Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org) Oleksandr Kulyk ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY AND PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE Instructor's Manual with Student Exercises Dnipro LIRA 2018 УДК 101(075) К 90 Kulyk, O. К 90 Analytic Philosophy and Philosophy of Language / O. Kulyk. – Dnipro : LIRA, 2018. – 108 p. ISBN 978-966-981-047-2 This is an instructor's manual with student exercises for the Analytic Philosophy and Philosophy of Language course. It is intended to assist the instructor in teaching the subject to students for whom English is a second language. UDС 101(075) Кулик, О. К 90 Аналітична філософія та філософія мови [Текст] = Analytic Philosophy and Philosophy of Language [Text]: навч. посіб. / О. Кулик. – Дніпро : ЛІРА, 108 с. ISBN 978-966-981-047-2 Навчальний посібник до курсу «Аналітична філософія та філософія мови» (мова викладання – англійська). УДК 101(075) © Кулик О., 2018 ISBN 978-966-981-047-2 © ЛІРА, 2018 CONTENTS PREFACE ....................................................................................................................4 SYLLABUS...................................................................................................................7 LEARNING ACTIVITIES ..............................................................................................10 TOPIC 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY AND PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE...........................................................................15 1.1. Lecture synopsis ...................................................................................................15 1.2. Worksheet for the lecture ......................................................................................16 1.3. Worksheet for the seminar "Features of the Analytic Philosophy" .........................18 1.4. Writing assignments ..............................................................................................24 TOPIC 2. RUSSELL'S PHILOSOPHY..........................................................................26 2.1. Lecture synopsis ...................................................................................................26 2.2. Worksheet for the lecture ......................................................................................27 2.3. Worksheet for the seminar "Russell's Logical Atomism" .......................................29 2.4. Writing assignments ..............................................................................................36 TOPIC 3. WITTGENSTEIN'S PHILOSOPHY...............................................................40 3.1. Lecture synopsis ...................................................................................................40 3.2. Worksheet for the lecture ......................................................................................41 3.3. Worksheet for the seminar "Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus" ...............................43 3.4. Writing assignments ..............................................................................................49 TOPIC 4. MOORE'S NOTIONS OF ANALYSIS AND COMMON SENSE....................52 4.1. Lecture synopsis ...................................................................................................52 4.2. Worksheet for the lecture ......................................................................................53 4.3. Worksheet for the seminar "A Defence of Common Sense"..................................55 4.4. Writing assignments ..............................................................................................62 TOPIC 5. AUSTIN'S LINGUISTIC PHILOSOPHY AND HIS PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE ...................................................................................65 5.1. Lecture synopsis ...................................................................................................65 5.2. Worksheet for the lecture ......................................................................................66 5.3. Worksheet for the seminar "Other Minds"..............................................................68 5.4. Writing assignments ..............................................................................................73 TOPIC 6. QUINE'S PHILOSOPHY...............................................................................76 6.1. Lecture synopsis ...................................................................................................76 6.2. Worksheet for the lecture ......................................................................................77 6.3. Worksheet for the seminar "Two Dogmas of Empiricism"......................................79 6.4. Writing assignments ..............................................................................................84 TOPIC 7. ANALYSIS IN CONTEMPORARY ENGLISH-SPEAKING PHILOSOPHY ...87 7.1. Lecture synopsis ...................................................................................................87 7.2. Worksheet for the lecture ......................................................................................88 7.3. Worksheet for the seminar "Analytic philosophy in the end of the twentieth century" ...................................................................................................90 7.4. Writing assignment................................................................................................95 GLOSSARY..................................................................................................................96 ANSWERS TO THE LECTURE WORKSHEETS.........................................................99 ANSWERS TO THE SEMINAR WORKSHEETS .........................................................100 EXAM QUESTIONS .....................................................................................................104 FURTHER READING...................................................................................................105 4 PREFACE Using English as the medium of instruction for academic subjects (EMI) is an increasing practice in different countries and universities in both Europe1 and across the world.2 Many students prefer to attain knowledge in English because it helps them improve both overall and specific language competence, access international certifications, and enhance their academic records. Many policy makers and university administrators promote the wide and active usage of English in the learning process at national universities to internationalize their educational offerings and stimulate the writing of high-quality research papers in English by university faculty, which in turn helps universities move up in international rankings. Additionally, there are some subjects for which learning in English is preferable. Analytic philosophy is a good example. A requirement for master's degree students is a profound knowledge of professional subjects. For philosophy students, reading primary sources in the original language is important for understanding the true and deep content of the philosophical thoughts. Because most of the main texts of analytic philosophy were written in English, the main terms of this philosophy are also in English. So, learning analytic philosophy in English is a good way to achieve deep knowledge in this subject. This instructor's manual with student exercises is intended to assist the instructor in teaching the subject to students for whom English is a second language. When you teach a content subject in a language that is not the learners' mother tongue, teaching strategies are extremely important. There are different forms of education in a second language around the world, such as "content and language integrated learning" (CLIL), "immersion education," "minority education," "bilingual education," "English-medium education in developing countries," and "recent English-medium science and math programs." Many of them demonstrate that it is possible for students to learn subject knowledge in L2 without reducing the cognitive challenge of the subject learning. After studying the specifics of these learning strategies, I chose CLIL as the methodology framework for designing my course. At my university, for which I have created the course "Analytic Philosophy and Philosophy of Language," students are mainly taught in Ukrainian, not English. So, CLIL was the best choice because CLIL pedagogy 1 Wächter B., Maiworm F. (eds.). (2014). English-Taught Programmes in European Higher Education. The State of Play in 2014. Bonn: Lemmens Medien GmbH. 2 Dearden, J. (2014). English as a medium of instruction – a growing global phenomenon. London: British Council. 5 enables obtaining good results even when students have one or a limited number of CLIL subjects. The other forms of education in L2 involve a large proportion of the curriculum. "Content and language integrated learning" is a recent set of practices that originated in Europe in the 1990s. CLIL practitioners have good track records. Research shows that "CLIL tends to work – in the sense, for example, that learners can acquire good levels of subject knowledge."3 The term "CLIL" describes both learning another (content) subject, such as philosophy or history, through a foreign language and learning a foreign language by studying a content-based subject. CLIL lessons are neither language lessons nor subject lessons transmitted in a foreign language. CLIL lessons have their own peculiarities. According to Steve Darn, whose teaching experiences were recommended by the British Council, CLIL can be characterized as follows: – Knowledge of the language becomes the means of learning content. – Learning is improved through increased motivation and the study of natural language seen in context. – CLIL is based on language acquisition rather than enforced learning. – Language is seen in real-life situations in which students can acquire the language.4 During CLIL lessons, an instructor not only facilitates students' knowledge of subject content, but also develops their knowledge of content-related lexis and all four language skills – speaking, reading, listening, and writing. CLIL lessons focus on the subject. There is an idea that a language is learned best when one uses it to learn something else. In a CLIL course, English is learned mainly through utilization and acquisition. In short, English is used to learn and to communicate. There are two kinds of CLIL techniques: one is a language-led approach; the other is content-led. The term "Soft CLIL" is used to describe supporting content learning in language classes; the term "Hard CLIL" is for supporting language learning in content classes. My course is based on "Hard CLIL." According to the authors of Oxford Handbooks for Language Teachers: Putting CLIL Into Practice, "'Hard' CLIL is a form of subject teaching in L2 which highlights academic 3 Ball, P., Kelly, K., & Clegg, J. (2016). Oxford handbooks for language teachers: Putting CLIL into practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 4 Darn, S. (2006). Content and Language Integrated Learning. Retrieved from https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/content-language-integrated-learning 6 achievement within the subject and treats language development as important, but as a bonus." Of course, providing CLIL lessons requires that the subject instructor have proper language skills. The Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine demands qualification B2 CEFR for EMI instructors in universities. The expert UK consultants of the British Council in Ukraine also write in their recommendations that level B2 would be appropriate for EMI academics.5 The instructor's subject knowledge and motivation level are also important in CLIL teaching. The instructor must know his or her subject sufficiently and be well motivated. Students of EMI teachers also need a proper level of fluency in English. In my course, I am oriented to students with level B1+. This book is a result of my experience with teaching the course "Analytic Philosophy and Philosophy of Language" in English at Oles Honchar Dnipro National University, Ukraine, for three years. Using CLIL techniques enables me to teach effectively. All three groups of my master's degree students who learned the course using CLIL techniques demonstrated good results. They not only achieved strong knowledge of analytic philosophy, but also sufficiently improved their skills in English writing, speaking, reading, and listening.6 This instructor's manual with student exercises begins with a syllabus and propaedeutical chapter that describes the peculiarities of learning activities during this course. Next are topic chapters, each of which has four sections: a synopsis of the lecture on the topic; a lecture lesson worksheet with tasks; a seminar lesson worksheet with tasks; and assignments for essay writing. At the end of the manual is a list of key definitions for the course, answer keys for seminar tasks and lecture worksheets, a list of exam questions, and a list of further reading. I thank all those experts in philosophy, in methods of teaching and in English language, who contributed in any way to having this book published. But there are several people to whom I am especially grateful: Yaroslav Shramko, Alla Anisimova, Lyudmila Baisara, and Sergiy Shevtsov, all of whom have read the draft and made important suggestions on how to improve it. 5 Bolitho R., West R. (2017). The Internationalisation of Ukrainian Universities: the English Language Dimension. Kyiv: Stal. 82. 6 The detailed results of my teaching this course were presented at the All-Ukraine Scientific Conference "Education and Science in the Context of Global Transformations," Dnipro, Ukraine, 24–25 November 2017 and at the International Scientific-Methodological Conference "Innovations-2016," Kostanay, Kazakhstan, 15 January 2016. 7 SYLLABUS Course Description An examination of the doctrines of the dominant tradition in academic philosophy in the last century in the English-speaking world. The theories of philosophers such as B. Russell, L. Wittgenstein, G. Moore, J. Austin, and W. Quine will be discussed. Required texts Martinich, A. P. & Sosa, D. (Eds.). (2001). A Companion to Analytic Philosophy. Malden: Blackwell Publishers. Ammerman, R. (Ed.). (1990) Classics of Analytic Philosophy. Hackett. Honderich, T. (Ed.). (1995). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford: OUP. Student Learning Outcomes Upon successfully completing this course, students will have developed an understanding of the core methods, ideas, and limitations of analytic philosophy. By the end of this course, students will be able to: • Apply philosophical analysis • Define major concepts in analytic philosophy and philosophy of language • Explain the differences and similarities between analytic and continental philosophy Evaluation Grades will be based on a 100-point scale distributed as follows: Requirement Participation (20%) 20 points Essays (40%) 40 points Exam (40%) 40 points 8 Final grade А 90 – 100 points В 82–89 points С 75–81 points D 64–74 points Е 60–63 points F 0–59 points Course Requirements Participation To participate is to come to class and regularly contribute to discussions throughout the semester. This includes discussions in class and with the instructor during office hours. Essays Every other week, students will write an essay on the assigned reading. Students must hand in at least six of the eight essays that will be assigned during the semester. Exam There will be a final exam in which students will respond to two questions about the material covered. The format will be an essay. Students are expected to demonstrate in their answers that they have thought about the issues in an informed, thoughtful, and articulate way. Tentative Timeline Month Topic/Reading Lecture: Introduction to Analytic Philosophy and Philosophy of Language Seminar: Features of Analytic Philosophy Lecture: Russell's Philosophy September Seminar: Russell's Logical Atomism 9 Lecture: Wittgenstein's Philosophy Seminar: Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus Lecture: Moore's Notions of Analysis and Common Sense October Seminar: Moore, A Defence of Common Sense Lecture: J. Austin's Linguistic Philosophy and his Philosophy of Language Seminar: Austin, Other Minds Lecture: Quine's philosophy November Seminar: Quine, Two Dogmas of Empiricism Lecture: Analysis in the Contemporary English-Speaking Philosophy Seminar: Analytic Philosophy in the End of the Twentieth Century Revision before the exam December Revision before the exam Consultation January Exam 10 LEARNING ACTIVITIES There are specific goals when learning philosophical subjects.7 I based this course's design on John Rudisill's idea that in the process of learning in a philosophical course, students have to obtain knowledge of philosophical theories and methodology, and also strengthen their skills in interpretation and analysis, argumentation, and communication of philosophical topics.8 I offer to my students various learning activities to achieve these goals. Among the learning activities are both standard ones for university subject learning and specific CLIL activities. Successful learning is possible when students demonstrate good results in the majority of these activities, which focus on both core content knowledge and language development. 1. Learning activities during a lecture The lecturer provides students information orally, supported by slides, interspersed with different interactions with students. For every lecture, students are given a worksheet. A lecture lasts 1 hour 20 minutes. The aims of CLIL lectures are: – To increase students' knowledge of subject content – To develop students' knowledge of content-related lexis – To develop language skills such as note-taking – To provide material and information for further topic and language-based studies.9 During CLIL lectures, students do various receptive skill activities of the 'read/listen and do' genre. For instance, this might include: – listen and fill in a table; – listen and label a diagram/graph/chart; – listen and reorder information; – listen and label the stages of a process; – listen and fill in the gaps in a text.10 7 I have analyzed the issue of philosophy learning goals in detail in my article: Kulyk, O. (2017). Learning Goals of US and Ukrainian Introductory Courses in Philosophy. Gileya, 126, 341–346. 8 Rudisill, J. (2011). The Transition from Studying Philosophy to Doing Philosophy. Teaching Philosophy. 34(3), 241–271. DOI: 10.5840/teachphil201134332 9 Darn, S. (2005). A Content and Language Integrated Learning Lesson. https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/a-content-language-integrated-learninglesson 11 Procedures 1. Lead-in (5 minutes). The lecturer tells the students about what they will hear. 2. Brainstorming the topic (5 minutes). Students try to predict the content of the lecture, using the different categories in their worksheets to take notes. This takes the form of completing a table (Task 1 of the worksheet). 3. Listening to confirm expectations (20 minutes). The lecturer tells the first part of the lecture text. Students listen to the lecturer and compare what they heard with their predictions. 4. 'Mapping' the text (10 minutes). Students complete and expand their notes after they have listened to the first part of the lecture text. 5. Reading for observation and analysing language (10 minutes). Students are given the first part of a lecture text and a chart to record lexis (Task 2 of the worksheet). Students are asked to read the text, observing and recording lexis under the two headings indicated on the chart: "Subject-specific vocabulary" and "Other lexis." Students highlight useful language in the text and categorize it according to its function. Students do this work individually, but compare answers in a group. The lecturer monitors this activity, eliciting the key vocabulary of the topic. Also, the lecturer draws attention to collocations and set expressions or idioms. 6. Listening. The lecturer delivers the second part of the lecture text (20 minutes). 7. Vocabulary extension (5 minutes). Students are given a gapfill version of the text of the second part of the lecture and asked to complete the text (Task 3 of the worksheet). 8. Listening. In a summary of the lecture, the lecturer repeats the main ideas of the topic to the students (5 minutes). 2. Facilitated synchronous discussion during seminars A set of questions is provided to students for consideration prior to a seminar. In a class, the instructor facilitates students' sharing of responses to the questions and builds upon those responses. Further questions for consideration are introduced during the session that are aimed at furthering the thinking and analysis generated from the discussion. 10 Darn, S. (2005). CLIL: A lesson framework. https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/clil-a-lesson-framework 12 Some questions are presented as an analysis of the diagrams that are used to help learners categorise the ideas and information in a text. Diagram types include tree diagrams for classification, groups, hierarchies, flow diagrams, and timelines for sequenced thinking. Other questions are presented as speaking activities. These speaking activities might include: – question loops (questions and answers, terms and definitions, halves of sentences); – information gap activities with a question sheet for support; – class surveys using questionnaires.11 Presenting an oral summary and discussion is an important student activity during seminars. Students are given a specific aspect of a topic and asked to create a 5-minute oral explanation. This is a group activity. Two or three students take part in preparing each explanation. During a seminar, we listen to oral summaries from two groups of students and then there is a discussion between these groups as proponents and opponents. Each student can question the participants in this discussion and give his or her own short summary. This and other types of speaking activities aim primarily to develop students' communication skills. 3. A ten-minute essay During a lecture or seminar, the instructor could ask students to stop and spend ten minutes (but no longer) responding in an essay to a major question about the theme being covered. An essay is a piece of writing that gives the author's own argument. The structure of an essay contains a series of descriptive and argumentative moves. An essay has an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. All parts of an essay should be informative. In their writing, students have to be oriented to the following rules: "The introduction should not only introduce the topic, it should introduce your argument. That means that you should tell the reader what you are going to prove and how you are going to prove it... The conclusion of the essay should tell the reader what has been accomplished and why the struggle was worthwhile. It should remind the reader how the different moves in the body of the essay fit together to form a coherent argument."12 11 Darn, S. (2005). CLIL: A lesson framework. https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/clil-a-lesson-framework 12 Undergraduate Handbook: University of Cambridge. Faculty of Philosophy. (2016). Cambridge. 7–8. http://www.phil.cam.ac.uk/curr-students/ugrad-handbk 13 4. Assigned Reading A lecturer provides students with access to a text (e.g., article, chapter of the book, section of article). Lecturer accompanies the text with a number of questions which will help guide students' focus as they engage with the text. All these texts have structural markers to help students find their way through the content. There are linguistic markers (headings, subheadings). They help to identify 'core knowledge' and to analyse the organisation of the text. Students are expected to be able to reproduce the core of the text in their own words in summary essays and response essays. 5. Summarising of assigned text Students are initially asked to identify the key ideas in an assigned text, write a summary essay, and share their understanding during seminars. The summary contains the main ideas of a passage, article, or chapter of a book in the students' own words. The summary essay does not require evaluating the text. It is an overview of the text and the author's argument. The summary essay has to be structured with an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Students should follow these rules in writing their summary essays: "A summary must present all those main ideas in the exact same order as the author wrote them... Omit the examples, asides, and analogies that author uses to illustrate his points and to interest their readers... Your summary should not include any of your own ideas or observations."13 6. Response to an assigned text Students are asked to critique an assigned text based on a provided set of criteria in their response essays. The criteria focus on the validity of the assertions made and their relevance and applicability. In their response essays, students should describe their reaction to a given passage, article, or chapter of a book. However, this should not be a list of the student's feelings about a work. Students should think about the key elements of the text that prompted that reaction. 13 Blandford, E. (2009). How to Write the Best Research Paper Ever! AuthorHouse. 44–45. https://books.google.com.ua/books?id=erXb35XebV4C&printsec=frontcover&hl=ru #v=onepage&q&f=false 14 Students should explain why they had a certain reaction. Response essays require students to engage critically with the text. The response essay has an introduction, a thesis, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Students must consider that "A successful response paper will consist of a statement of your reaction to a work followed by an analysis that explains why you reacted the way you did... Response paper is a kind of argument with a thesis and supporting evidence."14 14 Williams, J.D. (2005). The LEA Guide to Composition. Routledge. 368. https://books.google.com.ua/books?id=dLKPAgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=r u#v=onepage&q&f=false 15 TOPIC 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY AND PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE 1.1. LECTURE SYNOPSIS 1. Outline Analytic philosophy was the leading approach to philosophy in the twentieth century in the English-speaking world. It relies on logical and linguistic analysis. The philosophy of language is "the attempt to give an account of certain very general features of the structure, use, and functioning of language".15 Many analytic philosophers were concerned with the philosophy of language. 2. What is analysis? Analysis is a method of seeking to understand a subject matter by coming to realize its composition. 3. Analytic philosophy and continental philosophy Analytic philosophy is concerned with analysis, whereas Continental philosophy addresses large questions in a synthetic or integrative way. Analytic philosophy is a problem-solving activity. 4. Development of analytic philosophy G. Frege "introduced new standards of rigor that made their way into analytic philosophy".16 Early analytic philosophy was articulated by B. Russell, L. Wittgenstein, and G. E. Moore. Between the wars, analytic philosophy came to dominate British philosophy. In the 1930s, the ideas of analytic philosophy were put forward by the Logical Positivists. Wittgenstein's later philosophical ideas became increasingly influential and, under the label 'linguistic philosophy,' prevailed in most of the English-speaking world from 1945 until about 1960. Nowadays, there is a large variety of theories and philosophical approaches in analytic philosophy. 15 Searle, J. (2001). J. L. Austin. In Martinich, A. P. & Sosa, D. (Eds.), A Companion to Analytic Philosophy. (p. 229). Malden: Blackwell Publishers. 16 Martinich, A.P. (2001). Introduction. In Martinich, A. P. & Sosa, D. (Eds.), A Companion to Analytic Philosophy. (p. 1). Malden: Blackwell Publishers. 16 References Martinich, A.P. (2001). Introduction. In Martinich, A. P. & Sosa, D. (Eds.), A Companion to Analytic Philosophy. (pp. 1–5). Malden: Blackwell Publishers. Quinton, A. (1995). Analytic philosophy. In Honderich, T. (Ed.), The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. (pp. 28–30). Oxford: OUP. 1.2. WORKSHEET FOR THE LECTURE Task 1. Framework for note taking Predict what you will hear in the text on analytic philosophy using the different categories to take notes. Then, complete and expand the notes after you listen. Analytic philosophy Analytic philosophers Stages of development Specifics 17 Task 2 Language analysis chart Now, read the handout "Analytic Philosophy and Philosophy of Language" and write down vocabulary in the correct categories. Subject-specific vocabulary Other lexis – analysis – logical positivism – followed by – diverge from Task 3 Gap-fill Complete gap-fill to consolidate new vocabulary items: analytic logic verificationist reasonable analysis empirical science objective "The Oxford Companion to Philosophy" about analytic philosophy after 1960 Philosophical 1__________, in a more or less Russellian spirit, but in a considerable variety of forms, has continued from its revival around 1960 to the present day. W. V. Quine has been its most important developer and enlarger. Early in his career he rejected the idea of a clear distinction between 2_______and non-analytic truths. That put the activity of analysis itself in question and assimilated 3________, mathematics, and rational philosophy to the 4_________residue of science. The 5_________theory of meaning was widely criticized, for the most part as self-refuting, by no one more effectively, perhaps, than by Karl Popper, who based a new account of the nature of 6_________on the thesis that falsifiability is a criterion, not of meaning, but of scientific status. 18 There is not much literal analysis in the work of the most up-to-date practitioners of analytic philosophy such as Putnam and Nozick. But they think and write in the analytic spirit, respectful of science, both as a paradigm of 7_________belief and in conformity with its argumentative rigour, its clarity, and its determination to be 8__________. 1.3. WORKSHEET FOR THE SEMINAR "FEATURES OF THE ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY" Exercises 1–5 are based on the information of A. Quinton's article "Analytic philosophy".17 Read the article and do these exercises. Exercise 1 Make a question for each answer below. A Logical and linguistic analysis is. B G. Frege is. C B. Russell and L. Wittgenstein were. D It is true for the English-speaking world. Exercise 2 For questions 1–10, you must choose the correct option: A, B, C, or D. 1 Analytic philosophy is a dominant tradition in... A philosophy in the world. B academic philosophy in the French-speaking world. C academic philosophy in the world. D academic philosophy in the English-speaking world. 2 Which of the below thinkers belong to the approach of analytic philosophy? A B. Russell and L. Wittgenstein B G. Hegel and F. Bradley 17 Quinton, A. (1995). Analytic philosophy. In Honderich, T. (Ed.), The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. (pp. 28–30). Oxford: OUP. 19 C E. Husserl and M. Heidegger D Thales and Socrates 3 Which of the below thinkers belong to the approach of analytic philosophy? A S. Kierkegaard and F. Nietzsche B H.-G. Gadamer and M. Foucault C J. Austin and W. Quine D Aristotle and Epicure 4 Who is the first major philosopher after Kant, according to analytic philosophy? A Hegel B Frege C Nietzsche D Quine 5 Who was G. Frege? A an Austrian-British philosopher who worked primarily in logic B a French philosopher, art critic, and writer C a principal progenitor of continental philosophy D a principal progenitor of analytic philosophy 6 When did analytic philosophy begin, according to A. Quinton? A in 1912 B in 1950 C in 1847 D in 1835 7 Who was at the head of the Vienna Circle? A B. Russell B G. Frege C M. Schlick D G. Moore 8 When did Russell and Moore emerge as original thinkers? A in the first decade of the twentieth century 20 B in the second decade of the twentieth century C in the third decade of the twentieth century D from 1945 until about 1960 9 Who was F. Bradley? A a French philosopher of the absolute Idealist school B an influential analytic philosopher C a German philosopher of the absolute Idealist school D an English philosopher of the absolute Idealist school 10 What kinds of complexes are true, irrespective of the truth-value of their elementary components, according to Russell? A the truths of metaphysics B the truths of logic and mathematics C the truths of history D the truths of poetry Exercise 3 Match each year in the left-hand column of the table with the correct event from the right-hand column. One event is extra. In boxes 11–22 on your answer sheet, write the correct letter: A–M. The time-span of analytic philosophy Year Event 11. 1914 12. 1918 13. 1922 14. 1920 –1930 15. 1929 –1932 A W. V. Quine published "Word and Object." B The ideas of Russell and Wittgenstein were taken up by the Logical Positivists of the Vienna Circle. C Russell published "Philosophy of Logical Atomism." D Wittgenstein arrived in Cambridge to study with Russell. E Analytic philosophy came to dominate British philosophy. F Wittgenstein's book Philosophical Investigations was published. 21 16. 1930s 17. 1936 18. 1945 –1960 19. 1953 20. 1953 21. 1960 22. 1960 until the present G Russell published "Our Knowledge of the External World." H English-speaking philosophy has been mainly analytic in the pre-linguistic sense. I Wittgenstein's later ideas, under the label 'linguistic philosophy,' prevailed in most of the English-speaking world. J Wittgenstein's ideas underwent dramatic change. K W. V. Quine published "From a Logical Point of View." L Wittgenstein published Tractatus Logico- Philosophicus. M Logical Positivism was introduced to the English-speaking world in A. J. Ayer's "Language, Truth and Logic." Exercise 4 Do the following statements agree with the claims of A. Quinton's article "Analytic philosophy?" In boxes 23–26 on your answer sheet, write: YES if the statement agrees with A. Quinton's claims NO if the statement contradicts A. Quinton's claims 23 Descartes, Lock, Berkeley, Hume, and Kant are regarded as philosophically important by analytic philosophy. 24 Descartes, Lock, Berkeley, Hume, and Kant are regarded as philosophically important by continental philosophy. 25 Hegel, Nietzsche, Husserl, and Gadamer are regarded as philosophically important by analytic philosophy. 22 26 Hegel, Nietzsche, Husserl, and Gadamer are regarded as philosophically important by continental philosophy. Exercise 5 Questions 27–30 Read the following sentences and think of the word that best fits each gap. Choose the correct letter: A, B, C, or D. 27 'Analytic philosophy' is a name for the dominant tradition in ... philosophy in the English-speaking world. A academic B revolutionary C empiricist D medieval 28 Analytic philosophy relies heavily on ... and linguistic analysis – from which it derives its name. A phenomenological B historical C logical D medical 29 Like continental philosophy, analytic philosophy recognizes ... as the rationalist father of modern philosophy. A Berkeley B Hegel C Nietzsche D Descartes 30 Frege's research into the foundations of mathematics led to revolutionary advances in both logic and the philosophy of... A language. B phenomenology. C hermeneutics. D structuralism. 23 Topic 1. Answer sheet Question Answer Question Answer Exercise 2 16 1 17 2 18 3 19 4 20 5 21 6 22 7 Exercise 4 8 23 9 24 10 25 Exercise 3 26 11 Exercise 5 12 27 13 28 14 29 15 30 Exercise 6 Compare and contrast L. Wittgenstein's and B. Russell's theories, according to the following criteria: significance, area of knowledge, and content. Suggested terms and phrases to be used in students' speaking: Subject specific vocabulary Other lexis – X emerged as an original thinker in... – X argued against the view that... – X also held that... – X drew here on the analyses of..., put forward by Z – X became the centre of a group of... – ... are distinct from..., because... – X as well as Z... –X is more ...ing than Z – The reason is... – Due to the fact that... – Although... – Despite the fact that... – Whereas... – While... – In spite of... 24 1.4. WRITING ASSIGNMENTS 1 The flow chart illustrates the development of analytic philosophy. Each box represents one stage of the process. Summarise this information and write an essay. You must include relevant examples and give reasons for the change of stages. Write at least 150 words. Suggested terms and phrases to be used in your writing: Subject specific vocabulary Other lexis – X broke demonstratively away from the kind of... – In his theory of... X provided a new kind of... – This was described by X as... – X took over the conception of... as... – X followed Z in ...ing ... – X rejected the... of his predecessors. – X rejected the idea of... – Against Z he contended that... – Against N he maintained that... – According to X... is... – Firstly,... – In the second phase,... – In the middle stages... – Then... – In the final stage,... 2 Write about the following topic: Analytic philosophy is an important tradition in the world philosophy. To what extent do you agree or disagree with this opinion? Logicism Logical Atomism Logical Positivism Linguistic philosophy Modern philosophers who write in the analytic spirit 25 Give reasons for your answer and include any relevant examples. Write at least 150 words. Suggested terms and phrases to be used in your writing: Subject specific vocabulary Other lexis – Its adherents saw... as the starting point for their philosophical inquiries. – This was a group of philosophers led by X. – It fatally undermined the theory that... – In my opinion,... – First of all,... – Secondly,... – At the same time,... – In conclusion, I believe... 26 TOPIC 2. RUSSELL'S PHILOSOPHY 2.1. LECTURE SYNOPSIS 1. Russell's logicism B. Russell believed that mathematics is simply logic. B. Russell firstly presented this idea in his Principles of Mathematics (1903). He held that mathematical truths can be translated into truths of pure logic. Moreover, he considered that mathematical truths can be proven by logic alone. Developing this line of thought led him to important questions in logic. 2. Philosophical logic Philosophical logic is the approach to philosophy worked out by Russell. This approach recasts problematic propositions in their 'logical form.' For this task, Russell used a language with the formal structure of Principia Mathematica. The application of philosophical logic to the problem of denoting phrases is a good illustration of this approach. Russell researched role of quantifiers, predicates, and propositional functions. A predicate is the part of a sentence that makes a statement about the subject.18 A quantifier is a type of determiner, such as all, some, many, few, a lot, and no, that indicates quantity. Propositional function is a sentence expressed in a way that assumes the value of true or false, except that within the sentence is a variable (x) that is not defined or specified, which leaves the statement undetermined. 3. Logical atomism In discussing problems of epistemology and metaphysics, Russell developed his theory of logical atomism. He thought that the world is composed of things like little patches of colour, their properties, and the facts they compose. It is important to emphasize that B. Russell developed some ideas of the early Wittgenstein in the theory of logical atomism. 18 Summers D. (Ed.), (2003). Longman dictionary of contemporary English. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. 1950. 27 References Baldwin, T. (2001). Bertrand Russell. In Martinich, A. P. & Sosa, D. (Eds.), A Companion to Analytic Philosophy. (pp. 21–44). Malden: Blackwell Publishers. Sainsbury, R. M. (1995). Russell, Bertrand. In Honderich, T. (Ed.), The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. (pp. 781–785). Oxford: OUP. 2.2. WORKSHEET FOR THE LECTURE Task 1. Framework for note taking Recall material of the first lecture and predict what you will hear in the text about Russell's analytic philosophy using the different categories to make notes. Then, complete and expand the notes after you have listened to the text. Russell's analytic philosophy The foundations of mathematics Epistemology and metaphysics Philosophical Logic 28 Task 2 Language analysis chart Now, read the text of the handout "Russell's Philosophy" and write down vocabulary in the correct categories. Subject-specific vocabulary Other lexis – quantification – propositional function – be a prominent member of... – It is hard to think of... Task 3 Gap-fill Complete gap-fill to consolidate new vocabulary items. logical natural language complexity mind forms significance "The Oxford Companion to Philosophy" about Russell's analytic philosophy The method of philosophical logic, though it has been of great 1___________in the twentieth century, is now, I suspect, on the wane. Russell himself took an impish and aristocratic delight in claiming that 2___________ forms are very different from surface forms, and that the untrained cannot be expected to appreciate the real 3_____________ of their thoughts. More recently, concern with providing explanations of how the 4_______actually works has made many philosophers think that one should focus closely on the detailed workings of 5_____________, rather than treating it as the confused manifestation of some more orderly underlying language of logical 6_________. 29 2.3. WORKSHEET FOR THE SEMINAR "RUSSELL'S LOGICAL ATOMISM" Exercises 1–5 are based on information from R. M. Sainsbury's article "Russell, Bertrand."19 Exercise 6 is based on the ideas of chapter 16 "Descriptions" in Russell's book An Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy.20 Exercise 7 is based on the thoughts of chapter 8 "Excursus into Metaphysics: What there is" in Russell's book The Philosophy of Logical Atomism.21 Exercise 1 Make a question for each answer below. A Russell did it with Alfred North Whitehead. B This happened in 1872. C This happened in 1970. D Russell invented the phrase 'philosophical logic.' Exercise 2 For questions 1–10, you must choose the correct option: A, B, C, or D. 1 Russell's most important philosophical works date back to... A the first two decades of the twentieth century. B the second two decades of the twentieth century. C the last two decades of the twentieth century. D the last two decades of the nineteenth century. 2 The main idea Russell developed at the end of the 19th century was that... A metaphysics is simply logic. B mathematics is simply ethics. C logic is simply ethics. D mathematics is simply logic. 19 Sainsbury, R. M. (1995). Russell, Bertrand. In Honderich, T. (Ed.), The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. (pp. 781–785). Oxford: OUP. 20 Russell, B. (1990). Descriptions. In Ammerman, R. (Ed.), Classics of Analytic Philosophy. (pp. 15–20). Hackett. 21 Russell, B. (1990). What there is. In Ammerman, R. (Ed.), Classics of Analytic Philosophy. (pp. 25–34) Hackett. 30 3 The best-known application of Russell's philosophical logic is to the problem of... A evil. B denoting phrases. C free will. D perception. 4 According to Russell, mathematical truths can... A be translated into truths of pure logic. B not be translated into truths of pure logic. C be translated into truths of pure physics. D not be translated into truths of pure physics. 5 According to Russell, mathematical truths can be proven by... A metaphysics alone. B ethics alone. C logic alone. D metaphysics and ethics. 6 Using Russell's ideas, choose the correct option of analysing the sentence "I met a man." A "I met x." B "There is some x." C "There is some man." D "There is some x such that x is human and I met x." 7 Russell's most important ideas of epistemology and metaphysics are about... A the foundations of mathematics. B beauty. C humanitarian ideals. D his logical atomism. 8 B. Russell's book A The History of Western Philosophy B From a Logical Point of View C Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus 31 D Language, Truth and Logic 9 Which article was written by B. Russell? A "The Concept of Truth" B "On Denoting" C "Truth and Meaning" D "General Semantics" 10 Russell's three-volume work written with Whitehead was A The Principia Mathematica B The Principles of Mathematics C Political Ideals D Why I Am Not a Christian Exercise 3 Match each notion in the left-hand column of the table with the correct explanation from the right-hand column. One explanation is extra. In boxes 11–15 on your answer sheet, write the correct letter: A–F. List of notions List of explanations 11 Statement 12 Meaning 13 Description 14 Proposition 15 Quantifier A 'What is asserted' when a sentence is used to say something true or false, or 'what is expressed by' such a sentence B A piece of writing or speech that gives details about someone or something C A word or phrase such as 'much,' 'few,' or 'a lot of' that is used with a noun to show quantity D Something you say or write to record facts E The thing or idea that the word, expression, or sign represents F The part of a sentence that makes a statement about the subject 32 Exercise 4 Questions 16–19 Do the following statements agree with the claims of R. M. Sainsbury's article "Russell, Bertrand?"22 In boxes 16–19 on your answer sheet, write YES if the statement agrees with R. M. Sainsbury's claims NO if the statement contradicts R. M. Sainsbury's claims 16 The History of Western Philosophy is Russell's best-known philosophical work. 17 B. Russell thought that ordinary language enshrines the "savage superstitions of cannibals" and other errors, confusions, and vagueness. 18 B. Russell believed that the world is composed of things like little patches of colour, their properties, and the (atomic) facts they compose. 19 Around 1920, Russell invented the phrase 'dialectical logic' to describe his approach to philosophy. Exercise 5 Questions 20–24 Choose the correct option to fill the gap: A, B, C, or D. 20 In 1950, Russell was awarded the Nobel Prize in... A Economics B Literature C Physiology or Medicine D Peace 22 Sainsbury, R. M. (1995). Russell, Bertrand. In Honderich, T. (Ed.), The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. (pp. 781–785). Oxford: OUP. 33 21 Russell's work can be presented under three headings: first, philosophical ... ; second, the foundations of mathematics; third, epistemology and metaphysics. A ontology B logic C mathematics D pragmatism 22 In the Principles of Mathematics (1903), Russell stated that mathematics is simply... A epistemology. B metaphysics. C logic. D fiction. 23 The logic Russell brought to bear in his philosophical logic included the apparatus of ... , originally developed in his philosophy of mathematics. A symbols B propositions C syllogisms D classes 24 Russell claimed that ... forms are very different from surface forms. A logical B ontological C metaphysical D all Exercise 6 Questions 25–27 Read chapter 16 "Descriptions" in Russell's book An Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy23 and choose the correct option to fill the gap: A, B, C, or D. 23 Russell, B. (1990). Descriptions. In Ammerman, R. (Ed.), Classics of Analytic Philosophy. (pp. 15–20). Hackett. 34 25 A "description" may be of two sorts, definite and indefinite (or ...). A ambiguous B true C false D statement 26 An indefinite description is a phrase of the form... A "so." B "the so-and-so." C "so-and-so." D "a so-and-so." 27 A definite description is a phrase of the form... A "the so-and-so." B "a so-and-so." C "so-and-so." D "so." Exercise 7 Questions 28–30 Read chapter 8 "Excursus into Metaphysics: What there is"24 in Russell's book The Philosophy of Logical Atomism and choose the correct option to fill the gap: A, B, C, or D. 28 The importance of ... is much greater than it is generally thought to be. A philosophical grammar B metaphysics C poetry D ethics 29 Practically all traditional metaphysics is filled with mistakes due to ... 24 Russell, B. 1990. What there is. In Ammerman, R. (Ed.), Classics of Analytic Philosophy. (pp. 25–34). Hackett. 35 A bad synthesis. B bad ethics. C bad style. D bad grammar. 30 Phantoms and hallucinations differ from ordinary ... only in the fact that they do not have the usual correlations with other things. A ideas B things C sense-data D fallacies Topic 2. Answer sheet Question Answer Question Answer Exercise 2 16 1 17 2 18 3 19 4 Exercise 5 5 20 6 21 7 22 8 23 9 24 10 Exercise 6 Exercise 3 25 11 26 12 27 13 Exercise 7 14 28 15 29 Exercise 4 30 Exercise 8 Study the terms in boxes A and B, then compare and contrast them according to the following criteria: philosophical approach, area of philosophy, and significance. 36 A logic mathematics problematic propositions logical form descriptions predicates B dialectic thesis antithesis synthesis spirit logic Suggested terms and phrases to be used in students' speaking: Subject specific vocabulary Other lexis – an intellectual tradition – a school of thought – thought patterns – There are ... in both boxes. – Both ... look ... – Both ... show ... – Next... – I can see ... – In the first box, I can see ... but in the second... – In conclusion... 2.4. WRITING ASSIGNMENTS 1 The flow chart illustrates the development of Russell's philosophical ideas. Each box represents one stage in the process. Summarise this information and write an essay. You must include relevant examples and give reasons for the change of stages. Write at least 200 words. The Principles of Mathematics (1903) On Denoting (1905) Principia Mathematica (1910–1913) The Logical Atomism (1918) 37 Suggested terms and phrases to be used in your writing: Subject-specific vocabulary Other lexis – His work can be presented under three headings: first, ... ; second, ... ; third, .... – His main idea, which was first presented in ..., was that ... – Developing this line of thought led him to fundamental questions in ... – X invented the phrase ... to describe his approach to philosophy. – To feel the full impact of X's work on ..., one must recall his background assumption that .... – X's most important position in this area is his ... – The basic idea is that ... – It is apparent that... – A good example of this is... – Consequently... 2 Write about the following topic: Bertrand Russell was a wide-ranging philosopher. To what extent do you agree or disagree with this opinion? Give reasons for your answer and include any relevant examples. Write at least 200 words. Suggested terms and phrases to be used in your writing: Subject-specific vocabulary Other lexis – It is hard to think of an area of philosophy to which he did not contribute. – This work exemplifies ... – ... breadth of interest and understanding ... – ... areas of philosophy. – ...which came to colour most of his work in philosophy. – X assumed that... – ...involves two theses: ... – X's most important position in this area is ... – There are several reasons why I believe... – To begin with... – Then... – However,... – Lastly... – On balance... 38 3 Read the section "Logical atomism" in T. Baldwin's article "Bertrand Russell" in A Companion to Analytic Philosophy25. Write a brief summary (at least 200 words). Suggested terms and phrases to be used in your writing: Subject-specific vocabulary Other lexis – X helped to develop the new theories... – ... the dominant school of philosophy... – There is a straightforward challenge to X's conception of... – X's argument here is intuitive and questionable. – ... the tension arises from the dual role of... – X's way of resolving this tension is to say that... – ... is the central claim of the theory of... – This line of thought generates... – X's approach is a combination of... – A central feature of X's analysis of ... is his attempt to do... – ... is the issue addressed in "..." by X. – X explains... – X describes... – X ... carefully... – X ... clearly... – X... insightfully... – In "..." by X, the author argues that... – The author refutes these ideas by saying... – His conclusion is... 4 Read chapter 16 "Descriptions" in the Russell's book An Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy.26 Write a response essay (at least 200 words). In your essay give answers on following questions 1. What is Russell's main claim in this chapter? 2. Why are Russell's claims important? 3. What types of evidence does B. Russell give? 4. Is this evidence convincing? 5. What are the strengths and weaknesses of Russell's claims? 6. Do you agree or disagree with Russell's claims? Why? 25 Baldwin, T. 2001. Bertrand Russell. In Martinich, A. P. & Sosa, D. (Eds.), A Companion to Analytic Philosophy. (pp. 21–44). Malden: Blackwell Publishers. 26 Russell, B. (1990). Descriptions. In Ammerman, R. (Ed.), Classics of Analytic Philosophy. (pp. 15–20). Hackett. 39 7. Can you come up with any counterarguments against Russell's claims? 8. Does "Descriptions" bring up any specific questions that you want to explore? Suggested terms and phrases to be used in your writing: Subject-specific vocabulary Other lexis – definite and indefinite descriptions – ambiguous descriptions – This becomes obvious when the statement is false. – a perfectly significant assertion... – it is clear that this proposition, rightly analysed, does not contain a constituent... – The question of ..., which confronts us at this point, is a very important one. – many logicians have been driven to the conclusion that... – We may now proceed to define generally the meaning of... – Suppose we wish to make some statement about... – X discusses... – X's ... include... – The book ambiguously teaches... – For example,... – Finally, the language of the book signifies... – The book contains... – The book overtly teaches... 40 TOPIC 3. WITTGENSTEIN'S PHILOSOPHY 3.1. LECTURE SYNOPSIS 1. Significance of L. Wittgenstein's philosophy Wittgenstein was one of the most important and influent philosophers of the 20th century. His contributions to analytic philosophy were enormous. Indeed, "his two major works altered the course of the subject."27 2. The Early Wittgenstein Wittgenstein's philosophy is divided into two periods. Wittgenstein expressed his ideas of the early period in his Tractatus LogicoPhilosophicus (1921). In this masterpiece of philosophical research, the author gave new interpretations to deep philosophical problems dealing with language, thought, and the world. He thought that analysis of the nature of representation and logic relations can help to discover answers to these issues. The Tractatus' structure is constructed around seven basic propositions. These are: 1. The world is everything that is the case. 2. What is the case, the fact, is the existence of atomic facts. 3. The logical picture of the facts is the thought. 4. The thought is the significant proposition. 5. Propositions are truth-functions of elementary propositions (An elementary proposition is a truth-function of itself.). 6. The general form of truth-function is: . This is the general form of proposition. 7. Whereof one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent. 3. The Later Wittgenstein Between 1929 and 1932, Wittgenstein's philosophical ideas underwent a dramatic change. The thinker developed a quite different viewpoint. In his Philosophical Investigations (1953), Wittgenstein tried to reject any dogmatism in philosophy. 27 Hacker, P. (1995). Wittgenstein, Ludwig Josef Johann. In Honderich, T. (Ed.), The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. (p. 912). Oxford: OUP. 41 References Hacker, P. (2001). Ludwig Wittgenstein. In Martinich, A. P. & Sosa, D. (Eds.), A Companion to Analytic Philosophy. (pp. 68–93). Malden: Blackwell Publishers. Hacker, P. (1995). Wittgenstein, Ludwig Josef Johann. In Honderich, T. (Ed.), The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. (pp. 912–916). Oxford: OUP. 3.2. WORKSHEET FOR THE LECTURE Task 1. Framework for note taking Look through the material of the first lecture and predict what you will hear in the text about Wittgenstein's philosophy using the different categories to make notes. Then, complete and expand the notes after you have listened to the text. Wittgenstein's ideas About language About thoughts About the world 42 Task 2 Language analysis chart Now, read the text of the handout "Wittgenstein's philosophy" and write down vocabulary in the correct categories. Subject-specific vocabulary Other lexis – truth-function – external and internal qualities – misunderstanding – be the mainspring of Task 3 Gap-fill Complete gap-fill to consolidate new vocabulary items. problems propositions activity above natural sciences clarification thoughts senseless Wittgenstein in his Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus about philosophy Most propositions and questions, that have been written about philosophical matters, are not false, but 1_________. We cannot, therefore, answer questions of this kind at all, but only state their senselessness. Most questions and 2_________of the philosophers result from the fact that we do not understand the logic of our language. And so it is not to be wondered at that the deepest 3_________are really no problems. The totality of true propositions is the total natural science (or the totality of the natural sciences). Philosophy is not one of the 4__________. (The word "philosophy" must mean something which stands 5__________or below, but not beside the natural sciences.) The object of philosophy is the logical 6__________of thoughts. Philosophy is not a theory but an 7__________. A philosophical work consists essentially of elucidations. The result of philosophy is not a number of "philosophical propositions", but to make propositions clear. Philosophy should make clear and delimit sharply the 8__________which otherwise are, as it were, opaque and blurred. 43 3.3. WORKSHEET FOR THE SEMINAR "TRACTATUS LOGICO-PHILOSOPHICUS" Exercises 1–6 are based on information from lecture 3 "Wittgenstein's philosophy." Also, you can find all information for doing these exercises in Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (translator: C. K. Ogden).28 Exercise 1 Make a question for each answer below. A Wittgenstein means the world in this phrase. B Wittgenstein believed that it is a fact. C Wittgenstein did it in 1921. D Wittgenstein writes about a picture in this passage. Exercise 2 For questions 1–10, you must choose the correct option: A, B, C, or D. 1 What is the world, according to Ludwig Wittgenstein? A the planet Earth and all life upon it B things C the totality of facts, not of things D the whole of the physical Universe 2 Wittgenstein believed that the world divides into... A facts. B material and spiritual spheres. C continents, countries, districts. D two classes, those who believe the incredible, and those who do the improbable. 3 What is an atomic fact? A something that is postulated to be correct B a combination of objects 28 Wittgenstein, L. (1922). Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. (C. K. Ogden, Trans.). London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Ltd. http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/5740 44 C a piece of information that is known to be true D a repeatable careful observation or measurement 4 Wittgenstein stated that in order to know an object, we must know... A not its external but all its internal qualities. B not its internal but all its external qualities. C the idea of an object. D its essence. 5 Every thing is, as it were, in a space of... A things. B impossible atomic facts. C time. D possible atomic facts. 6 What do objects contain? A all states of affairs B the possibility of all states of affairs C facts D things 7 What do objects form? A the substance of the world B time C space D subjects 8 What can the substance of the world determine? A material properties B a form C the behaviour of people D spiritual properties 9 What presents the facts in logical space, the existence and non-existence of atomic facts? A the theory B the picture 45 C the axiom D the definition 10 What is a picture? A a model of reality B a combination of objects C reality D the idea of an object Exercise 3 Match each of Wittgenstein's notions in the left-hand column of the table with the correct example from the right-hand column. In boxes 11–16 on your answer sheet, write the correct letter: A–F. List of notions List of explanations 11 a picture of the world 12 the propositional sign 13 the proposition 14 an expression 15 the language 16 logic A not a theory but a reflection of the world B every part of a proposition which characterizes its sense C the propositional sign in its projective relation to the world; a picture of reality; a model of the reality as we think it is; the description of a fact D the sign through which we express the thought E the totality of propositions F the totality of true thoughts 46 Exercise 4 Questions 17–22 Read Wittgenstein's statements and choose the correct option to fill the gap: A, B, C, or D. 17 "In the picture and the pictured there must be something ... in order that the one can be a picture of the other at all." A identical B philosophical C logical D metaphysical 18 "Every picture is also a ... picture." A ethical B philosophical C metaphysical D logical 19 "The logical picture of the facts is the ..." A idea B thought C physical fact D word 20 "I conceive the proposition – like ... – as a function of the expressions contained in it." A Kant B Moore C Frege and Russell D Hegel 21 "The limits of my ... mean the limits of my world." A language B mind C memory 47 D theory 22 "... is a method of logic." A Dialectic B Hermeneutics C Mathematics D Structuralism Exercise 5 Do the following statements agree with the claims of the author of Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus? In boxes 23–30 on your answer sheet, write YES if the statement agrees with Wittgenstein's claims NO if the statement contradicts Wittgenstein's claims 23 The proposition is a mixture of words. 24 In order to understand the essence of the proposition, consider hieroglyphic writing, which pictures the facts it describes. 25 The proposition shows how things stand, if it is false. 26 Reality is compared with the proposition. 27 Everything that can be thought at all can be thought clearly. 28 If the elementary proposition is true, the atomic fact exists; if it is false the atomic fact does not exist. 29 Logic fills the world: the limits of the world are also its limits. 30 Logic is not a theory but a reflection of the world. Logic is transcendental. 48 Topic 3. Answer sheet Question Answer Question Answer Exercise 2 16 1 Exercise 4 2 17 3 18 4 19 5 20 6 21 7 22 8 Exercise 5 9 23 10 24 Exercise 3 25 11 26 12 27 13 28 14 29 15 30 Exercise 6 Analyse the following propositions from Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus and explain the difference between the terms 'represent' and 'depict': 1. "The logical picture can depict the world." 2. "The picture depicts reality by representing a possibility of the existence and non-existence of atomic facts." 3. "That the elements of the picture are combined with one another in a definite way, represents that the things are so combined with one another." 4. "The picture can represent every reality whose form it has." 49 3.4. WRITING ASSIGNMENTS 1 The flow chart illustrates the development of Wittgenstein's argument in his The Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. Summarise this information and write an essay. You have to include relevant examples and give reasons for the change of stages. Write at least 200 words. Proposition 2 What is the case, the fact, is the existence of atomic facts. Proposition 4 The thought is the significant proposition. Proposition 5 Propositions are truthfunctions of elementary propositions. Proposition 3 The logical picture of the facts is the thought. Proposition 6 The general form of truthfunction is: . This is the general form of proposition. Proposition 7 Whereof one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent. Proposition 1 The world is everything that is the case. 50 Suggested terms and phrases to be used in your writing: Subject-specific vocabulary Other lexis – notation – equation – truth-possibility – tautology – transcendental – essential and accidental features – logical syntax – senseless – senselessness – elucidation – X's merit is to... – think clearly – make clear – delimit sharply – opaque and blurred thoughts 2 Read propositions 1–3.144 of Wittgenstein's Tractatus LogicoPhilosophicus. Write a response essay about Wittgenstein's picturetheory. Write at least 200 words. Your essay should meet the following structural requirements that were recommended by Simon Rippon for writing philosophical papers: 1. Begin by formulating your precise thesis. 2. Define technical or ambiguous terms used in your thesis or your argument. 3. If necessary, motivate your thesis (i.e., explain to your reader why they should care about it). 4. Explain briefly how you will argue in favour of your thesis. 5. If necessary, explain the argument you will be critiquing. 6. Make an argument to support your thesis. 7. In order to strengthen your argument, anticipate and answer objections to it. 51 8. Briefly conclude by explaining what you think your argument has established.29 Suggested terms and phrases to be used in your writing: Subject-specific vocabulary Other lexis – thinkable – symbol – truth-function – constituent parts – clarification of thoughts – totality – external and internal qualities – states of affairs – substance – There's a philosophical tradition that goes back to X. – logically invalid – the conclusion contradicts the first premise – the argument is logically valid – the fallacy of premise is implausible – In fact,... – I contend that... – I will use the term '...' to mean... – I will argue that... – I will now show that... – My second objection is... – My argument has shown that... – In this essay, I will refute X's argument against ... by showing that it trades on an ambiguity. – As I have shown clearly in my reconstruction of X's argument,... – But in that case, X's argument is... – I will give three examples... – ...but it might be replied that... – It might be objected that... – I can think of only one other reasonable interpretation of X's argument. – common experience – To help prove my point about ..., I will use the following hypothetical example: ... 29 Rippon S. (2008). A Brief Guide to Writing the Philosophy Paper. Cambridge: Harvard. https://philosophy.fas.harvard.edu/files/phildept/files/brief_guide_to_writing_philos ophy_paper.pdf 52 TOPIC 4 MOORE'S NOTIONS OF ANALYSIS AND COMMON SENSE 4.1. LECTURE SYNOPSIS 1. Directness of Moore's approach to philosophy Moore did not agree with the opinion that ordinary language is defective and that commonly-held beliefs are inadequate. He believed that philosophers do not confront problems about meaning, since there are no such problems. According to Moore, everyone can understand if a proposition is false or true. 2. Moore's analysis of propositions Moore believed that the analysis of propositions is generally problematic. He thought that "We know what a given proposition means, and we know it to be true; the question, then, is not 'Is it true?' or even 'Do we know it to be true?', but 'What is its correct analysis?'"30 These ideas transformed the philosophical agenda of English-speaking philosophy. 3. Moore about sensory experience and physical reality Moore paid some attention to ontological issues. He researched the nature of sensory experience and its relation to physical reality. Moore tried to understand to what extent sense-data are identical with physical surfaces. References Sosa, E. (2001). G. E. Moore. In Martinich, A. P. & Sosa, D. (Eds.), A Companion to Analytic Philosophy. (pp. 45–56). Malden: Blackwell Publishers. Warnock, G. (1995). Moore, George Edward. In Honderich, T. (Ed.), The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. (p. 585). Oxford: OUP. 30 Warnock, G. (1995). Moore, George Edward. In Honderich, T. (Ed.), The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. (p. 585). Oxford: OUP. 53 4.2. WORKSHEET FOR THE LECTURE Task 1. Framework for note taking Recall material from the first lecture and predict what you will hear in the text about Moore's notions about analysis and common sense using the different categories to make notes. Then, complete and expand the notes after you have listened to the text. Moore's thoughts About facts About analysis About truisms 54 Task 2 Language analysis chart Now read the text of handout "Moore's philosophy" and write down vocabulary in the correct categories. Subject-specific vocabulary Other lexis – ordinary language – conviction – be radically confused – taken for granted Task 3 Gap-fill Complete gap-fill to consolidate new vocabulary items. common sense Edinburgh style epistemology tradition Thomas Reid E. Sosa in A Companion to Analytic Philosophy about Moore's philosophy Especially in his metaphysics and 1____________, Moore joined a tradition of 2______________ philosophy, one to which he was no doubt inherently and antecedently receptive. Perhaps he came to know it so deeply during his years in 3______________, between the end of his fellowship at Trinity in 1904 and the beginning of his tenure back in Cambridge as a lecturer in 1911. The fuller name of that tradition is, after all, Scottish Common Sense, which is explained mostly by the fact that its greatest early proponent was the Scotsman 4________________. In any case, however he may have been led to this 5___________, Moore took to it naturally, and would defend it and develop it in his own inimitable 6_________. 55 4.3. WORKSHEET FOR THE SEMINAR "A DEFENCE OF COMMON SENSE" Exercises 1–8 are based on information from lecture 4 "Moore's notions of analysis and common sense." Also, you can find all information for doing these exercises in Moore's paper "A Defence of Common Sense."31 Exercise 1 Make a question for each answer below. A He was one of the founders of analytic philosophy. B "A Defence of Common Sense" is. C This happened in 1925. D It was a reaction against the forms of idealism that were dominant in academic philosophy in England in the beginning of the 20th century. Exercise 2 For questions 1–7, you must choose the correct option: A, B, C, or D. 1 In his paper "A Defence of Common Sense," Moore argued against... A skepticism. B materialism. C common-sense philosophy. D analytic philosophy. 2 Which is one of the major statements of Moore's paper? A Philosophers cannot be mistaken. B Men have known some propositions about the world to be true with certainty. C Life is pointless without objective meaning and purpose. D Any knowledge or rational belief is impossible. 3 According to Moore, skepticism is wrong, because... 31 Moore, G. E. (1990). A Defence of Common Sense. In Ammerman, R. (Ed.), Classics of Analytic Philosophy. (pp. 47–67). Hackett. 56 A it maintains that nobody knows any proposition to be true. B Descartes' theories are false. C any philosophy is false. D Aristotle's thoughts are true. 4 Moore stated that theories, according to which the world is wholly mental, are wrong, because... A there are contradictions between idealistic philosophers. B sciences say that world is material. C materialist philosophers are right. D true propositions entail the existence of material objects. 5 In his paper "A Defence of Common Sense," Moore begins with his list of... A truisms. B fallacies. C predicates. D quantifiers. 6 What is a truism? A the part of a sentence that makes a statement about the subject B a false idea or belief C a statement that is clearly true, so that there is no need to say it D a word or phrase that is used with a noun to show quantity 7 According to Moore, the proposition "There exists at present a living human body, which is my body" is an example of... A a truism. B a fallacy. C a tautology. D a senseless proposition. Exercise 3 Questions 8–15 Read the excerpt from Moore's list of truisms and complete the gap-fill. 57 distances ceased environment contact continuously exist surface dimensions An excerpt from Moore's list of truisms: "There exists at present a living human body, which is my body. This body was born at a certain time in the past, and has existed 8___________ever since, though not without undergoing changes; it was, for instance, much smaller when it was born, and for some time afterwards, than it is now. Ever since it was born, it has been either in contact with or not far from the 9__________ of the earth; and, at every moment since it was born, there have also existed many other things, having shape and size in three 10__________, from which it has been at various 11__________; also there have existed some other things of this kind with which it was in 12___________. Among the things which have, in this sense, formed part of its 13____________there have, at every moment since its birth, been large numbers of other living human bodies, each of which has, like it, (a) at some time been born, (b) continued to 14_________from some time after birth, (c) been, at every moment of its life after birth, either in contact with or not far from the surface of the earth; and many of these bodies have already died and 15_________to exist." Exercise 4 For questions 16–19, you must choose the correct option: A, B, C, or D. 16 Moore argued that there is a difference between... A physical facts and philosophical facts. B physical facts and metaphysical facts. C physical facts and psychological facts. D physical facts and mental facts. 17 According to Moore, facts like following – "That mantelpiece is of a light colour" – are... A mental facts. 58 B metaphysical facts. C physical facts. D philosophical facts. 18 "I am conscious now" is an example of... A a metaphysical fact. B a mental fact. C a physical fact. D a philosophical fact. 19 Which philosophical question is one of the major ones, according to Moore? A "What is correct analysis of propositions?" B "Is it true?" C "Do we know it to be true?" D "Is there life after death?" Exercise 5 Match each notion in the left-hand column of the table with the correct example from the right-hand column. In boxes 20–21 on your answer sheet, write the correct letter: A–B. List of notions List of examples 20 a physical fact 21 a mental fact A "I am seeing something now." B "The earth has existed for many years past." Exercise 6 Questions 22–27 Read Moore's statements and choose the correct option to fill the gap: A, B, C, or D. 22 "I am using 'true' in such a sense that if a proposition is partially false, it follows that it is ..., though, of course, it may be partially true." 59 A not true B true C interesting D a truism 23 "And that I do know that there is a '...,' that is to say, that many other human beings, with human bodies, have lived upon the earth, it seems to me that I do know, for certain." A philosopher B we C logician D book 24 "I am one of those philosophers who have held that the ' ... view of the World' is, in certain fundamental features, wholly true." A Common Sense B Skeptic C Idealistic D Plato's 25 "I hold that there is no good reason to suppose either (A) that every physical fact is logically dependent upon some mental fact or (B) that every physical fact is ... dependent upon some mental fact." A ethically B philosophically C mathematically D causally 26 "I am differing from ..., who held that that mantelpiece, that bookcase, and my body are, all of them, either "ideas" or "constituted by ideas," and that no "idea" can possibly exist without being perceived." A Hume B Bacon C Berkeley D Aristotle 60 27 "I differ from all philosophers who have held that there is good reason to suppose that there is a..." A God. B fact. C philosophy. D world. Exercise 7 Do the following statements agree with the claims of the author of "A Defence of Common Sense"? In boxes 28–30 on your answer sheet, write YES if the statement agrees with Moore's claims NO if the statement contradicts Moore's claims 28 There is a good reason to suppose that human beings shall continue to exist and to be conscious after the death of our bodies. 29 The question of how propositions like "The earth has existed for many years past" are to be analysed depends on the question of how propositions of another and simpler type are to be analysed. 30 When we analyse simple propositions like "This is a hand," there is always some sense-datum that is a subject of the proposition in question. 61 Topic 4. Answer sheet Question Answer Question Answer Exercise 2 16 1 17 2 18 3 19 4 Exercise 5 5 20 6 21 7 Exercise 6 Exercise 3 22 8 23 9 24 10 25 11 26 12 27 13 Exercise 7 14 28 15 29 Exercise 4 30 Exercise 8 Study the terms in boxes A and B, then compare and contrast them according to the following criteria: philosophical approach, area of philosophy, significance. A suspension of judgment impossibility of knowledge uncertainty of true knowledge B facts analysis proposition 62 4.4. WRITING ASSIGNMENTS 1 The flow chart illustrates the development of Moore's argument in his paper "A Defence of Common Sense." Summarise this information and write an essay. You must include relevant examples and give reasons for the change of stages. Write at least 200 words. Section 2 Moore argues that there is a distinction between mental facts and physical facts. Section 4 Moore considers how common-sense propositions like "Here is my hand" are to be analysed. Section 3 Moore affirms that we do not have reasons to think that God exists or that there is an afterlife. Section 1 Moore argues that he has certain knowledge of a number of truisms. Section 5 Moore examines the problem of other minds. 63 Suggested terms and phrases to be used in your writing: Subject-specific vocabulary Other lexis – entail – conscious – X's philosophical position differs from the positions that have been taken up by Z and B. – X held views incompatible with ... – correct analysis of ... – a profoundly difficult question – in their ordinary sense. – therefore... – but nevertheless,... – X affirms that... – X argue against... – a distinction between... 2 Write a for-and-against essay about Moore's common-sense philosophy. Write at least 200 words. Organise your essay in paragraphs: – paragraph 1 – introduction – paragraph 2 – argument for the subject – paragraph 3 – argument against the subject – paragraph 4 – conclusion Suggested terms and phrases to be used in your writing: Subject-specific vocabulary Other lexis – a view inconsistent with... – the reality of material things – as part of his philosophical creed – a selfcontradictory view – incompatible propositions – In this essay, I intend to examine the arguments for and against ... -ing ... – Firstly,... – In addition,... – Another advantage is that... – On the other hand,... – However,... – Also,... – Another disadvantage is that... – To sum up,... – There are several reasons why I believe... – The most important reason is... – A second reason why I am in favor of ... is... – A further reason is that... – Finally, I am sure that... – In conclusion, therefore, I strongly support the idea that... – On balance, I am not in favour of ... -ing ... 64 because, as I have shown,... – A good example of this is... – One of the strongest arguments in favour is the fact that... – On the other hand, there are several arguments against it. It is known that... – Nevertheless, I do believe that... 3 Read section 4 in Moore's "A Defence of Common Sense." Write a response paper (at least 200 words). Write the essay using S. Rippon's advice: "Philosophy assignments generally ask you to consider some thesis or argument. Given this thesis or argument, you may be asked to do one or more of the following: explain it, offer an argument in support of it, offer an objection to it, defend against an objection to it, evaluate the arguments for and against it, discuss what consequences it might have, determine whether some other thesis or argument commits one to it (i.e., if I accepted the other thesis or argument, would I be rationally required to accept this one because I accept the other one?), or determine whether some other view can be held consistently with it."32 Suggested terms and phrases to be used in your writing: Subject-specific vocabulary Other lexis – they are matters of Faith, not of Knowledge – human knowledge – human beings – certainly true – highly probable – we know them directly – be logically dependent upon – be causally dependent upon – experience – extremely doubtful – perceive – sense-datum – surface of – It seems to me that... – X admits that... – the remarkable thing – its difference from ... consists in the fact that... – an important point in his position, which should be mentioned – hitherto 32 Rippon S. (2008). A Brief Guide to Writing the Philosophy Paper. Cambridge: Harvard. https://philosophy.fas.harvard.edu/files/phildept/files/brief_guide_to_writing_philos ophy_paper.pdf 65 TOPIC 5. AUSTIN'S LINGUISTIC PHILOSOPHY AND HIS PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE 5.1. LECTURE SYNOPSIS 1. Linguistic philosophy and philosophy of language "The philosophy of language is the attempt to give an account of certain very general features of the structure, use, and functioning of language. Linguistic philosophy is the attempt to solve philosophical problems by using linguistic methods. Austin made important contributions to both the philosophy of language and linguistic philosophy."33 2. Austin's theory of speech acts Austin contributed to the philosophy of language by his theory of speech acts. He researched "performative utterances" and developed a theory of locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts. 3. Austin's thoughts about ordinary language Austin believed analysing the ordinary use of expressions is important for philosophy. He held that analysing the expressions we use to describe the world can help us to learn a great deal about the world. Moreover, he stated that a lot of the claims made by philosophers rested simply on mistakes about the ordinary use of expressions. 4. Austin's theories about knowledge Many philosophers hold that knowledge is a state of mind and a special kind of awareness of things. They believe that knowledge is a form of consciousness. But in contemporary philosophy, some philosophers have rejected the theory that knowledge is a mental state, such as Ludwig Wittgenstein and J. L. Austin. They believed that one can ascribe knowledge to somebody only when certain behavioural conditions are satisfied. In his 1946 paper "Other Minds," Austin stated that when one says "I know," one is indicating that he is in a position to assert that such and such is the case in circumstances where it is necessary to resolve a doubt. 33 Searle, J. (2001). J. L. Austin. In Martinich, A. P. & Sosa, D. (Eds.), A Companion to Analytic Philosophy. (p. 229). Malden: Blackwell Publishers. 66 References Hornsby, J. (1995). Linguistic acts. In Honderich, T. (Ed.), The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. (pp. 489–490). Oxford: OUP. Searle, J. (2001). J. L. Austin. In Martinich, A. P. & Sosa, D. (Eds.), A Companion to Analytic Philosophy. (pp. 218–230). Malden: Blackwell Publishers. 5.2. WORKSHEET FOR THE LECTURE Task 1. Framework for note taking Look through the material from the first lecture and predict what you will hear in the text about Austin's linguistic philosophy and his philosophy of language using the different categories to make notes. Then, complete and expand the notes after you have listened to the text. Austin's thoughts About ordinary language About knowledge About speech acts 67 Task 2 Language analysis chart Now, read the text of the handout "Austin's Philosophy" and write down vocabulary in the correct categories. Subject-specific vocabulary Other lexis – speech acts – locutionary acts – to make a distinction – rested simply on mistakes Task 3 Gap-fill Complete the gap-fill to consolidate new vocabulary items. feelings introspect sometimes real crux sort of thing suppose Austin's final note to his "Other Minds" One speaker at Manchester said roundly that the 1_________of the matter remains still that 'I ought not to say that I know Tom is angry, because I don't 2_______his feelings': and this no doubt is just what many people do boggle at. The gist of what I have been trying to bring out is simply: 1. Of course I don't introspect Tom's 3________. 2. Of course I do 4_________know Tom is angry. Hence 3. to 5_______that the question 'How do I know that Tom is angry?' is meant to mean 'How do I introspect Tom's feelings?' (because, as we know, that's the 6____________that knowing is or ought to be), is simply barking our way up the wrong gum tree. 68 5.3. WORKSHEET FOR THE SEMINAR "OTHER MINDS" Exercises 1–6 are based on information from lecture 5 "Austin's Linguistic Philosophy and his Philosophy of Language." Also, you can find all information for these exercises in Austin's "Other Minds."34 Exercise 1 Make a question for each answer below. A It is "Other Minds." B J. L. Austin is. C He did it in 1946. D Linguistic philosophy is. Exercise 2 For questions 1–5, you have to choose the correct option, A, B, C or D. 1 What did Austin analyse in his "Other Minds"? A Statements of particular, current, and empirical facts B Plato's theories C Aristotle's theories D Russell's theories 2 In the first part of "Other Minds," Austin discusses the distinction between... A idealism and materialism. B knowing and believing. C Wittgenstein's philosophy and Russell's philosophy. D Wittgenstein's early theories and Wittgenstein's later theories. 3 Austin wrote that we know 'at second hand' when we... A succeeded in recognizing something. B watch something. 34 Austin, J. L. (1990). Other Minds. In Ammerman, R. (Ed.), Classics of Analytic Philosophy. (pp. 353–378). Hackett. 69 C tell about our past experiences. D cite an authority who was in a position to know. 4 Austin wrote his "Other Minds" in... A 1946. B 1952. C 1898. D 1914. 5 Austin thinks that we... A should not believe in the existence of other people. B introspect other people's feelings. C cannot believe in existence of other people. D do not introspect other people's feelings. Exercise 3 Analyse Austin's famous bittern example. Match each answer in the left-hand column of the table with the correct question from the righthand column. In boxes 6–9 on your answer sheet, write the correct letter: A–D. List of answers List of questions 6 I was brought up in the fens 7 I heard it 8 The keeper reported it 9 By its booming A How can you tell? B How are you in a position to know? C How do you know? D How do you come to know? Exercise 4 Questions 10–20 Complete the gap-fill to consolidate new vocabulary items. 70 recognize current case experiences familiar with activities past opportunities unimpeachable circumstances indirectly thoroughly A passage from Austin's analysis of the statement "There's a bittern at the bottom of the garden." In order to know this is a bittern, I must have: (1) been trained in an environment where I could become 10 _______ bitterns (2) had a certain opportunity in the 11 ___________ (3) learned to 12______________or tell bitterns (4) succeeded in recognizing or telling this as a bittern. (1) and (2) mean that my 13____________must have been of certain kinds, that I must have had certain 14_______________: (3) and (4) mean that I must have exerted a certain kind and amount of acumen. The questions raised in (1) and (3) concern our 15_______experiences, our opportunities and our 16_____________in learning to discriminate or discern, and, bound up with both, the correctness or otherwise of the linguistic usages we have acquired. Upon these earlier experiences depends how well we know things, just as, in different but cognate cases of 'knowing', it is upon earlier experience that it depends how 17______________or how intimately we know. By contrast, the questions raised in (2) and (4) concern the 18______________of the current case. Here we can ask 'How definitely do you know?' You may know it for certain, quite positively, officially, on his own authority, from 19_____________sources, only 20___________, and so forth. Exercise 5 Do the following statements agree with the claims of the author of "Other Minds"? In boxes 21–27 on your answer sheet, write YES if the statement agrees with Austin's claims 71 NO if the statement contradicts Austin's claims 21 It is fundamental in talking (as in other matters) that we are entitled to trust others, except in so far as there is some concrete reason to distrust them. 22 Believing persons or accepting testimony is not a main point of talking. 23 There are recognized ways of distinguishing between dreaming and waking, and of deciding whether a thing is stuffed or live, and so forth. 24 Any description of a taste or sound or smell (or colour) or of a feeling involves (is) saying that it is like one or some that we have experienced before: any descriptive word is classificatory, involves recognition and, in that sense, memory, and only when we use such words (or names or descriptions, which come down to the same) are we knowing anything, or believing anything. 25 In ordinary cases, ordinary men are nearly always certain when a thing looks red. 26 It would be nonsensical to say that there are three wholly distinct phenomena, (I) cause or occasion, (2) feeling or emotion, and (3) effect or manifestation, which are related together 'by definition' as all necessary to anger. 27 There are not established procedures for dealing with suspected cases of deception or of misunderstanding or of inadvertence. Exercise 6 Questions 28–30 Read Austin's statements and choose the correct option to fill the gap: A, B, C, or D. 28 "It is, I think, the problems of sureness and certainty, which philosophers tend (if I am not mistaken) to neglect, that have considerably exercised_________, while the problem of 'reality,' which philosophers have cultivated, does not exercise them." 72 A scientists B theologians C metaphysicians D artists 29 "Of course, there are any number of '________' about which I can be, and am, completely sure." A sense-data B sense-statements C propositional functions D problematic propositions 30 "If we have had the necessary____________, then we can, in favourable current circumstances, say we know: we certainly can recognize when some near relative of ours is angrier than we have ever seen him." A theory B ideas C experience D definitions Topic 5. Answer sheet Question Answer Question Answer Exercise 2 15 1 16 2 17 3 18 4 19 5 20 Exercise 3 Exercise 5 6 21 7 22 8 23 9 24 25 Exercise 4 26 10 27 11 Exercise 6 12 28 13 29 14 30 73 Exercise 7 Read following passage from Austin's "Other Minds" and explain the difference between the questions 'How do you know?' and 'Why do you believe?' "When we make an assertion such as 'There is a goldfinch in the garden,' there is a sense in which we imply that we are sure of it or know it, though what we imply, in a similar sense and more strictly, is only that we believe it. ... On making such an assertion, therefore, we are directly exposed to the question 'Do you know there is?' If in answer to the question we reply 'Yes,' we may then be asked the second question 'How do you know?'... But on the other hand, we may well reply 'No' in answer to the first question: we may say 'No, but I think there is.' If we do this, then we are exposed to the question 'Why do you believe that?'... There is a singular difference between the two forms of challenge: 'How do you know?' and 'Why do you believe?' We seem never to ask 'Why do you know?' or 'How do you believe?'... Not merely such words as 'suppose,' 'assume,' &c., but also the expressions 'be sure' and 'be certain,' follow the example of 'believe,' not that of 'know'... Either question, 'How do you know?' or 'Why do you believe?', may well be asked only out of respectful curiosity, from a genuine desire to learn. But again, they may both be asked as pointed questions, and, when they are so, a further difference comes out. 'How do you know?' suggests that perhaps you don't know it at all, whereas 'Why do you believe?' suggests that perhaps you oughtn't to believe it."35 5.4. WRITING ASSIGNMENTS 1 The flow chart illustrates the development of Austin's argumentation in his "Other Minds." Summarise this information and write an essay. You must include relevant examples and give reasons for the change of stages. Write at least 250 words. 35 Austin, J. L. (1990). Other Minds. In Ammerman, R. (Ed.), Classics of Analytic Philosophy. (pp. 353–378). Hackett. 74 Suggested terms and phrases to be used in your writing: Subject-specific vocabulary Other lexis – statements of particular, current, empirical facts – be in a position to know – correctness – cognate cases – introspect other people's feelings – recognized ways of distinguishing between – wholly distinct phenomena – The gist of what I have been trying to bring out is simply:... – thoroughly – indirectly – be entitled to – be the point of talking – in ordinary cases – It would be nonsensical to say that there are... Analysis of using and misusing the notion of reality Analysis of the notions of sureness and certainty Analysis of difficult cases of knowing ('If I know I can't be wrong?') Analysis of the distinction between knowing and believing Final Note 75 2 Read the section "Reality" of Austin's "Other Minds" and write a summary essay. Write at least 250 words. Suggested terms and phrases to be used in your writing: Subject-specific vocabulary Other lexis – cause – There are established procedures for dealing with... – misunderstanding – sureness – certainty – philosophers tend to neglect ... – current circumstances – X, in his work "...," says that ... – "..," by philosopher X, describes.... – The thesis of this work is... – The author's main claim is... – The author argues... – elucidates – complains – contends – respectfully – stingingly – shrewdly 76 TOPIC 6 QUINE'S PHILOSOPHY 6.1. LECTURE SYNOPSIS 1. Quine's rejection of the analytic-synthetic distinction Quine believed that the cleavage between analytic and synthetic truths is only ill-founded dogma. In his essay "Two Dogmas of Empiricism" Quine demonstrated that there is no sufficient distinction between truths that are grounded in meanings independently of matters of fact (analytic truths) and truths that are grounded in fact (synthetic truths). 2. Quine's scientific philosophy Quine argues that knowledge and its objects have to be the primary concern of philosophy. Moreover, he takes the natural sciences as paradigmatic of all knowledge. According to Quine, the task of philosophy is not to add to our knowledge but to analyse the knowledge that the sciences give us. 3. Quine's ontology Important parts of Quine's philosophy are his thoughts about ontological commitments and his physicalism. Quine argues that physical facts are all facts, and all changes in the world involve physical changes.36 References Hilton, P. (2001). W. V. Quine. In Martinich, A. P. & Sosa, D. (Eds.), A Companion to Analytic Philosophy. (pp. 181–204). Malden: Blackwell Publishers. Hookway, C.J. (1995). Quine, Willard Van Orman. In Honderich, T. (Ed.), The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. (pp. 738–739). Oxford: OUP. 36 Hookway, C.J. (1995). Quine, Willard Van Orman. In Honderich, T. (Ed.), The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. (p. 739). Oxford: OUP. 77 6.2. WORKSHEET FOR THE LECTURE Task 1. Framework for note taking Look through the material from the first lecture and predict what you will hear in the text about Quine's philosophy using the different categories to make notes. Then, complete and expand the notes after you have listened to the text. Task 2 Language analysis chart Now, read the text of the handout "Quine's philosophy" and write down vocabulary in the correct categories. Quine's thoughts About the natural sciences About ontology About the analyticsynthetic distinction 78 Subject-specific vocabulary Other lexis – analytic-synthetic distinction – ontological commitments – cleavage between – dogma Task 3 Gap-fill Complete the gap-fill to consolidate new vocabulary items. empiricism belief synthetic meaningful metaphysics pragmatism A passage from Quine's "Two Dogmas of Empiricism" Modern 1____________has been conditioned in large part by two dogmas. One is a 2__________in some fundamental cleavage between truths which are analytic, or grounded in meanings independently of matters of fact and truths which are 3______________, or grounded in fact. The other dogma is reductionism: the belief that each 4_____________statement is equivalent to some logical construct upon terms which refer to immediate experience. Both dogmas, I shall argue, are ill founded. One effect of abandoning them is, as we shall see, a blurring of the supposed boundary between speculative 5______and natural science. Another effect is a shift toward 6____________. 79 6.3. WORKSHEET FOR THE SEMINAR "TWO DOGMAS OF EMPIRICISM" Exercises 1–8 are based on information from lecture 6 "Quine's philosophy." Also, you can find all information for doing these exercises in Quine's "Two Dogmas of Empiricism."37 Exercise 1 Make a question for each answer below. A Reductionism is. B Quine was. C He wrote "Two Dogmas of Empiricism." D Empiricism is. Exercise 2 For questions 1–8, you must choose the correct option: A, B, C, or D. 1 Example of a singular term A the author of Waverly B a car C a chair D a creature with a kidney 2 Example of a general term A Morning Star B a creature with a heart C the author of Waverly D Bertrand Russell 3 This is the class of all entities for which a general term is true A the extension of the term B a singular term C quantifier D predicate 37 Quine, W.V.O. (1990). Two Dogmas of Empiricism. In Ammerman, R. (Ed.), Classics of Analytic Philosophy. (pp. 196–213). Hackett. 80 4 A synonym for the term 'meaning' A general term B extension C predicate D intension 5 The forerunner of the modern notion of intension A the Aristotelian notion of catharsis B Plato's notion of idea C the Aristotelian notion of essence D Plato's notion of justice 6 The class of all entities of which a general term is true A the extension of the term B the intension of the term C the predicate of the term D the general term 7 Quine thinks that analytic statements fall into... A two classes. B three classes. C four classes. D five classes. 8 Quine holds that the unit of empirical significance is... A some statements. B the statement. C the term. D the whole of science. Exercise 3 Match each philosopher in the left-hand column of the table with his theory about distinction from the right-hand column. One option is extra. In boxes 9–11 on your answer sheet, write the correct letter: A– D. 81 List of philosophers List of theories about distinction 9 Kant 10 Hume 11 Leibniz A between relations of ideas and matters of fact B between analytic and synthetic truths C between truths of reason and truths of fact D between evil and good Exercise 4 Questions 12–19 Complete the gap-fill to consolidate new vocabulary items. re-evaluate statements interconnections experience along the edges boundary conditions equilibrium totality A passage from Quine's "Two Dogmas of Empiricism" The 12____________of our so-called knowledge or beliefs, from the most casual matters of geography and history to the profoundest laws of atomic physics or even of pure mathematics and logic, is a manmade fabric which impinges on experience only 13_______________. Or, to change the figure, total science is like a field of force whose boundary conditions are 14_______________. A conflict with experience at the periphery occasions readjustments in the interior of the field. Truth values have to be redistributed over some of our 15_____________. Re-evaluation of some statements entails reevaluation of others, because of their logical 16_________________– the logical laws being in turn simply certain further statements of the system, certain further elements of the field. Having re-evaluated one 82 statement we must 17_______________some others, whether they be statements logically connected with the first or whether they be the statements of logical connections themselves. But the total field is so undetermined by its 18__________________, experience, that there is much latitude of choice as to what statements to re-evaluate in the light of any single contrary experience. No particular experiences are linked with any particular statements in the interior of the field, except indirectly through considerations of 19_______________affecting the field as a whole. Exercise 5 Do the following statements agree with the claims of the author of "Two Dogmas of Empiricism?" In boxes 20–24 on your answer sheet, write YES if the statement agrees with Quine's claims NO if the statement contradicts Quine's claims 20 Analytic truths are grounded in fact. 21 Synthetic truths are grounded in meanings independently of matters of fact. 22 The notation of definition does not hold the key to synonymy and analyticity. 23 Truth in general depends on both language and extra-linguistic fact. 24 Taken collectively, science has its double dependence upon language and experience; but this duality is not significantly traceable into the statements of science taken one by one. Exercise 6 Questions 25–26 Read Quine's statements and choose the correct option to fill the gap: A, B, C, or D. 83 25 "It is indeed a commonplace in philosophy to oppose ... (or meaning) to extension." A intension B predicate C quantifier D singular term 26 "... is what essence becomes when it is divorced from the object of reference and wedded to the word." A Extension B Meaning C Propositional function D Predicate Exercise 7 Match each term in the left-hand column of the table with the correct explanation from the right-hand column. One option is extra. In boxes 27–30 on your answer sheet, write the correct letter: A–E. List of terms List of explanations 27 Analytic truths 28 Synthetic truths 29 Definition 30 Reductionism A They are grounded in meanings independently of matters of fact. B It is a report of an observed synonymy. C They grounded in fact. D It is the belief that each meaningful statement is equivalent to some logical construct upon terms which refer to immediate experience. E Linguistic acts done in saying something. 84 Topic 6. Answer sheet Question Answer Question Answer Exercise 2 16 1 17 2 18 3 19 4 Exercise 5 5 20 6 21 7 22 8 23 Exercise 3 24 9 Exercise 6 10 25 11 26 Exercise 4 Exercise 7 12 27 13 28 14 29 15 30 Exercise 8 Explain the difference between the first half of the twentieth century philosophers' empiricism and Quine's "empiricism without the dogmas." 6.4. WRITING ASSIGNMENTS 1 The flow chart illustrates the development of Quine's argument in his "Two Dogmas of Empiricism." Summarise this information and write an essay. You must include relevant examples and give reasons for the change of stages. Write at least 250 words. 85 Suggested terms and phrases to be used in your writing: Subject-specific vocabulary Other lexis – reductionism – singular term – general term – class of entities – extension of the term – conflict with experience – re-evaluation of statements – logically connected with – extra-linguistic fact – unit of empirical significance – object of reference – fall into two classes – so-called – double dependence upon ... and ... – It is indeed a commonplace in ... to... – a central idea here was that... – it is characteristic of ... to ... 2. "Definition" 4. "Semantical rules" 3. "Interchangeability" 6. "Empiricism without the dogmas" 1. "Background for analyticity" 5. "The verification theory and reductionism" 86 2 Analyse the table that illustrates how often Quine referred to other philosophers in "Two Dogmas of Empiricism." Write a summary essay. Write at least 250 words. Philosophers Times Aristotle 4 Carnap 21 Frege 3 Hume 4 Kant 3 Leibniz 4 Lewis 1 Locke 3 Russell 2 Suggested terms and phrases to be used in your writing: Subject-specific vocabulary Other lexis – forerunner of – empiricism – positivist – be key figures in this movement – come under the influence of ... – Logical Positivism – The table shows... – Overall, we can say that... – It is clear from the table that... – It is immediately clear that the most... – X mostly refers to... – After that come other... – ... is closely followed by... – The fact is that... – The figure for ... is... – There is a noticeable difference between... – A closer examination of the figures reveals that... – ...compared to... – ...while this applies to... – The figures seem to suggest that... – We could infer from these figures that... 87 TOPIC 7 ANALYSIS IN CONTEMPORARY ENGLISH-SPEAKING PHILOSOPHY 7.1. LECTURE SYNOPSIS 1. The "Analytic spirit" of contemporary English-speaking philosophy Linguistic philosophy lost its dominance in the 1960s. No doctrine dominated in analytic philosophy after 1965. It is difficult to distinguish one major movement in contemporary analytical philosophy. Today, there is a large variety of theories and philosophical approaches. A. Quinton speaks about the "analytic spirit" of completely different English-speaking thinkers. They "think and write in the analytic spirit, respectful of science, both as a paradigm of reasonable belief and in conformity with its argumentative rigour, its clarity, and its determination to be objective."38 2. The revival of metaphysics In the second half of the twentieth century, some analytic philosophers defended metaphysics, such as Peter Frederick Strawson, who in his Individuals (1959) advocates "descriptive" metaphysics. 3. New fields in analytic philosophy Some questions that had been neglected by analytic philosophers in the first half of the twentieth century were reinvigorated in the second half. For instance, John Rawls applied analytic techniques to political philosophy and ethics. Analytic thinker Thomas Nagel raised the question of the meaning of life. References Martinich, A.P. (2001). Introduction. In Martinich, A. P. & Sosa, D. (Eds.), A Companion to Analytic Philosophy. (pp. 1–5). Malden: Blackwell Publishers. Quinton, A. (1995). Analytic philosophy. In Honderich, T. (Ed.), The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. (pp. 28–30). Oxford: OUP. 38 Quinton, A. (1995). Analytic philosophy. In Honderich, T. (Ed.), The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. (p. 30). Oxford: OUP. 88 7.2. WORKSHEET FOR THE LECTURE Task 1. Framework for note taking Look through the material from the first lecture and predict what you will hear in the text about analytic philosophy after the 1960s using the different categories to make notes. Then, complete and expand the notes after you have listened to the text. Analytic philosophy after the 1960s Analytic philosophy and metaphysics New questions in analytic philosophy Modern philosophers who write in the analytic spirit 89 Task 2 Language analysis chart Now, read the text of the handout "Analysis in contemporary philosophy" and write down vocabulary in the correct categories. Subject-specific vocabulary Other lexis – descriptive metaphysics – rigid designator – argumentative rigour – determination to be objective Task 3 Gap-fill Complete the gap-fill to consolidate new vocabulary items. statements distinction presuppositions sharply-defined thought last quarter A passage from A. P. Martinich's introduction to "A Companion to Analytic Philosophy"39 What can be said about the 1____________of the twentieth century is that the original conception of analysis and most of its 2_____________were abandoned by almost all analytic philosophers. Gone is the assumption that concepts of philosophical importance are often composed of simpler 3___________concepts. Quine's arguments that there is no principled 4_________________between analytic and synthetic 5______________is just a special case of the broader thesis that language and hence 6____________are essentially indeterminate. 39 Martinich, A.P. (2001). Introduction. In Martinich, A. P. & Sosa, D. (Eds.), A Companion to Analytic Philosophy. (pp. 1–5). Malden: Blackwell Publishers. 90 7.3. WORKSHEET FOR THE SEMINAR "ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY AT THE END OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY" Exercises 1–7 are based on information from lecture 7 "Analysis in contemporary English-speaking philosophy." Exercise 1 Make a question for each answer below. A He advocates metaphysics. B Richard Rorty is. C Saul Kripke is. D P. F. Strawson is. Exercise 2 For questions 1–8, you must choose the correct option: A, B, C, or D. 1 Who is the author of the book Individuals? A Hilary Putnam B Saul Kripke C P. F. Strawson D John Rawls 2 Who criticised the descriptivist theory of proper names? A Saul Kripke B Bertrand Russell C Gottlob Frege D John Rawls 3 Which analytic philosopher invited readers in one of his book to imagine a planet that precisely resembles Earth in almost every respect? A John Rawls B Richard Rorty C H. W. Putnam D Gottlob Frege 91 4 Which philosopher can be spoken of in such words: "He argues that philosophy, as practiced in mainstream Anglo-American philosophy departments, has exhausted its theoretical resources and outlived whatever usefulness it may once have had?"40 A Richard Rorty B Wilfrid Sellars C Roderick Chisholm D Donald Davidson 5 Who is the author of the book A Theory of Justice? A John Rawls B David Lewis C H. W. Putnam D P. F. Strawson 6 What book was written by Saul Kripke? A The Conscious Mind B Renewing Philosophy C The Rediscovery of the Mind D Naming and Necessity 7 Who developed the theory of possible worlds? A Richard Rorty B Saul Kripke C John Rawls D Bertrand Russell 8 Who is the author of the book Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature? A John R. Searle B Philippa Foot C Michael Dummett D Richard Rorty 40 Martinich, A. P. & Sosa, D. (Eds.), A Companion to Analytic Philosophy. (p. 428). Malden: Blackwell Publishers. 92 Exercise 3 Match each philosopher in the left-hand column of the table with his notion from the right-hand column. In boxes 9–11 on your answer sheet, write the correct letter: A–C. List of philosophers List of notions 9 S. Kripke 10 P. F. Strawson 11 J. Rawls A rigid designators B justice C descriptive metaphysics Exercise 4 Questions 12–20 Complete the gap-fill to consolidate new vocabulary items. unimportant philosophy of language Kant analytic principles Russell philosophy of mind Carnap criticize A passage from R. Rorty's Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature41 I hope to convince the reader that the dialectic within analytic philosophy, which has carried 12____________________from Broad to Smart, 13_____________from Frege to Davidson, epistemology from 14________________to Sellars, and philosophy of science from 15___________to Kuhn, needs to be carried a few steps further. These additional steps will, I think, put 41Rorty, R. (1979). Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature. Princeton University Press. 7–8. 93 us in a position to 16___________the very notion of "analytic philosophy," and indeed of "philosophy" itself as it has been understood since the time of 17___________. From the standpoint I am adopting, indeed, the difference between 18"______________" and other sorts of philosophy is relatively 19______________– a matter of style and tradition rather than a difference of "method" or of first 20_____________. Exercise 5 Questions 21–24 Complete gap-fill to consolidate new vocabulary items. structure objective metaphysics vision E. J. Lowe on Peter F. Strawson's philosophy42 The themes which run through his work include: the problem of individuation, the distinction between subject and predicate, the ontological status of persons, and the possibility of 21_________knowledge – all of which Strawson handles in a way which is coloured by his respect for Kant's approach to 22______________. Strawson characterizes his own approach to metaphysics as 'descriptive' rather than 'revisionary', aspiring to articulate the fundamental 23_________of our common-sense conceptual scheme rather than to reject it in favour of a radically new 24__________of reality. Exercise 6 Questions 25–30 Complete the gap-fill to consolidate new vocabulary items. Kant stipulation meaning analytic statements term a priori 42 Lowe, E. J. (1995). Peter F. Strawson. In Honderich, T. (Ed.), The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. (p. 855). Oxford: OUP. 94 A passage from S. Kripke's Naming and Necessity43 Another 25__________used in philosophy is 'analytic'. Here it won't be too important to get any clearer about this in this talk. The common examples of 26_____________, nowadays, are like 'bachelors are unmarried'. 27_________ (someone just pointed out to me) gives as an example 'gold is a yellow metal', which seems to me an extraordinary one, because it's something I think that can turn out to be false. At any rate, let's just make it a matter of 28___________that an analytic statement is, in some sense, true by virtue of its meaning and true in all possible worlds by virtue of its 29_____________. Then something which is analytically true will be both necessary and 30____________ (That's sort of stipulative). Topic 7. Answer sheet Question Answer Question Answer Exercise 2 16 1 17 2 18 3 19 4 20 5 Exercise 5 6 21 7 22 8 23 Exercise 3 24 9 10 Exercise 6 11 25 Exercise 4 26 12 27 13 28 14 29 15 30 Exercise 7 Explain the difference between analytic philosophy in the first half of the twentieth century and analytic philosophy after the 1960s. 43Kripke, S. (1980). Naming and Necessity. Basil Blackwell. 39. 95 Suggested terms and phrases to be used in your speaking: Subject-specific vocabulary Other lexis – "analytic spirit" – the revival of metaphysics – new fields in analytic philosophy – reasonable belief – raised the question of... 7.4. WRITING ASSIGNMENT 1 Write about the following topic: Analytic philosophy was transformed significantly in the second half of the twentieth century. To what extent do you agree or disagree with this opinion? Give reasons for your answer and include any relevant examples. Write at least 250 words. Suggested terms and phrases to be used in your writing: Subject-specific vocabulary Other lexis – the demise of ordinary language philosophy – X resurrected ..., an area of philosophy that was considered unacceptable by... – Some philosophers turned to... – Some philosophers declared ... misconceived, bankrupt, or similarly deficient. – ... were abandoned by almost all analytic philosophers. – had lost its dominance – ... is attributable to one of its chief practitioners, X. – His approach differed from X's primarily in emphasizing the... 96 GLOSSARY Analytic truth. This is the truth that is grounded in meanings independently of matters of fact (Quine, 1961). Cognitive synonymy. This is a sort of synonymy in which an analytic statement can be turned into a logical truth by putting synonyms for synonyms (Quine, 1961). Definition. This is a report of an observed synonymy (Quine, 1961). Description. This is a piece of writing or speech that gives details about what someone or something is like (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2003). Elementary proposition. This is a truth-function of itself (Wittgenstein, 1922). Explication. This is a variant type of definitional activity which does not limit itself to the reporting of pre-existing synonymies. In explication, the purpose is not merely to paraphrase the definiendum into an outright synonym, but actually to improve upon the definiendum by refining or supplementing its meaning (Quine, 1961). Expression. This is every part of a proposition that characterizes its sense (Wittgenstein, 1922). Extension of the term. This is the class of all entities for which a general term is true (Quine, 1961). Illocutionary act. This is a linguistic act done in saying something, e.g., reminding is an illocutionary act (Hornsby, 1995). Intension of the term. This is the term's meaning (Quine, 1961). Language. This is the totality of propositions (Wittgenstein, 1922). Linguistic philosophy. This is an attempt to solve philosophical problems by using linguistic methods (Searle, 2001). Locutionary act. This is a linguistic act of saying something, e.g., saying that... is a locutionary act (Hornsby, 1995). 97 Logic. This is not a theory but a reflection of the world (Wittgenstein, 1922). Logical picture of the facts. This is the thought (Wittgenstein, 1922). Meaning. This is the thing or idea that a word, expression, or sign represents (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2003). Naturalism. This is the view that there is no suprascientific justification for science and that it is up to science to determine both what there is (ontology) and how we know what there is (epistemology). For example, W.V.O. Quine emphasized his naturalism (Hookway, 1995). Ontological commitments of a theory. By the ontological commitments of a theory, Quine means what entities that theory says there are in the world (Hilton, 2001). Perlocutionary act. This is a linguistic act done by saying something, e.g., alarming is a perlocutionary act (Hornsby, 1995). Philosophy of language. This is an attempt to give an account of certain very general features of the structure, use, and functioning of language (Searle, 2001). Physicalism. This is the view in the sphere of ontology that physical facts are all facts, and all changes in the world involve physical changes. For example, Quine was a physicalist (Hookway, 1995). Picture of the world. This is the totality of true thoughts (Wittgenstein, 1922). Predicate. This is the part of a sentence that makes a statement about the subject (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2003). Proposition. This is the propositional sign in its projective relation to the world. It is a picture of reality. It is a model of reality as we think it is. It is the description of a fact (Wittgenstein, 1922). Propositional sign. This is the sign through which we express a thought (Wittgenstein, 1922). Quantifier. This is a word or phrase such as 'much,' 'few,' or 'a lot of' that is used with a noun to show quantity (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2003). 98 Reductionism. This is the belief that each meaningful statement is equivalent to some logical construct upon terms that refer to immediate experience (Quine, 1961). State-description. This is any exhaustive assignment of truth values to the atomic, or noncompound, statements of the language (Quine, 1961). Synthetic truth. This is a truth that is grounded in a fact (Quine, 1961). Thought. This is a significant proposition (Wittgenstein, 1922). Truism. This is a statement that is clearly true, so that there is no need to say it (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2003). References Hilton, P. (2001). W. V. Quine. In Martinich, A. P. & Sosa, D. (Eds.), A Companion to Analytic Philosophy. (pp. 181–204). Malden: Blackwell Publishers. Hookway, C. J. (1995). Quine, Willard Van Orman. In Honderich, T. (Ed.), The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. (pp. 738–739). Oxford: OUP. Hornsby, J. (1995). Linguistic acts. In Honderich, T. (Ed.), The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. (pp. 489–490). Oxford: OUP. Summers D. (Ed.) (2003). Longman dictionary of contemporary English. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. Quine, W.V.O. (1990). Two Dogmas of Empiricism. In Ammerman, R. (Ed.), Classics of Analytic Philosophy. (pp. 196–213). Hackett. Searle, J. (2001). J. L. Austin. In Martinich, A. P. & Sosa, D. (Eds.), A Companion to Analytic Philosophy. (pp. 218–230). Malden: Blackwell Publishers. Wittgenstein, L. (1922). Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. (C. K. Ogden, Trans.). London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Ltd. 99 ANSWERS TO THE LECTURE WORKSHEETS (Gap-fill) Topic 1 Topic 2 1 analysis 1 significance 2 analytic 2 logical 3 logic 3 complexity 4 empirical 4 mind 5 verificationist 5 natural language 6 science 7 reasonable 8 objective 6 forms Topic 3 Topic 4 1 senseless 1 epistemology 2 propositions 2 common sense 3 problems 3 Edinburgh 4 natural sciences 4 Thomas Reid 5 above 5 tradition 6 clarification 7 activity 8 thoughts 6 style Topic 5 Topic 6 1 real crux 1 empiricism 2 introspect 2 belief 3 feelings 3 synthetic 4 sometimes 4 meaningful 5 suppose 5 metaphysics 6 sort of thing 6 pragmatism Topic 7 1 last quarter 2 presuppositions 3 sharply-defined 4 distinction 5 statements 6 thought 100 ANSWERS TO THE SEMINAR WORKSHEETS Topic 1 Question Answer Question Answer Exercise 2 16 B 1 D 17 M 2 A 18 I 3 C 19 F 4 B 20 K 5 D 21 A 6 A 22 H 7 C Exercise 4 8 A 23 YES 9 D 24 YES 10 B 25 NO Exercise 3 26 YES 11 G Exercise 5 12 C 27 A 13 L 28 C 14 E 29 D 15 J 30 A Topic 2 Question Answer Question Answer Exercise 2 16 YES 1 A 17 YES 2 D 18 YES 3 B 19 NO 4 A Exercise 5 5 C 20 B 6 D 21 B 7 D 22 C 8 A 23 D 9 B 24 A 10 A Exercise 6 Exercise 3 25 A 11 B 26 D 12 A 27 A 13 E Exercise 7 14 D 28 A 15 C 29 D Exercise 4 30 C 101 Topic 3 Question Answer Question Answer Exercise 2 16 A 1 C Exercise 4 2 A 17 A 3 B 18 D 4 A 19 B 5 D 20 C 6 B 21 A 7 A 22 C 8 B Exercise 5 9 B 23 NO 10 A 24 YES Exercise 3 25 NO 11 F 26 YES 12 D 27 YES 13 C 28 YES 14 B 29 YES 15 E 30 YES Topic 4 Question Answer Question Answer Exercise 2 16 D 1 A 17 C 2 B 18 B 3 A 19 A 4 D Exercise 5 5 A 20 B 6 C 21 A 7 A Exercise 6 Exercise 3 22 A 8 continuously 23 B 9 surface 24 A 10 dimensions 25 D 11 distances 26 C 12 contact 27 A 13 environment Exercise 7 14 exist 28 NO 15 ceased 29 YES Exercise 4 30 YES 102 Topic 5 Question Answer Question Answer Exercise 2 15 past 1 A 16 activities 2 B 17 thoroughly 3 D 18 circumstances 4 A 19 unimpeachable 5 D 20 indirectly Exercise 3 Exercise 5 6 D 21 YES 7 B 22 NO 8 C 23 YES 9 A 24 YES 25 YES Exercise 4 26 YES 10 familiar with 27 NO 11 current case Exercise 6 12 recognize 28 A 13 experiences 29 B 14 opportunities 30 C Topic 6 Question Answer Question Answer Exercise 2 16 interconnections 1 A 17 re-evaluate 2 B 18 boundary conditions 3 A 19 equilibrium 4 D Exercise 5 5 C 20 NO 6 A 21 NO 7 A 22 YES 8 D 23 YES Exercise 3 24 YES 9 B Exercise 6 10 A 25 A 11 C 26 B Exercise 4 Exercise 7 12 totality 27 A 13 along the edges 28 C 14 experience 29 B 15 statements 30 D 103 Topic 7 Question Answer Question Answer Exercise 2 16 criticize 1 C 17 Kant 2 A 18 analytic 3 C 19 unimportant 4 A 20 principles 5 A Exercise 5 6 D 21 objective 7 B 22 metaphysics 8 D 23 structure Exercise 3 24 vision 9 A 10 C Exercise 6 11 B 25 term Exercise 4 26 analytic statements 12 philosophy of mind 27 Kant 13 philosophy of language 28 stipulation 14 Russell 29 meaning 15 Carnap 30 a priori 104 EXAM QUESTIONS 1. Analytic philosophy and continental philosophy: differences and similarities 2. Major stages in the development of analytic philosophy 3. Russell's logicism 4. Russell's philosophical logic 5. Russell's logical atomism 6. Wittgenstein's early philosophy 7. Wittgenstein's later philosophy 8. Moore's analysis of propositions 9. Moore on sensory experience and physical reality 10. Austin's theory of speech acts 11. Austin's thoughts about ordinary language 12. Austin's theories about knowledge 13. Quine's rejection of the analytic-synthetic distinction 14. Quine's scientific philosophy 15. Quine's ontology 16. Analysis in contemporary English-speaking philosophy 17. Wittgenstein's argument in his Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus 18. Moore's argument in his "A Defence of Common Sense" 19. Austin's argument in his Other Minds 20. Quine's argument in his "Two Dogmas of Empiricism" 105 FURTHER READING Primary sources Austin, J.L. 1962. How to Do Things with Words. Ayer, A.J. 1946. Language, Truth and Logic. Moore, G.E. 1953. Some Main Problems of Philosophy. Quine, W.V.O. 1953. From a Logical Point of View. Russell, B. 1956. Logic and Knowledge (ed. by R.C. Marsh). Russell, B. 1959. The Problems of Philosophy. Ryle, G. 1949. The Concept of Mind. Wittgenstein, L. 1953. Philosophical Investigations. Wittgenstein, L. 1961. Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (translated by D.F. Pears and B.F. McGuiness). General studies Beaney, M. (2013). The Oxford Handbook of The History of Analytic Philosophy. Oxford: OUP. https://books.google.com.ua/books?id=wYoeAAAAQBAJ&printsec=fro ntcover&hl=ru#v=onepage&q&f=false Coope, Ch. (1970). A Wittgenstein Workbook. University of California Press. https://books.google.com.ua/books?id=UkYS9FkZRW4C&printsec=fro ntcover&hl=ru#v=onepage&q&f=false Dummett, M. (1994). Origins of Analytical Philosophy. Harvard University Press. https://books.google.com.ua/books?id=lsSXQVBzJMoC&printsec=fron tcover&hl=ru#v=onepage&q&f=false Glock, H.-J. (2008). What is Analytic Philosophy? Cambridge University Press. https://books.google.com.ua/books?id=zEgHu0NZMs8C&printsec=fron tcover&hl=ru#v=onepage&q&f=false Hacker, P.M.S. (1996). Wittgenstein's Place in Twentieth-Century Analytic Philosophy. Wiley. Shramko Y., Wansing, H. (2011). Truth and Falsehood. An Inquiry into Generalized Logical Values. Springer. 106 Schwartz, S. (2012). A Brief History of Analytic Philosophy: From Russell to Rawls. John Wiley & Sons. https://books.google.com.ua/books?id=5lK6DTadnaQC&printsec=front cover&hl=ru#v=onepage&q&f=false Soames, S. (2003). Philosophical Analysis in the Twentieth Century, 2 vol. Princeton University Press. https://books.google.com.ua/books?id=yIldd9K9Rm0C&printsec=frontc over&hl=ru#v=onepage&q&f=false Stroll, A. (2000). Twentieth-Century Analytic Philosophy. Columbia University Press. https://books.google.com.ua/books?id=ikirAgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontc over&hl=ru#v=onepage&q&f=false Навчальне видання Олександр Кулик Аналітична філософія та філософія мови Навчальний посібник (Англійською мовою) Education Publication Oleksandr Kulyk Analytic Philosophy and Philosophy of Language Instructor's Manual with Student Exercises В авторській редакції Підписано до друку 16.07.2018. Формат 60x84 1/16. Папір офсетний. Друк офсетний. Ум. друк. арк. 6,28. Наклад 50 пр. Зам. No 168. Видавництво і друкарня «Ліра». 49107, м. Дніпро, вул. Наукова, 5. Свідоцтво про внесення до Держреєстру ДК No 6042 від 26.02.2018. Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)