roles. In China's Sichuan province, pears have to be pollinated by hand because native pollinators have been decimated by lack of habitat and the application of pesticides. Avoiding such hardships requires us to understand our dependency on natural systems and the need for collective action to protect them. :KDWVXFKDQXQGHUVWDQGLQJFDQDFKLHYHLVLOOXVWUDWHGE\1HZ<RUN&LW\*VGHFLVLRQ to use ecosystem services, rather than a costly engineering solution, to achieve an DGHTXDWHVXSSO\RISRWDEOHZDWHU%\LQWURGXFLQJDZDWHUVKHGSURWHFWLRQSURJUDP IRULWVZDWHUVXSSO\1HZ<RUN&LW\DYRLGHGWKHELOOLRQLQFDSLWDODQGPLOOLRQLQDQQXDOFRVWVWKDWZRXOGKDYHEHHQUHTXLUHGWRFRQVWUXFWDQGRSHUDWHDQHZ ÀOWUDWLRQSODQW46  :LWK KLHUDUFKLVWVμZHFDQDJUHHWKDWOHJLWLPDWHDXWKRULW\DQGH[SHUWLVHRXJKWWR 45 Milton Freedman, Capitalism and Freedom&KLFDJR8QLYHUVLW\RI&KLFDJR3UHVVFKDS 46 Sandra Postel and Barton Thompson, ":DWHUVKHG3URWHFWLRQ&DSWXULQJWKH%HQHÀWVRI1DWXUH*V :DWHU6XSSO\6HUYLFHVμNatural Resources Forum 29 (2005)2 BLAMEWORTHY ENVIRONMENTAL BELIEFS ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS134 Vol. 34 EHUHVSHFWHG,QWKHUROHRIFLWL]HQVZHGRKDYHHSLVWHPLFGXWLHV%XWWKHVHGXWLHV FDQQRWLQFOXGHDFKLHYLQJH[SHUWNQRZOHGJHLQDOOÀHOGVUHOHYDQWWRSROLF\7RWKLQN DPDWHXUVKDYHGXWLHVWRFKDOOHQJHH[SHUWNQRZOHGJHRQLGHRORJLFDOJURXQGVLVWREH confused about our roles and intellectual obligations. No citizen has the expertise WR HYDOXDWH DOO WKH VFLHQWLÀFGLPHQVLRQV RI RXUPDQ\ HQYLURQPHQWDO SUREOHPV %HLQJ  DSSURSULDWHO\ HSLVWHPLFDOO\ WUXVWLQJμ LV D YLUWXH IRU QRQH[SHUW FLWL]HQV ZKHQHYDOXDWLQJÀQGLQJVLQWKHHQYLURQPHQWDOVFLHQFHV47 We must take seriously the claims of scientists about the effects of such things as declining biodiversity, pollution, and climate change.  :KDWZHEHOLHYHPDWWHUV&DUHOHVVO\IRUPHGHQYLURQPHQWDOEHOLHIVOHDGWRULVN\ SROLFLHVDQGULVN\LQDFWLRQ1RWHWKDW,KDYHQRWEHHQFRQFHUQHGVRPXFKZLWKSHRSOH ZKRUHMHFWDQRUPDVZLWKWKRVHZKRXQZLWWLQJO\YLRODWHDEDVLFPRUDOSULQFLSOH WKDWWKH\ZRXOGSUREDEO\DFFHSW2YHUWKHODVWÀYH\HDUV,KDYHEHHQFRQGXFWLQJ VXUYH\VRIP\VWXGHQWV,DPVXUH,DPQRWWKHRQO\SURIHVVRUZKRKDVQRWHGWKH tendency of college students to claim that there is no general agreement about PRUDOLW\,QWHDFKLQJWKHPKRZWRFRQVWUXFWPRUDODUJXPHQWV,DVNWKHPZKHWKHU WKH\WKLQNWKDWPRVW$PHULFDQVZRXOGDJUHHWRDVHULHVRIHLJKWPRUDOSULQFLSOHV WKDW,SUHVHQWWRWKHP7KHVHLQFOXGHVXFKFODLPVDV ,WLVZURQJWRLPSRVHULVNRQ RWKHUVZLWKRXWWKHLUNQRZOHGJHRUFRQVHQWHVSHFLDOO\WKHPRVWYXOQHUDEOHVXFKDV FKLOGUHQWKHSRRUDQGWKHHOGHUO\μ :HKDYHDUHVSRQVLELOLW\WROHDYHWKHZRUOG LQDWOHDVWDVJRRGDVKDSHDVZHKDYHIRXQGLWμDQG 'HSULYLQJRXUFKLOGUHQDQG IXWXUHJHQHUDWLRQVRIRSSRUWXQLWLHVIRUDJRRGDQGKHDOWK\OLIHLVPRUDOO\ZURQJμ To my surprise, and to the surprise of the hundreds of students I have polled, they XQDQLPRXVO\DJUHHWKDWWKHVHDUHFRUHPRUDOYDOXHVWRZKLFKDOO$PHULFDQVVXEVFULEH LQZRUGLIQRWLQGHHG I believe that animals, plants, insects, and the ecosystems they constitute impose moral obligations upon us. But so do our progeny. Parents strive to provide for their children and prepare them for future success. They need to understand WKHLPPHQVHULVNVWRZKLFKWKH\H[SRVHWKHPE\WKHLUFDUHOHVVO\IRUPHGEHOLHIV DERXWDQGDWWLWXGHVWRZDUGWKHQDWXUDOZRUOG$V,VDLGHDUOLHUWKHUHLVQRJOREDO VROXWLRQWRWKHVHSUREOHPVEXWLWLVWLPHWRSUHVVWKHFRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQXQFRQWURYHUVLDOPRUDODVVXPSWLRQVDQGZKDWZHDUHGRLQJWRRXUSODQHW'RLQJVRQHHGV to be articulated individually to our neighbors, colleagues, and families, regardOHVVRIKRZXQFRPIRUWDEOHWKHFRQYHUVDWLRQ:KLOHHQYLURQPHQWDORUJDQL]DWLRQV VKRXOGFRQWLQXHWRHPSKDVL]HWKHVFLHQWLÀFEDVLVRIHQYLURQPHQWDOSUREOHPVDQG WKHHFRQRPLFEHQHÀWVRIDGGUHVVLQJWKHPGRLQJVRLVQRWWKHSULPDU\JURXQGRQ ZKLFKWKHEDWWOHPLJKWEHZRQ0HGLDFDPSDLJQVWKDWFRQIURQWFLWL]HQVZLWKWKH ethical dimensions of our social actions and emphasize the obligation of living up WRGHPDQGVRIEDVLFKXPDQGHFHQF\DUHLIZHOOFUDIWHGWKHPRUHSURPLVLQJWRRO IRUKHOSLQJXVWRXQGHUVWDQGZKDWNLQGVRISHUVRQVZHDUHDQGRXJKWWREH 476DUDK:ULJKW 9LUWXHV6RFLDO5ROHVDQG&RQWH[WXDOLVPμLQ+HDWKHU%DWWDO\HGVirtue and Vice, Moral and Epistemic&KLFKHVWHU:LOH\%ODFNZHOOS