The importance of poetry, hip-hop, and philosophy for an enlisted aviator in the USAF (2000–2004) flying in support of Operation Enduring 5 Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom Adam M. Croom* 10 (Received XX XXXX XXXX; accepted XX XXXX XXXX) This special issue of Journal of Poetry Therapy focuses on the use of poetry and other forms of expressive writing to explore the transformative experiences of military veterans, and so in this article I discuss how the use of poetry, hip-hop, and philosophy positively influenced my life while I was serving in the United States Air Force (USAF) from 2000 through 2004. This article briefly reviews my 15 reasons for enlisting and discusses the importance that poetry, hip-hop, and philosophy had for me during four different phases of my military history: (i) Basic Military Training, (ii) Aircraft Qualification, Combat Survival, and Water Survival Training, (iii) serving in the post 9/11 operations Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom, and (iv) the period after fulfilling my time of service for the USAF. In discussing each phase, I explain the unique challenges 20 that I encountered, how I used poetry, hip-hop, and philosophy to successfully overcome these challenges, point AQ1 out relevant examples of poetry, hip-hop, and philosophy that were particularly influential, and include pictures of my experiences throughout. Keywords Poetry; hip-hop; philosophy; therapy; military; USAF Introduction 25 Up until the year that I decided to join the Air Force, enlisting in the armed services had never seriously crossed my mind. But as senior year steadily approached, I started thinking more seriously about how to spend the coming years of my life. Since I was just 17 years old, I still wanted to have fun and explore the world, yet I was also hoping to start laying down a solid foundation for my future life and career. *Corresponding author. AdamM. Croom, Department of Philosophy, University of Pennsylvania, PA 19104, USA. Tel: XXX. Email: croom@sas.upenn.edu Journal of Poetry Therapy, 2015 Vol. 28, No. 2, 1–25, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08893675.2015.1008732 © 2015 National Association for Poetry Therapy c:/3b2win/temp files/TJPT_A_1008732_O_ANN.3d 27th January 2015 21:9:28 CE: K.S.; QA: N.D. 30 My father had served honorably in the US Army when he was about my age, and his choice seemed to have served him well. He told me stories of his adventures and about the many health and educational benefits that servicemen were provided. Of course my mother worried about me joining the military, but then again she also worried about me leaving the house without a jacket or with my hair wet. There was 35 no avoiding the fact that worrying is simply what loving mothers do best, so I assured her that everything would be fine as I dried my hair and set off to talk to the USAF recruiter (for photos see Figures 1–3). Upon reflection, the idea of enlisting in the US Air Force struck me as appealing for at least five reasons. First, at that time I was not aware of many serious job 40 opportunities available for 17-year-olds just graduating from high school, and further, my family and I had no money to seriously consider college as my next step. So when I discovered that there were flying jobs available for USAF enlistees I became incredibly intrigued. Flying on airplanes and traveling the world for a living sounded like one of the most exciting and adventurous options available to a teenager 45 with a fresh high school diploma (2000). Surely, I loved growing up in Redondo Beach, California, with its beautiful beaches, weather, people, and richly diverse and FIGURE 1. Adam and Young Croom (my mother). AQ2 Mo no f or p rint colo ur o nlin e 2 A. M. Croom c:/3b2win/temp files/TJPT_A_1008732_O_ANN.3d 27th January 2015 21:9:28 artistic culture. Yet I also remained curious to learn more about other people, places, and cultures. Second, as a young man about to embark on a life of my own, I was eager to learn what I was capable of accomplishing-in some sense, to better learn FIGURE 2. Adam and Frank Croom (my father). Mo no f or p rint colo ur o nlin e FIGURE 3. Adam and Blessing Croom (my golden retriever). Mo no f or p rint colo ur o nlin e Poetry, hip-hop, and philosophy in the USAF 3 c:/3b2win/temp files/TJPT_A_1008732_O_ANN.3d 27th January 2015 21:9:28 50 who exactly I was-and so there was a desire and motivation inside of me to seek out challenging opportunities to excel among my peers. Third, I wanted to have a real job that would provide me with the financial resources to afford my own car and apartment, as well as health insurance and college tuition later down the road. Fourth, serving as an enlisted aviator with "wings" in the USAF was considered an 55 honorable and prestigious profession-one of the very best jobs in the military-so I looked forward to acquiring a respected position in society and contributing to it in some substantive way (for photos see Figures 4 and 5). Fifth, in almost every military story that I could remember, it seemed that despite differences in detail regarding the different locations and challenges that military servicemen encountered together, 60 solid friendships had nonetheless been made throughout them all. Considering that my friends would be what I missed most about high school, flying as part of an aircrew for the USAF seemed like an opportune way to build a new brotherhood of friends (for photo see Figure 6). In thinking over my military history, I found that I could identify at least four 65 different phases that presented me with unique challenges to overcome, and that I had used poetry, hip-hop, and philosophy to help me overcome each of the unique challenges that I faced throughout these four phases. The first phase of my military history concerns the six weeks that I spent in Basic Military Training (BMT) at Lackland Air Force Base, Texas. The second phase concerns the 52 weeks that 70 I spent in more specialized training in (a) Aircraft Qualification training at Sheppard Air Force Base, Texas, as well as Altus Air Force Base, Oklahoma, (b) Combat Survival (SERE or Survival, Evasion, Resistance, and Escape) training at Fairchild FIGURE 4. Adam and President Bill Clinton. Mo no f or p rint colo ur o nlin e 4 A. M. Croom c:/3b2win/temp files/TJPT_A_1008732_O_ANN.3d 27th January 2015 21:9:28 Air Force Base, Washington, and (c) Water Survival training at Pensacola Naval Air Station, Florida. The third phase concerns the 146 weeks that I spent as an enlisted 75 aircrew member (Loadmaster) on C-17 cargo jets and serving in support of the post 9/11 operations Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) and Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF). Finally, the last phase concerns my completion of time of service and honorable separation from the USAF in order to pursue a new post-military life as a scholar at the University of Pennsylvania. 80 Since this special issue of Journal of Poetry Therapy focuses not only on the use of poetry in the transformative experiences of military veterans, but further considers the use of other forms of expressive writing in their transformative experiences as well, in this article I further discuss how hip-hop and philosophy, in addition to poetry, have helped me to overcome some of the unique challenges that I faced 85 throughout my military career. Indeed, distinguishing between which works are genuinely "poetic" versus genuinely "philosophical" is unlikely to be one that is based on rigid, consistent, and universally accepted principles. For example, Ludwig Wittgenstein-who is considered by many scholars to be "the greatest philosopher of the 20th century" 90 (Biletzki, 2014)-writes in Culture and Value (1980) that "I think I summed up my FIGURE 5. Adam and Charles Wilson (my right-hand man throughout training). Mo no f or p rint colo ur o nlin e Poetry, hip-hop, and philosophy in the USAF 5 c:/3b2win/temp files/TJPT_A_1008732_O_ANN.3d 27th January 2015 21:9:28 attitude to philosophy when I said: philosophy ought really to be written only as a poetic composition" (p. 24e). In On the Way to Language (1971a) Martin Heidegger -who is also "widely acknowledged to be one of the most original and important philosophers of the 20th Century" (Korab-Karpowicz, 2009)-writes of "poetry and 95 thought" that "each needs the other" (p. 70) and even suggested in Poetry, Language, Thought (1971b) that poetry is "the saying of the unconcealedness of what is" (p. 72). As Albert Hofstadter (1971b) explains in the introduction to Poetry, Language, Thought, "in 'The Origin of the Work of Art' (1935–36) Heidegger had already pointed to the function of poetry as the founding of truth: bestowing, grounding, 100 beginning" (p. xii, my emphasis). More recently, Duncan Richter (2011) has argued that since "the history of concepts is the history of the creative, imaginative, rulebending/creating/breaking use of language [...] it is the history of literature, poetry, or whatever else we might want to call linguistic art," and that consequently, "philosophy, rightly understood, is a kind of literature or, at least, continuous with 105 literature" (p. 257; for more on poetry and philosophy see also Croom, 2015; Heidegger, 1962, 1971; Wittgenstein, 1953, 1972, 1980, 2001) AQ3. Further, not only is philosophy often considered poetic, but often poetry is also considered philosophical. For instance, Aristotle argued in Poetics (1902) that "poetry [...] is a more philosophical and a higher thing than history: for poetry 110 tends to express the universal, history the particular" (1451b). In discussing the "metaphysical poets" of the seventeenth century, including John Donne and George Herbert, Luke Hankins (2011) explained that the metaphysical poetry from this time had been characterized as having "certain stylistic tendencies, such as elaborately FIGURE 6. Survival School. Mo no f or p rint colo ur o nlin e 6 A. M. Croom c:/3b2win/temp files/TJPT_A_1008732_O_ANN.3d 27th January 2015 21:9:29 extended metaphor or conceit, fondness for paradox, and linguistic inventiveness 115 and ingenuity (often loosely termed 'wit')" (p. 1). "No man could be born a metaphysical poet," Samuel Johnson popularly noted, "to write on their plan [...] it was at least necessary to read and think" (quoted in Grierson, 1995, p. xxxiii). More recently, Amit Majmudar (2012) also points out in "Two Philosophical Poets" how T. S. Eliot and Kay Ryan wrote particularly philosophical poetry, and in Three 120 Philosophical Poets, George Santayana (2013) further discusses the philosophical significance of the poetry composed by Lucretius, Dante, and Goethe. Further still, not only is the distinction between works that are genuine instances of "poetry" versus genuine instances of "philosophy" unlikely to be one that is based on rigid, consistent, and universally accepted principles, but additionally, the 125 distinction between works that are genuine instances of "poetry" versus genuine instances of "hip-hip" is also unlikely to be one that is based on rigid, consistent, and universally accepted principles. For instance, Walt Whitman wrote about sex and the city while presenting himself as a tough, working man (Diggs, 2013a, 2013b, 2013c) and many hip-hop artists explicitly consider themselves poets-note for example the 130 track "Warrior Poets" on Pep Love's (2003) Ascension Side C as well as Kendrick Lamar's (2014) recent mix-tape entitled The Poems of Kendrick Lamar. Often AQ4, hiphop lyricists' freestyle either alone or in competition with others in "battles" can serve as rich reservoirs of poetic creativity. Hip-hop artists have also had collections of their poetry edited and published, including for instance Tupac Shakur's (1999) The Rose 135 that Grew from Concrete, which consists of a collection of poetry that he wrote between 1989 and 1991. Given that great expressive writing is both thoughtful and beautiful, and so may merit being considered both philosophical and poetic, and given that either may discuss themes or be set to sounds associated with hip-hop, throughout this article I 140 will discuss poetry, hip-hop, and philosophy together, since all three were and still are incredibly important forms of expression to me. Basic Military Training Now, the first phase of my military career concerns the six weeks that I spent in BMT in Lackland Air Force Base, Texas. The first major challenge that I encountered in 145 BMT was that this was my first time moving away from my friends and family and living on my own. I was a young man that had spent most of my life growing up in a liberal Redondo Beach, California, but now for the first time I was to spend six consecutive weeks with the 737th Training Group, the mission of which is to "transform civilians into motivated, disciplined warrior airmen with the foundations 150 to serve in the world's greatest Air Force" (USAF, 2014). Clearly this was going to be far from another day at the beach. To paint just a brief picture, this "transformation process" that one undergoes during BMT involves six weeks of intense physical, emotional, and intellectual conditioning. A typical day normally begins at 04:45 to the blaring horns of reveille 155 and Tech Sergeant Philips shouting Get up! Get up! Get up! At this point, everyone has 15 minutes to jump out of bed, shit-shower-and-shave, get dressed to military Poetry, hip-hop, and philosophy in the USAF 7 c:/3b2win/temp files/TJPT_A_1008732_O_ANN.3d 27th January 2015 21:9:29 standards, and fall neatly in formation outside by 05:00 in time for the morning exercise regimen. After an hour of cardiovascular exercise and strength training- which typically includes push-ups, sit-ups, pull-ups, various other exercises, and at 160 least a one mile run-we again fall into formation and collectively march in step to the chow hall for our morning meal. Throughout the day there are classes to take, equipment to become familiarized with, and other team-building exercises to participate in. At all times, the movements of each trainee are expected to be executed with urgency and precision so that the movement of the entire flight ticks 165 with the seamlessly smooth coordination of a well-crafted watch. Any errors at all in the chow hall or elsewhere were powerfully and publically criticized so as to deter any other deviations from the increasingly coordinated collective we were to become. Our uniforms had to remain pristine at all times without any wrinkles and loose strings, and our boots had to glisten in high definition. More generally, BMT 170 consisted of constantly learning new things at high speed and having to perform them perfectly, all while drill instructors scream at you in their persistent attempt to purify the weak from you and better prepare you for performing under pressure. Make too big of a mistake at any point and a trainee may not only have extra push ups to do or duties to perform but could further get "recycled" or sent back one or more weeks in 175 the program so that the trainee being disciplined would have gone through the process all over again. The constant pressure over a long period could really get to you after a while. But this "transformation process" that one undergoes while in BMT is intended to break you down in order to build you back up in improved form. FIGURE 7. OEF aircrew. Mo no f or p rint colo ur o nlin e 8 A. M. Croom c:/3b2win/temp files/TJPT_A_1008732_O_ANN.3d 27th January 2015 21:9:29 The goal is not simply to develop a stronger me, but a stronger we (for photo see 180 Figure 7). In order to fuel our morale while in BMT, we were allowed to receive letters from the outside world on occasion. My parents would write to me and send me cards with photos and poems in them (for photos see Figures 1 and 2). This was really the only contact that I had with the outside world at this point, as well as the 185 only source of relaxation I had from the never-ending rituals of military training. So, although basic training is not an ideal place to spend large amounts of leisure time becoming absorbed in the study of poetry and expressive writing, it is surely a great place for one to open up to poetry and expressive writing. Surely, most trainees in BMT for the first time have many new feelings and experiences to express. Further, 190 since prior to basic training I was in constant communication with my friends and family in Redondo Beach, there was really no reason to even write letters to other people before this time. So BMT offered me a unique opportunity to seriously engage in the expressive writing of letters for the first time. Moreover, since short poems that were written on or included with the cards that my family sent me often 195 rhymed and were easy to remember, they provided me with new esthetic and intellectual items to rehearse and re-appreciate in my mind while I did other tasks throughout BMT. Throughout this incredibly stressful military episode I could, so to speak, provide myself poetic commercial breaks. Aircraft Qualification, Combat Survival, and Water Survival Training 200 The second phase of my military career concerns the 52 weeks that I spent in more specialized training in (a) Aircraft Qualification training at Sheppard Air Force Base, Texas, as well as Altus Air Force Base, Oklahoma, (b) Combat Survival (SERE) training at Fairchild Air Force Base, Washington, and (c) Water Survival training at Pensacola Naval Air Station, Florida. Luckily, at this point in my career I was 205 afforded a lot more freedom than I had before in BMT, somewhat similarly to how students are afforded a lot more intellectual freedom in college than in high school or elementary school. The earlier stages are supposed to provide a more basic and common core set of fundamentals upon which more specialized training can be subsequently established. Now that I had made it through BMT, I would luckily 210 have a bit more free time to read poetry and philosophy (as well as science), but the kind of challenges that I was about to face would be much harder. In this 52-week phase, I would be training to become an enlisted aircrew member and would be awarded my "wings," which would allow me to start working on airplanes and traveling the world at the age of 18. I was not only excited but also a bit nervous, 215 since the washout rate for this program was reported to be at approximately 50%. So the fact of the matter was that half of us that went through BMT in order to have a shot at this program would fail out and be cross-trained to do some other kind of work. Although I think we all play an integral part in the military system, I did not enlist in the USAF for the purpose of spending four years of my life working a 220 nonflying position, so I was eager to excel in this course. Here I would have to learn the basics of aircraft safety, operating systems, weight distribution and placement of Poetry, hip-hop, and philosophy in the USAF 9 c:/3b2win/temp files/TJPT_A_1008732_O_ANN.3d 27th January 2015 21:9:29 cargo, hazardous materials, and mathematical principles for applying restrain to various types of cargo. It was challenging work, but at least I had more time to myself at this point and could read, go to the gym, and listen to music. 225 Although hip-hop is only rarely discussed in the academic literature or given full credit as an art form (see for example Williams, 2010), a careful assessment of some of the exemplary hip-hop lyricists of our time would clearly show that they possess a robust lexicon, refined sense of rhythm, and a rich reservoir of knowledge regarding poetic conventions and current events. Importantly, hip-hop is a popular medium for 230 discussing current and salient issues of concern-consider for instance how J. Cole (2014) AQ5raised awareness regarding the police shooting and killing of Michael Brown in his recent song "Be Free" (Grow, 2014; Williams, 2014). In fact, forms of spoken poetry of this kind date back to at least the epics of Homer-which are among the oldest surviving written works of Western civilization-perhaps in part because of the 235 fact that "poems [can] take on the memoric form of memory in a wide range of poetic forms from the traditional sonnet, haiku, or villanelle, to a scattered projective verse" (Eby, 2014, p. iii). "Poetry, in its simplest purpose, is a way to record," Lawrence Eby (2014) writes in Memoric Form: Poem As Memory, and "in its details, [it] helps my mind slow life down just enough so that I can remember something when I 240 reread it" (p. 2). Hip-hop then, as a kind of poetry, can be used to help preserve knowledge of culture and tradition through time, as well as raise awareness of and provide a platform for discussing issues of current concern. At the time that I was in Aircraft Qualification training I was listening to many of the same hip-hop artists that I grew up listening to in Redondo Beach. For example, 245 I had Del the Funky Homosapien's Both Sides of the Brain (2000), Lauryn Hill's The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill (1998), Method Man and Redman's Blackout! (1999), Jay Z's Vol. 2 ... Hard Knock Life (1998) and Vol. 3 ... Life and Times of S. Carter (1999), Bone Thugs-N-Harmony's Creepin on ah Come Up (1994), E. 1999 Eternal (1995), and The Art of War (1997), Wu-Tang's Enter the Wu-Tang (1993) and Wu-Tang 250 Forever (1997), Nas' It Was Written (1996) and I Am... (1999), Notorious BIG's Ready to Die (1994) and Life After Death (1997), and Tupac Shakur's Me Against the World (1995) and All Eyez on Me (1996), and R U Still Down? [Remember Me] (1997). Importantly, a common theme or motif that recurs throughout much of hip-hop is the struggle from rags to riches, or overcoming all odds to become successful in one's 255 chosen area of interest in life (Johnson, 2013), and this is a theme that many of us related to while in military training. Not only does hip-hop have lyrical content that is often highly motivational, it also typically involves the creative use and interpretation of rich and multifaceted metaphors, which frequently encourages further reflection on the topics discussed. As a matter of fact, George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1980) 260 argue in Metaphors We Live By that metaphors are not merely tangential to language and cognition more generally but are in fact centrally involved in the grounding or embodiment of language cognition in human activity. Tim Murphy (2001) also argues in Nietzsche, Metaphor, Religion that: The key to Nietzsche's view of metaphor is the concept of metaphor as, in 265 German, the act of übertragung, of "carrying over," "transfer," or "transport." 10 A. M. Croom c:/3b2win/temp files/TJPT_A_1008732_O_ANN.3d 27th January 2015 21:9:29 Rather than a technical definition of the specific trope of metaphor, Nietzsche understands übertragung as the basic structure of all cognition and culture. Thus, he extends the concept to encompass humanity's most basic relationship to reality as a whole. (p. xv; see also Nietzsche, 1873/1999) 270 Furthermore, many hip-hop beats have a stimulating rhythm that one can enjoy as a background soundtrack to late-night study sessions or workout routines, and often these beats or instrumentals helped me to settle into a groove and sharpen my focus. The small group of us that eventually did make it through Aviation Qualification training were awarded our wings (for photo see Figure 8) and rewarded with the 275 opportunity to endure further punishment at Combat Survival School (SERE) in Fairchild Air Force Base, Washington, in the snowy winter, as well as Water Survival Training in Pensacola, Florida. Given the fact that these were survival courses, I focused exclusively on this during the time (for photos see Figures 9 and 10). Serving after 9/11: OEF and OIF 280 The third phase of my military career concerned the 146 weeks that I spent as an enlisted aviator on C-17 cargo jets (for photos see Figures 2, 11, and 12), for the most part flying in support of the post 9/11 operations OEF and OIF. Now that I had finally completed all of my requisite preparatory training to become an enlisted aircrew member and was awarded my wings, at this stage I was now ready to start 285 flying missions and travel the world. At first the job was a dream. Being a Loadmaster consisted of flying with cargo to different places around the world whenever it was required, and our aircrew would often receive several days off in crew-rest to explore the local areas. I would always buy several new books before going out on missions and spend a great deal of time reading, both in the air during cruise altitude and on 290 the ground while in crew-rest. It is in this third phase of my military career that I was able to really start reading and writing poetry and philosophy especially. And since it was only shortly after I was able to start flying missions that the terrorist attacks of 9/ 11 occurred, this was going to be the time of my life where I would need poetry, hiphop, and philosophy the most. 295 I had the chance to fly to many new locations as an enlisted aircrew member on the Boeing C-17 Globemaster III cargo jet, and having this opportunity to experience new environments and cultures was incredibly awe-inspiring and intellectually stimulating to me. It helped me to cultivate a more open mind about human beings and their various forms of life. Not only was I constantly traveling to new places and 300 meeting new people from different cultures, but the cargo that I would have to load and transport on the C-17 was also always different and unpredictable. For example, I have loaded and transported everything from UH-60 helicopters and special-forces personnel to porta potties, pallets of food, professional cheerleaders, and fire trucks. So, since my task-demands, social settings, and local environments were continu305 ously changing, I had to become a master of adaptability. I found this exciting and challenging and was able to productively cope with the pressure of this work by delving into one of the few crafts flexible enough to pack up and take along with me Poetry, hip-hop, and philosophy in the USAF 11 c:/3b2win/temp files/TJPT_A_1008732_O_ANN.3d 27th January 2015 21:9:29 on missions: reading and writing. I could not help but be fascinated by the differentideologies that guide the different forms of life of the different people that I had met310 from around the world, as well as the local geographies and human-made monuments. So, in order to better understand all of the new sensory and conceptual stimulation that I was being exposed to as a flyer, and to make better sense of my own life and the missions I was working to support, I began reading and writing FIGURE 8. Results from Basic Military Training. 12 A. M. Croom c:/3b2win/temp files/TJPT_A_1008732_O_ANN.3d 27th January 2015 21:9:29 insatiably. It is AQ6interesting to me that those in academia and those in the military are 315 often contrasted in terms of physical and cognitive characteristics, but the hunger and habit that I have for reading and writing now has its origins in the more practical need I had back then to make sense of the many new intellectually and emotionally salient events that I was experiencing. As I started flying missions into the "box," especially Afghanistan and Iraq, my 320 stress load became incredible and I had started thinking more about the moral status of my actions as well as those of my comrades, the nature of mortality, and the significance of my time alive (for photo see Figure 8). I read work on religion, atheism, and existentialism, including for instance The Cambridge Companion to Kierkegaard edited by Alastair Hannay and Gordon Marino (1998), Atheism: The 325 Case Against God by George Smith (1974), Critiques of God: Making the Case Against Belief in God edited by Peter Angeles (1997), and Irrational Man: A Study in Existential Philosophy by William Barrett (1962). In order to better understand my FIGURE 9. Wings ceremony. FIGURE 10. Photo of wings. Mo no f or p rint colo ur o nlin e Poetry, hip-hop, and philosophy in the USAF 13 c:/3b2win/temp files/TJPT_A_1008732_O_ANN.3d 27th January 2015 21:9:30 place in the world, I also read work on anthropology, biology, and evolution, including for instance The Descent of Man by Charles Darwin (1871/2004), The Moral 330 Animal: Why We Are the Way We Are: The New Science of Evolutionary Psychology by Robert Wright (1994), and Human Natures: Genes, Cultures, and the Human Prospect by Paul Ehrlich (2002) AQ7. I also thought more about my own ability to inquire into these issues, as well as the nature of the medium (e.g., language) and methodologies (e.g., scientific, philosophical, artistic) for thinking about these issues. So I read 335 books on the nature of knowledge and language, including for instance Meditations on First Philosophy by Rene Descartes (1641/1998) and The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language by Steven Pinker (1995). Finally, I also read some fiction, including The Fountainhead (1943/1994) and Atlas Shrugged (1957/1999) by Ayn Rand, as well as works of poetry, including for instance Leaves of Grass by Walt 340 Whitman (1855) and Selected Poems by Emily Dickinson (1993). Importantly, my turn to poetry and philosophy was not idle or speculative, but urgent and necessary in order to psychologically flourish in the life-threatening conditions that I was facing (for further discussion on poetry and psychological well-being see also Croom, 2015). When I was 18 years old, for example, I had to medically evacuate an 18-year345 old soldier in the US Army from out of the box to a better-equipped facility in Germany because he had received a gunshot wound to the head. I still remember looking at him and thinking: here we both are, 18 years old, for all practical purposes cut from the same cookie-cutter human mold, both probably with loving mothers at home just hoping that their son will return home safely. Yet one was soon to receive 350 some very bad news while the other would get yet another gentle call from me calmly FIGURE 11. Loading a helicopter. Mo no f or p rint colo ur o nlin e 14 A. M. Croom c:/3b2win/temp files/TJPT_A_1008732_O_ANN.3d 27th January 2015 21:9:30 reciting that everything was just fine, like any other normal day at the office. But going through experiences like these can start to initiate a change in a person- indeed, it would be odd if someone were not psychologically influenced by such experiences-and I found that reading and writing poetry and philosophy was an 355 effective way for me to ensure that my transformation would continually be for the better. Being deployed and away from home so often and for such long periods of time can also make it incredibly difficult to maintain healthy relationships, which was frustrating for me as I tried to make the most of what little time I could spend with 360 my girlfriend. So while deployed I also read books on emotional intelligence and sexual health, including for instance Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More than IQ by Daniel Goleman (2005) and Great Sex: A Man's Guide to the Secret Principles of Total-Body Sex by Michael Castleman (2004). But while my romantic relationship was on hold during deployments, I was able to build strong friendships. 365 Spending so much time with the other members of a small aircrew and going through so many unique, interesting, and emotionally salient events encourages the development of great trust and provides a common pool of experiences and perspectives to draw upon in communicating with one another. So the dynamic FIGURE 12. Combat ready. Poetry, hip-hop, and philosophy in the USAF 15 c:/3b2win/temp files/TJPT_A_1008732_O_ANN.3d 27th January 2015 21:9:30 and evolving nature of my social relationships with others motivated me to read 370 poetry and philosophy that discussed these issues. Aristotle's work, especially De Anima (1993), Nicomachean Ethics (1999), and Politics (1998), were and still are incredibly important to me, as I am humbled by the scope and systematicity of his thought. As a young flyer serving through three years of combat operations, I had many questions about the nature of human being or life (De Anima), how human 375 beings ought to conduct themselves in order to thrive or flourish both at a personal level (Nicomachean Ethics) as well as an interpersonal level (Politics), and Aristotle offered a wonderfully systematic discussion of exactly these issues throughout his works. Since I learned that Aristotle was also the tutor to Alexander the Great, I appreciated the practical effectiveness that his philosophy was able to exert on the 380 ruling King of Macedon. Aristotle speaks especially to those involved in combat operations, as he gives a clear and reasoned assessment of how one should act in such situations: Nicomachean Ethics the most frightening thing is death, for it is a limit [or end], and there seems to 385 be nothing else for the dead, nothing either good or bad. But the courageous man would seem not to be concerned with death in any or every circumstance – for example, death at sea or by way of illness. In what circumstances, then? Or is it in the noblest? Such deaths are those that occur in war, for they happen amid the greatest and noblest danger [...] a courageous man could be said to be 390 someone who is fearless when it comes to a noble death and to any situation that brings death suddenly at hand. What pertains to war is above all of this character. (Aristotle, 1999, 1115a25–1115b) Aristotle further makes the important point that: the good will not be good to a greater degree by being eternal either, if in fact 395 whiteness that lasts a long time will not be whiter than that which lasts only a day. (Aristotle, 1999, 1096b) After reading this I thought that it does not matter so much how long I live but rather how well I live, for to live a blessed life of only one day is to remain blessed nonetheless. I should not fear death then, if the quality of my mark here is eternal. 400 In fragment 24 (Diels), the ancient philosopher and poet Heraclitus similarly says that "Gods and men honor those who fall in battle (arèiphatoi, 'those who are slain by Ares')" (Khan, 1981, p. 236) and Charles Khan (1981) writes in The Art and Thought of Heraclitus that: The parallel between gods and men recalls LXXXIII (D. 53), where war, as 405 king of all, appoints 'some as gods, others as men'. It seems likely that the exceptional status of those who die sur le champ d'honneur is somehow connected with the fact that the god Ares who destroys them can himself be 16 A. M. Croom c:/3b2win/temp files/TJPT_A_1008732_O_ANN.3d 27th January 2015 21:9:30 identified with King Polemos, the universal power of conflict and opposition. (p. 237) 410 Furthermore, in Stromateis, the Christian theologian Clement of Alexandria writes that: it is not the violence of the death that they recommend, but the fact that he who dies in war is gone without fear of dying, cut off from the body, and without previous sickness and debility in the soul, which men suffer in diseases. For 415 then they depart in a womanly way and longing to live on. For this reason they release the soul in no pure (καθαράν) state, but carrying its desires with it like weights of lead-except some among them who have become notable concerning virtue. And there are some too who die in war with desires still upon them; their state in no way differs from that of wasting away by disease. (IV, 14, quoted in 420 Kirk, 1949, p. 393–393) If I must die and I have no choice about this, it is in some sense psychologically unhealthy to constantly live in fear of this inevitability. What one should be concerned with first and foremost then is the quality of life rather than quantity of life, which may involve living a shorter time as a warrior rather than a longer time as a 425 coward. It is preferable, therefore, to die-or to release the soul, as some say-in a pure state of mind rather than an impure one (e.g., as one does "with desires still upon them" or in "wasting away by disease"). Similar themes can also be found in the lyrics of hip-hop artist Tupac Shakur. For instance, Tupac also speaks to those involved in combat operations in the 430 following lyrics taken from Death Around the Corner (1995), Ambitionz az a Ridah (1996), and If I Die 2Nite (1995): Death Around the Corner this is for all the real mothafuckin niggas out there, I know you ain't scared to die, 435 we all gotta go, ya know, a real motherfucker will pick the time he goes, and make sure he handles his motherfuckin business (Shakur, 1995) Ambitionz az a Ridah thuggin for life and if you right then nigga die for it, 440 let them other brothers try, at least you tried for it, when it's time to die be a man and pick the way you leave (Shakur, 1996) Poetry, hip-hop, and philosophy in the USAF 17 c:/3b2win/temp files/TJPT_A_1008732_O_ANN.3d 27th January 2015 21:9:30 If I Die 2nite A coward dies a thousand deaths, a soldier dies but once (Shakur, 1995) 445 For AQ8Tupac a real man (also often referred to as a true G, thug, or soldier) is one that does not live the life crippled by the constant fear of death, which prevents him from speaking forthrightly and taking the chances requisite to become successful in life. For insofar as one is coward, in contrast with a real soldier, one fails to maximize their life-potential a thousand times before the actual end of their existence, and so in 450 this sense they "die a thousand deaths." Rather than constantly perishing from defeats of this kind, Shakur urges his audience that if they believe in the rightness of their actions then they should commit themselves to those actions, even if death may come as a result ("if you right then nigga die for it" and "when it's time to die be a man and pick the way you leave"). As ancient philosophers and poets have noted 455 before, Tupac similarly points out that everyone must die, so this is a fact of reality to embrace rather than live in crippling fear of. Accordingly, the proper way for each person to embrace this reality of mortality is to pick a cause that one genuinely believes in and then to commit to that cause without being weakened or defeated by the fear of death (or peer pressure, etc.). Acting in this way without fear of death or 460 peer pressure is what it means to have an independent mind, to be free, and to keep it real. In Cuss Control James O'Connor (2000) says of the use of taboo words that "It's the sign of a weak vocabulary" (p. 80) and so some sympathetic to this view have criticized hip-hop for its common use of taboo words (Williams, 2010). Yet it is 465 nonetheless important to remain cognizant of the fact that the use of expressive terms (fuck) in the lyrics of hip-hop albums or the titles of published articles in linguistics journals are often linguistically apt insofar as the purpose of the speaker or writer is to indicate their heightened emotional state toward the relevant topic of discussion. For instance, two articles published in the 2007 issue of Theoretical Linguistics on 470 expressive language were entitled "Really Fucking Brilliant" (Geurts, 2007) and "I Like That Damn Paper" (Zimmermann, 2007; both in response to the influential article "The Expressive Dimension" by Chris Potts) and as Chris Potts (2008) points out in "The Pragmatics of Conventional Implicature and Expressive Content" As speakers we have strong expectations that uses of [expressives such as fuck 475 or] damn will correlate with the speaker's being in a heightened emotional state (or wishing to create that impression). In turn, we use it only when we are in such a state (or wish to create that impression). The total effect of these assumptions is that [an expressive such as fuck or] damn is a reliable signal of emotionality. Knowing its use conditions [...] largely involves being attuned to 480 this information. (p. 13) Also, in "The Reappropriation of Stigmatizing Labels," Galinsky et al. (2013) conducted 10 empirical studies on the appropriation of slurs to test its potential effects on speakers and listeners empirically, and what they found was that selfidentifying with slurs rather than being targeted with slurs by others can actually weaken 18 A. M. Croom c:/3b2win/temp files/TJPT_A_1008732_O_ANN.3d 27th January 2015 21:9:30 485 their stigmatizing force (p. 2020; see alsoBianchi, 2014; Croom, 2011, 2013, 2014; Galinsky et al., 2003). Bianchi (2014) for instance points out that "targeted members or groups may appropriate their own slurs for nonderogatory purposes, in order to demarcate the group, and show a sense of intimacy and solidarity" (p. 37), and the hip-hop lyricist Talib Kweli has previously explained, "Our community has been 490 using the word [nigger] and trying to redefine the context of it for a long time" and "the fact of the matter is that there's a large segment of black people who grew up hearing the word intended as nothing but love" (quoted in Echegoyen, 2006). So by forgoing careful consideration of expressive terms and the nonderogatory in-group use of slurs, writers such as James O'Connor (2000) and Thomas Williams (2010) 495 that criticize hip-hop for its common use of taboo words have failed to appreciate the important point that slurs are often flexibly employed such that they may also, at least in some restricted contexts, be used nonderogatorily to convey affiliation among ingroup members, or to diminish the derogatory force that the slur had originally carried. As Norman Denzin (2001) has correctly pointed out, "The meanings of any 500 given racial terms can change, as when 'black' became a signifier of pride as a result of the Black Power movement of the 1960s" (p. 246; see also Croom, 2014). Finally, in addition to finding inspiration from the work of philosophers and hiphop artists, I also found particular interest in the metaphysical poets of the seventeenth century, with some of the poems by John Donne and George Herbert 505 striking me as especially powerful and relevant. The poem "Virtue" by George Herbert (1633), for example, also speaks to those involved in military combat operations: Virtue Sweet day, so cool, so calm, so bright, 510 The bridal of the earth and sky; The dew shall weep thy fall to-night, For thou must die. Sweet rose, whose hue angry and brave Bids the rash gazer wipe his eye; 515 Thy root is ever in its grave, And thou must die. Sweet spring, full of sweet days and roses, A box where sweets compacted lie; My music shows ye have your closes, 520 And all must die. Only a sweet and virtuous soul, Like season'd timber, never gives; But though the whole world turn to coal, Then chiefly lives. 525 Poetry, hip-hop, and philosophy in the USAF 19 c:/3b2win/temp files/TJPT_A_1008732_O_ANN.3d 27th January 2015 21:9:30 The sonnet "Death, Be Not Proud," by John Donne (1633/2011), also powerfully expresses a view that is both esthetically pleasing and practically useful for those serving in war. Death, Be Not Proud 530 Death, be not proud, though some have called thee Mighty and dreadful, for thou art not so; For those whom thou think'st thou dost overthrow Die not, poor Death, nor yet canst thou kill me. From rest and sleep, which but thy pictures be, 535 Much pleasure; then from thee much more must flow, And soonest our best men with thee do go, Rest of their bones, and soul's delivery. Thou art slave to fate, chance, kings, and desperate men, And dost with poison, war, and sickness dwell, 540 And poppy or charms can make us sleep as well And better than thy stroke; why swell'st thou then? One short sleep past, we wake eternally And death shall be no more; Death, thou shalt die. 545 Although points of contrast can be drawn between these examples of poetry, hip-hop, and philosophy, I think it is sufficiently clear now that they come together in providing servicemen and servicewomen with courage and insight to serve honorably in times of war or in the face of death (or even peer pressure) more generally. At the time that I was flying combat missions in support of OEF and OIF I not 550 only started reading poetry and philosophy insatiably, in addition to this, I started writing poetry and philosophy insatiably also. Encountering so many new episodes of extreme joy-like returning home to my friends and girlfriend after a long trip away, or crew-resting in exotic locales including Diego Garcia and Pattaya Bay (for photo see Figure 13)-as well as encountering so many new episodes of extreme pain-like 555 being deployed at the time that my dog Blessing passed away-provided me with a rich and varied collection of experiences to work on clarifying and optimally express. Personally, I found that writing poems about both positive and negative experiences in my life helped me to process these events psychologically and further served as intellectual stimulation as I tried (and continuously re-tried) out various combina560 tions of words, imagery, rhyme schemes, and the like. Often, but not always, I would write to a beat or instrumental playing in the background, as this would help my flow of words to start pouring out. In this way, the process of poetic writing shares a family resemblance, if not identity, with hip-hop. And again, both can be philosophically significant and life changing. 565 In fact, I found that writing about painful experiences in a constructive way could have a powerfully therapeutic or uplifting effect. Importantly, when one writes about painful life experiences and something of merit is produced from this-a beautiful poem, for instance-one can look back and realize that the poem could not 20 A. M. Croom c:/3b2win/temp files/TJPT_A_1008732_O_ANN.3d 27th January 2015 21:9:30 have been written without that painful life experience serving as expressive fuel or 570 motivation in the first place. Think of all the beautiful poetry that the world would have missed out on if not a single human heart had ever been broken. This is not to say that one should necessarily go out and start breaking hearts to give birth to more poets, but rather to point to the fact that poetry and expressive writing more generally affords us the opportunity to make something uniquely beautiful even out of these 575 painful life experiences. So where a painful life experience may have seemed pointless or unfair before (e.g., in the form of a "why me?" interrogation) at least now it can be seen as serving an essentially productive purpose in the creation of something beautiful. In this way, I found and continue to find the practice of expressive writing deeply transformative and rewarding. 580 After completing my time of service for the USAF The fourth and final phase of my military career concerns the period after I completed my time of service for the USAF. Since reading and writing poetry and philosophy had become such an important part of my life, after completing my time of service and honorably separating from the USAF I decided to use the educational 585 benefits (MGIB) that I earned as a serviceman in order to pursue an academic career. So I continued on to study linguistics, philosophy, and psychology at the University of Pennsylvania, as well as poetry at Harvard. Now I have published peerreviewed articles in scholarly journals across six academic fields, including linguistics, FIGURE 13. C-17 deploying flares. This image was released by the United States Air Force with the ID 111116-F-KX404-920 and is in the public domain. Mo no f or p rint colo ur o nlin e Poetry, hip-hop, and philosophy in the USAF 21 c:/3b2win/temp files/TJPT_A_1008732_O_ANN.3d 27th January 2015 21:9:30 martial arts, music, philosophy, poetry, and psychology and continue to appreciate 590 AQ9 hip-hip music (especially J. Cole and Kendrick Lamar at the moment). Certainly, the thought of returning back to school can be intimidating to anyone returning back after a hiatus of some time. I know the feeling all too well, since I had to transition from flying combat operations in the USAF to studying as a full-time Ivy League student at the University of Pennsylvania. But if serving as an enlisted aircrew 595 member for the USAF had taught me anything, it was to be adaptable, and that I could trust in my training and hard work to overcome any obstacle. And if poetry, hip-hop, and philosophy had taught me anything, it was that I could make something intelligible, inspiring, and even beautiful out of both positive and negative life experiences. 600 Conclusion This special issue of Journal of Poetry Therapy focuses on the use of poetry and other forms of expressive writing to explore the transformative experiences of military veterans, and so in this article I discussed how the use of poetry, hip-hop, and philosophy positively influenced my life while I was serving in the USAF from 2000 FIGURE 14. Crew-resting in Pattaya Bay, Thailand. Mo no f or p rint colo ur o nlin e 22 A. M. Croom c:/3b2win/temp files/TJPT_A_1008732_O_ANN.3d 27th January 2015 21:9:30 605 through 2004. This article briefly reviewed my reasons for enlisting and discussed the importance that poetry, hip-hop, and philosophy had for me during four different phases of my military history: (i) BMT, (ii) Aircraft Qualification, Combat Survival, and Water Survival Training, (iii) serving in the post 9/11 operations OEF and OIF, and (iv) the period after fulfilling my time of service for the USAF. In discussing each 610 phase, I explained the unique challenges that I encountered, how I used poetry, hiphop, and philosophy to successfully overcome these challenges, pointed out relevant examples of poetry, hip-hop, and philosophy that were particularly influential, and included pictures of my experiences throughout. Acknowledgments 615 I would first and foremost like to thank my mother Young Croom and father Frank Croom for bringing me into this world and teaching me how to work and love hard. I also thank the Horatio Alger Association of Distinguished Americans for generously offering me a 4-year scholarship to pursue my undergraduate education at the University of Pennsylvania. Finally, and importantly, I would like to dedicate this article to the memory of my loyal companion and first dog Blessing 620 Croom. He passed away while I was deployed during the war and I was unable to return home to bury him myself. So here I offer my words in lieu of flowers: thank you for being good to me, and may you rest in peace. References Angeles, P. (Ed.). (1997). Critiques of god: Making the case against belief in god. New York: Prometheus 625 Books. Aristotle. (1902). Poetics. (S. H. Butcher, Trans.). New York, NY: The MacMillan Company. Aristotle. (1993). De anima: Books II and III. (D. W. Hamlyn, Trans.). Oxford: Clarendon. Aristotle. (1998). Politics. (C. Reeve, Trans.). Indianapolis, IN: Hackett. Aristotle. (1999). Nicomachean ethics. (T. Irwin, Trans.). Indianapolis, IN: Hackett. 630 Barrett, W. (1962). Irrational man: A study in existential philosophy. New York, NY: Anchor Books. Bianchi, C. (2014). Slurs and appropriation: An echoic account. Journal of Pragmatics, 66, 35–44. doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2014.02.009 Biletzki, A. (2014). Ludwig Wittgenstein. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. http://plato.stanford.edu/ entries/wittgenstein/ 635 Bone Thugs-N-Harmony. (1994). Creepin on ah come up [CD]. Los Angeles, CA: Ruthless Records. Bone Thugs-N-Harmony. (1995). E. 1999 eternal [CD]. Los Angeles, CA: Ruthless Records. Bone Thugs-N-Harmony. (1997). The art of war [CD]. Los Angeles, CA: Ruthless Records. Castleman, M. (2004). Great sex: A man's guide to the secret principles of total-body sex. New York, NY: Rodale Books. 640 Croom, A. M. (2011). Slurs. Language Sciences, 33, 343–358. doi:10.1016/j.langsci.2010.11.005 Croom, A. M. (2013). How to do things with slurs: Studies in the way of derogatory words. Language and Communication, 33, 177–204. doi:10.1016/j.langcom.2013.03.008 Croom, A. M. (2014). The semantics of slurs: A refutation of pure expressivism. Language Sciences, 41, 227–242. doi:10.1016/j.langsci.2013.07.003 645 Croom, A. M. (2015 AQ10). The practice of poetry and the psychology of well-being. Journal of Poetry Therapy, 15. Darwin, C. (1871/2004). The descent of man. New York, NY: Penguin. Del the Funky Homosapien. (2000). Both sides of the brain [CD]. Oakland, CA: Hieroglyphics Imperium Recordings. 650 Denzin, N. K. (2001). Symbolic interactionism, poststructuralism, and the racial subject. Symbolic Interaction, 24, 243–249. doi:10.1525/si.2001.24.2.243 Descartes, R. (1641/1998). Discourse on method and meditations on first philosophy. Hackett Publishing Company. Poetry, hip-hop, and philosophy in the USAF 23 c:/3b2win/temp files/TJPT_A_1008732_O_ANN.3d 27th January 2015 21:9:31 Dickinson, E. (1993). Selected poems. New York, NY: Gramercy Books. 655 Diggs, L. N. N. (2013a AQ11). DWYCK: A cipher on hip hop poetics: Part 1. Poetry Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.poetryfoundation.org/harriet/2013/12/dwyck-a-cpher-on-hip-hop-poetics-part-1/ Diggs, L. N. N. (2013b AQ12). DWYCK: A cipher on hip hop poetics: Part 2. Poetry Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.poetryfoundation.org/harriet/2013/12/dwyck-a-cipher-on-hip-hop-poetics-part-2/ Diggs, L. N. N. (2013c AQ13). DWYCK: A cipher on hip hop poetics: Part 3. Poetry Foundation. Retrieved 660 from http://www.poetryfoundation.org/harriet/2013/12/dwyck-a-cipher-on-hip-hop-poetics-part-3/ Donne, J. (1633/2011 AQ14). Holy Sonnets: Death, be not proud. The Poetry Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.poetryfoundation.org/poem/173640 Eby, L. V. (2014). Memoric form: Poem as memory. San Bernardino: California State University. Echegoyen, H. (2006 AQ15). The N word: Divided we stand [DVD]. Post Consumer Media. 665 Ehrlich, P. R. (2002). Human natures: Genes, cultures, and the human prospect. New York, NY: Penguin Books. Galinsky, A. D., Hugenberg, K., Groom, C., & Bodenhausen, G. (2003). The reappropriation of stigmatizing labels: Implications for social identity. In J. Polzer (Ed.), Identity issues in groups (pp. 221–256). Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited. 670 Galinsky, A. D., Wang, C. S., Whitson, J. A., Anicich, E. M., Hugenberg, K., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2013). The reappropriation of stigmatizing labels: The reciprocal relationship between power and self-labeling. Psychological Science, 24, 2020–2029. doi:10.1177/0956797613482943 Geurts, B. (2007). Really fucking brilliant. Theoretical Linguistics, 33, 209–214. doi:10.1515/TL.2007.013 Goleman, D. (2005). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. New York, NY: Bantam 675 Books. Grierson, H. (1995). Metaphysical lyrics and poems of the seventeenth century: Donne to Butler. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Grow, K. (2014, August 15). J. Cole mourns Michael Brown in somber new song 'Be free'. Rolling Stone. Retrieved from http://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/j-cole-mourns-michael-brown-in-somber680 new-song-be-free-20140815 Hankins, L. (2011 AQ16). The poem as devotional practice: Luke Hankins on the metaphysical poets. Contemporary Poetry Review. Retrieved from http://www.cprw.com/the-poem-as-devotional-practiceluke-hankins-on-the-metaphysical-poets Hannay, A., & Marino, G. (Eds.). (1998). The Cambridge companion to Kierkegaard. Cambridge: 685 Cambridge University Press. Heidegger, M. (1962). Being and time. New York, NY: Harper and Row. Heidegger, M. (1971a). On the way to language. New York, NY: Harper and Row. Heidegger, M. (1971b). Poetry, language, thought. New York, NY: Harper and Row. Herbert, G. (1633/2011 AQ17). Virtue. The Poetry Foundation. . Retrieved from http://www.poetryfoundation. 690 org/poem/173640 Hill, L. (1998). The miseducation of Lauryn Hill [CD]. New York, NY: Columbia Music. Jay, Z. (1998). Vol. 2... hard knock life [CD]. New York, NY: Roc-A-Fella. Jay, Z. (1999). Vol. 3... life and times of S. Carter [CD]. New York, NY: Roc-A-Fella. Johnson, B. (2013, February 14). J. Cole's 'Tears for ODB': Anthem for 'forgotten souls'. Rolling Stone. 695 Retrieved from http://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/j-coles-tears-for-obd-anthem-for-forgotten-souls-20130214 Khan, C. H. (1981). The art and thought of Heraclitus: A new arrangement and translation of the fragments with literary and philosophical commentary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kirk, G. S. (1949). Heraclitus and death in battle (FR. 24D). The American Journal of Philology, 70, 384– 700 393. doi:10.2307/291104 Korab-Karpowicz, W. J. (2009). Martin Heidegger. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from http://www.iep.utm.edu/heidegge/ Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Lamar, K. (2014 AQ18). The poems of Kendrick Lamar [Mix-Tape]. 705 Majmudar, A. (2012 AQ19). Two philosophical poets: T. S. Eliot and Kay Ryan. Kenyon Review, 1. Retrieved from http://www.kenyonreview.org/2012/01/two-philosophical-poets-on-t-s-eliot-and-kay-ryan/ 24 A. M. Croom c:/3b2win/temp files/TJPT_A_1008732_O_ANN.3d 27th January 2015 21:9:31 Method Man & Redman. (1999). Blackout! [CD]. New York, NY: Def Jam Records. Murphy, T. (2001). Nietzsche, metaphor, religion. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. Nas. (1996). It was written [CD]. New York, NY: Columbia. 710 Nas. (1999). I am...[CD]. New York, NY: Columbia. Nietzsche, F. (1873/1999). On truth and lying in a non-moral sense. In R. Geuss & R. Speirs (Eds.), The birth of tragedy and other writings (pp. 139–153). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Notorious B.I.G. (1994). The Notorious B.I.G. [CD]. New York, NY: Bad Boy. Notorious B.I.G. (1997). Life and death [CD]. New York, NY: Bad Boy. 715 O'Connor, J. (2000). Cuss control: The complete book on how to curb your cursing. New York, NY: Three Rivers Press. Pep Love. (2003). Ascension side C [CD]. Oakland, CA: Hieroglyphics Imperium Recordings. Pinker, S. (1995). The language instinct: How the mind creates language. New York: Harper Perennial. Potts, C. (2008 AQ20). The pragmatics of conventional implicature and expressive content. In C. Maienborn 720 & P. Portner (Eds.), Semantics: An international handbook of natural language meaning. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Rand, A. (1943/1994). The fountainhead. New York, NY: Plume. Rand, A. (1957/1999). Atlas shrugged. New York, NY: Plume. Richter, D. (2011). Philosophy and poetry. Essays in Philosophy, 12, 5. 725 Santayana, G. (2013). Three philosophical poets: Lucretius, Dante and Goethe. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Shakur, T. (1995). Me against the world [CD]. Santa Monica, CA: Interscope Records. Shakur, T. (1996). All eyez on me [CD]. Santa Monica, CA: Interscope Records. Shakur, T. (1997). R u still down? (remember me) [CD]. Santa Monica, CA: Interscope Records. 730 Shakur, T. (1999). The rose that grew from concrete. New York, NY: MTV Books. Smith, G. (1974). Atheism: The case against god. New York, NY: Prometheus Books. USAF. (2014). 737th training group air force basic military training. United States Air Force. Retrieved from http://www.37trw.af.mil/units/737thtraininggroupafbasicmilitarytraining/ home737thtraininggroupafbasicmilitarytraining.asp 735 Whitman, W. (1855/2007). Leaves of grass. Mineola, NY: Dover. Williams, T. C. (2010). Losing my cool: How a father's love and 15,000 books beat hip-hop culture. New York, NY: Penguin Press. Williams, B. (2014, August 15). J. Cole mourns for Michael Brown in tribute song. The Huffington Post,. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/08/15/j-cole-michael-brown-tribute740 song_n_5683129.html Wittgenstein, L. (1953). Philosophical investigations. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Wittgenstein, L. (1972 AQ21). On certainty. Harper and Row. Wittgenstein, L. (1980). Culture and value. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Wittgenstein, L. (2001 AQ22). Tractatus Logico Philosophicus. New York, NY: Routledge. 745 Wright, R. (1994). The moral animal: Why we are the way we are: The new science of evolutionary psychology. New York, NY: Vintage Books. Wu-Tang Clan. (1997). Wu-Tang forever [CD]. New York, NY: BMG Music. Wu-Tang Clan. (1993). Enter the Wu-Tang: 36 chambers [CD]. New York, NY: Firehouse Music. Zimmermann, M. (2007). I like that damn paper: Three comments on Christopher Potts' the expressive 750 dimension. Theoretical Linguistics, 33, 247–254. doi:10.1515/TL.2007.018 Poetry, hip-hop, and philosophy in the USAF 25 c:/3b2win/temp files/TJPT_A_1008732_O_ANN.3d 27th January 2015 21:9: