CARL MARTIN ALLWOOD LUND UNIVERSITY SWEDEN MARCUS SELART VÅXJÖ UNIVERSITY SWEDEN CHAPTER i SOCIAL AND CREATXVE DECISION MAKING Research on hurnan decision making is at the preseni time undergoing rapid changes. Prorn previously being rnuoh focused on models and approaches with an origin in economy, rnuch of the present day research finds is inspiration frorn disciplinary approaches concerned with ineorporating more ol the context that the decision making talces place in. This context ineludes psychological aspects of the decision maker and social-cultural aspects of the situation he or she acis in. AH hurnan decision making occurs in dynarnicafly changing contexts. One factor coniributing to this is that human beings or groups in many situations act as entrepreneurs trying to improve the situation for thernselves or their organi;ation. Given that this is the case, il is of increasing interest for both researchers and practitioners interested in ihe social aspects of decision making to considei the relation between cieativity and decision inaking In the present volume we have included chapters that deal with social and creative aspects of decision making Such aspects have to sorne extent been neglected in psychological reseaich on decision making This is paitly due to the historical domination of the SEU (Subjective Expectecl Utility) uadition in judgrnent and decision rnalcing ~ research. The SEU ti-adition has its roots in econornic theory. This rnay be one reason why dis tiadition appears as quite static and too limited in tts natule to be able to explain such L phenomena as ioi miL noe mnnovation By impioving our undeistanding of the cie~tmve L and socmal aspects of decision making the piesent volurne contiibutes to the mntegiation of theom ies concepts and iesults fiom diffeient meseaich traditions and in thms way helps to betiem om understanding 0± ihe decmsmon making The voluine heieby complements ieseaich achievernents that have been piescnted undei dd±eient narnes such as natu,a1z~tzc decision mot/ung distributeci deciswn mo/ung and appiceci creattvcty The chapteis heip to ptovide i niome ieahstic undeustandmng ol the conditmons fom cmeatmve social decismon making Foi this teason they also have mrnpoitant piacimcal implications foi examnpie wmth iespect to how cmeativmty can be piornoted in organizatmona] decmsion rnakmg Given the dmscip1inãy specialization that just as in othei ieseaich Heidi has developed JJ in decismon reseaich in diftetent dmsciphnes we have lound iL impomtant to gathem in one place a sornewhat bioadem spectiuni ot contmihutmons to decision making meseaich cornpaied wtth what is commonly ±ound in a smngle volurne Most 0± the eontmmbutions ame korn psychoiogy buL theie mc also contnbutions ham management scmence heaith science education policy and planning and infaimatmos Different peispecuves on decision makmng IL wmII just as diffement rneisumement mnethods heip to bmmng out mote aspecis ol the phenornenon and thus impiove om undeistanding Ir C 4JAllwood & M Sela, t ~Ed~ ) Decrno,, Makuig Socrnl and Crcative Duñni,oni pp 3 it © 200]. Kluwei Aeademw Publzshei £ Do, di ca/if Pnnted in che Net/mei lands CHAPTER i SOCIAL AND C Several of the authors to the chapters in this volume address basic and general issues is taken (Takt with regard to the social and creative dirnensions of decision making. For instance, made (Salo & Stoycheva and Luhart provide an interesting review in which they describe important properties, d general features of creadve decision making. Wiike and Kaplan in their review. especially creative (Pfis focus on group processes whereas Basador reviews the literature relevant for social decisi organizatiOnai and managerial decision making while making theoretical extensions of his environment, own. Taking their point of departure trom the research literature, Ptister and Böhm's give environment, interesting argumentS for why new scientiIic approaches are needed in the area of The chapi environmental decision making research. fiom individ: Other authors in the volume are more concerned with aspects that are especially creative deci~ relevant for our personal lives Among others, Wiilén provides an example of how theories otter end o of decision making and creativity may be applied in the area of tamily studies. Salo and organizatiofls Svenson highlight features of the decision process that play an important role in health care the institutiot students' choice of education In addition, Takemura shows that notions of decision institutional c making which stress the importance of descriptive variance, are highly relevant for the chapters understanding the behavior of everydny consumers. creative dcci: Finally, several authors in this volume are concerned with aspects Lhat are of Allwood ana importaoce for management and the organization of work life. For instance, Badke-Sohaub of different and BuerschaPer focus on how professional clesigners solve prohlems and make decisions analyzes LhE in Ihe orgaoizationSelart and Boe give an account of how CEO's of small information responsibilit) technology coinpanies view Iheir use of different aspects of creative thinking in their daily hetween Ue I work. Vinkenburg, Koopman and Jansen present a field experiment and descrihe important features of managerial efficiency. The aim ot Yönsson, Bdström and Ask's contribution is to draw conciusions irom a micro analysis uf ihe accounts given by the various members of DIFFEREN the project team ol an incident in an R&D car industry development project. Hedelin and Allwood present a swdy in which they stress the seiling in of a decision alternative as a The diffe fundamental and under-researched aspect of decision making processes in organizations decision mai Pinally. Engeströnl shows how the development of a structure for the social frarnework for draw conciu health care adniinistratiOn and decisions takes place through a stroggle between the findings ab different involved parties where the parties aim to establish their own platforrns in the deveiopmeni decision process. FIede1ii~ andd cision pre unidimensiO DIFFERENT DIMENSIONS IN THE CHAPTERS chapterscreatiVe asp The chapters in the book can be located on a number of different dimensions Some of and Svenso: these will be discussed next. envitOnmenmakmg. INDIVIDUAL AND INSTITUTIONAL PERSPECTIVES Ii~ four cand decisto As noted, all of the chapters snare ti concern with decision making in social contexts. ?uem sol Howeve;, the chapters differ with respect to whether they treat decision making from the this ~atget i perspective of the individual or hom that of ~' socially organized institution. When decision ~ t niaking is seen hom the perspective of the individual, his or her mental processes are ue:sc ape hrought to the foregrouncl. Research questions porsoed from this perspective concern for ~omts ifl th example how a possible decision starts to develop in an individoal's mmd (chapter by ne quesooi WilMn). hnw the individuals weish together evidence at the final stage hefore the decision seen as int SOCIAL ANL) GREATIVE DECISION MA)UNG is talcen (Takemura)~ how the decision is viewed by the decision maker after the decision is made (Salo & Svenson) and which featores of the individual's cognitive and motivatiOn& propertieS, decision making process, or of the decision itself, contribute to making it creative (Pfister & Böhm; Stoycheva & Lubart). Akhough these contributions concern social decision oiaking in the sense that they concern decisions taken in a social environment, they do not to any large extent consider how different features of the social environment, inslitutional or other, affect the decision process. The chapter by Wilke and Kaplan takes more of a middie position on the dimension from individual to institution. Here the authors describe processes in cooneciiOn with cially creative decision making flat occurs in small group settings. Somewhat more towards the cories other end of the dimension, some chapters report studies on decision making in o and organizations (Basadur; Selart & Boe; Vinkenburg et al) bot without very n,uch r&ating to i care tbe institutional features of organizationS. Cioser to the end of the dimensjon more ol' the rision institutiona] context that the decision maker operates in is brought into focus. For example, il for the chapters by Badke-Schaub and Buerschaperand by Tbnsson, et al. describe and analyze creative decision making in industrial design processes and the chapter by Hedelin and re of Allwood analyzes the decision making processes occurring within organizational settings chaub of different kinds. Finally, at the very end of the continua, the chapter by Engeström isions analyzes the deveiopment of an institutional framework for the distribution of nation responsihility •for decisions concerning the care of child patients with long-term diseases, daily between the home, the specialist physician and the open care unit. iortant lion is ~ers of DIFFERENTIAL EMPHASIS ON DECISION PROCESS AND ON CREATIVITY in and e as a The diftèrent chapterS also differ with respect to the focus they put on creativity and on ations. decisioo making. Five of the chapters focus foremost on Ihe decision making process and )rk for draw conclusions ahout creativity in the decision process mostly on the basis of the en the findings about the decision process. Here are the chapters by Engeström on the in the development of social structures tor decision making, by Willén on divorce decisions, by Hedelin and Allwood on organizatiOflal decision processes and by Sdnsson et al on the decision process in a design context. Likewise, the focus in Takemura's chapter on the unidimensionality of the decision criterion is foremost on tbe decision process. Other chapters with a focus on decision making put greater emphasis on attempts to ideotify the creative aspects of the decision making process. Examples here are the chapters by Salo ome ol' and Svenson on individuals' choice of professional edocation, by Pfister and Böhm oñ~vironmen1ally friendly decisions, aad by Selart and Boe on the role of habits in decision making. In four of the chapters an approximately equal ai~ount of attention is paid to creativity and decision making. In one chapter (Basadur) this is accomplished by focusing on )ntexts problem solving (or thinking) and seeing creativity and decision making as integral parts of om the this farger process. Basadur's chapter focoses on how thioking in organizatiOns can be ecision organized to hecume more cieative. In a similar manner, the chapter by Badke-Schauh and seq etc BuerschaPer deals foremost with. a larger collective design process and analyzes which ern for points in this proc~ss are the more creative. The chapter by Vinkenburg et al. focuses on pter b the question of why managers do what they do. Here, decision making and creativity etc iecisiõ seen as integra parts nf the processes leading up to managers' hchavior. Finally, the 6 CHAPTER I SOCIAL AND CX chapter by Stoycheva and Lubart also provides a fairly good balance hetween creativity overview of pn and decision making hut by usa of a clifferent approach. Here, the authors very The chaptel cooscientiOusly analyze che relation between creativity and decision making. First they decision makin analyze the role ol' creativity in decision processes and then the role of decision processes organizatiOnal for creativity. describe an arr Pinally, the chapter by Wilke and Kaplan, dealing forernost with creativity in group chapter. processes, i:ocus more on creativity as such. Decisions and decision processes are bare seen The remair as part of the group problem solving or thinking process and are not focused on processes in or specifically. distributing res Hedelin and A et al. on a spec DIFFERENT THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES choice of prof more clearly t~ The chapters in (be book represent a range of theoretical perspecuves. Not all of them to a large exter are easy to ciassify. However, at least one chapter, tht one by Takemura, to a large extent The empiri represents the, by now, ciassical behavioral decision making paradigm. Some of the otber of the chaptei chapters represeni more recent specific approaches in psychological decision making questionnaire ieseaich. This is the case for ihe chapters by Salo and Svenson and by Willén which Buerschaper: represeots applications and developments of Svensoñs Diff-Con theory and of questionnaire Montgomery's dominance structuring theory, respectively. Both of these approaches chapters in ti concern the mental work of individual decision makers and can be seen as located within Engeström; 13 the naturalistic decision making approach, hroadly taken. Other chapters (Badke-Schauh & Schaub & Ba Buerschaper; Pfister & Böhm; Selart & Boe; Stoycheva & Lubart) are clearly inspired by (Badlce-Schaut the parts of cognitive psychology dealing with problem solving, creativity theory, process & Buerschape tracing approaches to decision making and theory concerning the automatization of skills. Buerschaper; The chapter by Wilke and Kaplan relays on theories from social psyehology on group methods. interaction. One chapter uses organizational theory (Viokenburg et al.) aud two others are Most of th at least inspired by it (Basaciur; 1-ledelin & Allwood). Finally, two chapters use other least two of approaches 'rom the social scienees, more specifically ethomethodology (Jönsson et al) "prescriptive" and activity theory (Bngeström). ofcreativity. THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL FOCUS CREATIVE i The chapters can also be located on a dimension running from theoretical to empirical. 'Ilie stanc~ An inciication of Ihis is rhat the chapters differ with respect to the extent to which they dill'erences. Iv pI-esent a specifie enipirical study. Fi~e of the chapters are foremost theoreticai (Basadur; process and tc Pfister & Böhm; Stoycheva & Lubart; Takemura; Wilke & Kaplan). However, all of these many parts of chapters use previOus enipirical research to substantiate their ideas. Possibly the distance early stages, i' hetween die theoretical arguments and the empirical data is somewhat greater in the by Keeney, IS chapter by Pfister and Bdhni on environmental friendly decisions and to some extent also & Boerschape in the chapter hy Basadur presenting a program for creative decision making in high potential organizations. compared to the other three chapters in this group. Theses chapters, t.e., the Basadur, and ~ chapter by Willkeand Kaplan on different types of creativity in group processes, the Next, the c chapter by Stoycheva and Lubart on the relation between creativity and decision making, also dentified and the chapter by Takeinura presenting a theory abont information integration in decision Boe). Some c niaking all oush theoretical ideas. However, there is also an emphasis on providing an restructuring SOCIAL AND CREATIVE DECISION MAKING overview of previouS research in their respeetive areas. The chapters by Se.lart and Boe on the role of conscious and controlled habits in hnman decision making and by Vinkenburg et at on the role of situationa) and personal factors in organizatiOflat decision making, first present literature overviews of deir areas and then describe an empirical study by Weauthors that further expands the argumentatiOfl in the chapter. The remaining six chaplers. piesented by Badke-Sehaub and BuersehaPer on design processes in nrganizatiOns by Engeström on the development of institutional structures for distrihuting responsihility and power in the care of a specific medical patient category, by Hedelin and Atlwood on features of high leve! organizational decision making, by Jbnsson et al. on a specific eveni in the design of a car model, by Salo and Svenson on individual's choice of professional education and finally by WiIlén on coup!es' decisions to divorce more clear!y focus on a specific empirical study. The conclusions from Ihese chapters are to a large exteni drawn bom, or mediated via, the empirical data in the presented study. The enipirical research methods of the more empiricalty focused chapters differ. Pour of the chapters use cjnestionnaire data, collecied either by the use of an electronical questionnaire (Selart & Boe) or by the use of a traditional booklet (Badke-Schaub & Buerschaper; Salo & Svenson; Vinkenburg et al.). In the chapter by Salo and Svenson questionnaire data was cnllected for the same individuals on several occasions. The other chapters in this group relay either on interviews (Badke-SchaUb & Buerschaper; Engeström; Hedelin & Allwood; Jönsson et at.; Willén), document analyses (Badke Schauh & Buerschaper; Engeström), direci observation of the decision process studied (Badke-SchaUb & Buerschaper Iönsson et al.), or on computer simulation (Badke-Schaub & Buerschaper). Thus, some of the chapters presenting em1jirica] studies (Badke-Schaub & BuersChaper; Engeström; Jönsson et al.) combine diffferent types of data coflection methods. Most of the chapters niainly take a descriptiVe or an explanatorY approach. However, at least two of the chapters (Basadur; Pfister & Bölim) take a more normative or "1jrescnptive" standpoint. As will be further detailed helow, this relates to their definition of ereativity. CREATIVE ASPECTS OF TRE DECISION PROCESS The stance taken in the chapters towards creativity show both similarities and differences. Most of the chapters agree that creativity can pertain both to the decision process and to ihe decision product. Considering the decisien process lirst, it is clear that many paris of ihe decision process have a potential for being creative. Starting with Ihe early stages, identifying what is the decision prob'em (or ciecision opportunity. as argned by Keeney~ 992) to be so]ved is pointed out by many of the autbors (e.g., Badke-SchaUb & Buerschaper; Basadur: Salo & Svenson; Selart & Boe; Stoycheva & Lubart) as having a high potentiai for creativity (the highest according to Badke-Sehaub and Buerschaper, Basadur, and Stoycheva and Lubart). Nexi, the construction ol new decision alternatives, or the resiruciuring of old ones, is also identified as Iiab!e for creative thinking (Pfister & Böhm; Salo & Svenson; Selart & Boe). Some ol' ihe authors point not that these aspects can be affected by a creative restructuring of nne' ~ values, or goais (Pfister & Bi5hm; Salo & Svenson; Selart & Boe). $ CHAPTER SOOAL AND CR~ Stoyeheva and Lubart suggest that a ereative formulation ol' the decision problem 'is per se and non-( related to tl,e construction of a holistic, relational repre.sentation of the problem" (p. 23), to the group mr~ and that the creative generation of alternatives includes ''focusing attention on the more Hedelin anc onusual aspeets of the .stimulus problem when searching for alternatives." (p. 22). ciecision maker Vinkenburg et el. suggest thal creative managers have a well-developed ability to read the more need For situation in order to identify relevant aspeets of the situation Stoycheva and Lubart suggest handling of the that "intuitive" processes are important for the creation of decision alternatives and decision makiñ Engesuöm talks about iniprovisation and bricolage. communication After this follows the evaluation and choice of a decision alternative. Here ereativity is outside of the assumed to involve for example the generation of many evaluation dimensions (Stoycheva creativity in the & Lubart) and to integrate attributes in a creative way (Takemura). With respect to out that creativi integration of attributes, Takemura notes that this involves a creative construetion, or For this reason, "envisionment" of a criterion ('mental ruler") against which to evaluate the different of a project haT alternatives considerecl in the decision situation. Such a construction involves being creative when finding oot which attributes are important to integrate and in the next step to ingrate these attributes in creative way. CREATIVE A The idea held in much previous research that evaluations are counteractive to ereativity is not accepted by most of the aothors in this book. In contrast, for example Badke-Schaub Most of th and Buerschaper clnim (hat "the essence of creative thinking is not to withhold jtidgment problem solutic hut rnay be to evaluate critically with respect to the problem content." (p. 192). Pfister & Böh Although sometimes allocatecl foremost to specific parts of the decision process, some Stoycheva and aspeets or processes common to all 0V most stages of the decision process seem to be rnost of the eN important opportunities for creativity. Creative idea generation and evaluation are both have to have h considered to be carrietl out in a "ilexible" and "adaptive" way. Further suggestions of this Lubart; Takem~ kind given by Stoycheva and Lubart are "to diseriminate between salient and signilicant adaptive (Basac attributes [...], to reason at a high levd of abstraction, [... to] tolera[te] ambiguity during note "that the decision making to avoid premature elosure [.. and] being inotivated to invest as much values and pref cognitive effort as necessary to make ereative choices." (p. 29). In the latter context Selart as well as soci' and Boe cliscusses the necessity of deep involvernent. In addition to these suggestions, ereative option Willen stresses the importance for creativity of"restructuring and perspeetive shift" (p. synOnyrnOUs wi 131) and Jönsson et al. and Bad]ce-Schaub and Buerschaper mention the application ol' a Itseems eie good solotion linm one area to another. qoality to somenormative appi normative appi CREATIVE ASPECTS OF TRE SPECIFICALLY SOCIAL PARTS OF TRE environmentall DECISION PROCESS stuek in a soci.argue that ''Thc Some authors speci fically discoss ereativity in parts of the decision process that are progress of nie foremost social. For example, Badke-Sehaub and Buerschaper note that "we often find should be ancF creativity in a joinl problem solving process, as an explicitly collaborative activity" (p. concur: 'think 177). For Basadur craalivity in organizations is associated witli adaptivity and innovation One way of hut also with open system organization. The opposite approach is a closed system a panel judge organization, aiming at internal efflciency and optimizing day-to-day routines. diseuss differer Wilke and Kaplan discuss social creativity which is said to refer to "methods to quaiity in speci coordinate group members' effort and to enhance their motivation to produce ideas in Ris of intei graupsthat arr uacapccted and novel." (p. 35). These aurhors contrast ereative and ~r'~that a decision ereative (group) processes. Creative processes are eharaeterired as being influenced by "A ereative d• prnperties in be si n'u li (''informational influence''), i .e., i nformation in the decision task SOC!AL AND CREATIVE DECISION MAKINO 9 per se and non_ereative processeS nye regarded as highly influenced by pressore to conform LO the group inajority ("normative influence''). Hedelin and Allwood perceive creativitY ernerging as an interaetion hetween the decision maker aud the situation, in the sense that "when there are dieficolties there may be more oecd for ereativity." (p. 274). More specifically, they argue Ihat "Skill in on-line handling et the unexpected can be seen as an important type et creativity in organizatiOnal decision making." (p. 278). They also stress that creativity often is important in the social communicatioll carried out when selling in a proposed decision LO otber parties inside and outside of the organizatiofl. Basadur mentions a similar aspect. Jönsson et al. also relate creativity in the decision process to the wider range of social processes going on, pointiflg oot that creativity "in one part of the projeet may generate Çrushation in another." (p. 253). For this reason, these authors suggest that creativity may be easier to allow in early phases of a project than in later parts. CREATIVE ASPECTS OF TI-lE DECISION PRODUCT Mest of the chapters explicitly argue that creative productx (including decisions er problem solutions) involve novelty (Badke-SChaUb & Buersehaper; Basadur: Bngeström; Pfister & Böhm; Salo & Svenson; Stoycheva & Lubart; Willén Wilke & Kaplan). Stoycheva and LLtbart argue that the creative option, being novel, is also risicy. In addition, most of the chapters contend that decisions er problem solutions, in ordet to be creative, have to have high qoality (e.g., Basadur; PiSster & Böhm; Selart & Boe; Stoycheva & Lubart; Takemura; Willdn). For many of the authors this means to be socially useful aud adaptive (Basadur; Selarr & Boe; Stoyeheva & Lubart). For instance, Stoyeheva and Lubart note "that the ereative approach to social issues recognizes the importanCe of people's values and pre.ferenceS~ focuses on understanding each et the j~~eracting/confl~t~g parties as well as societal norms, and seeks win-win solutions." (p. 16). They also note that the creative option "is both unusual and useful." (p. 17). For Pfister and Böhm high quality is synonymous with being environmentallY friendly. It seems clear that the demand for a creative decision or problem solution to have high quality to some extent involve cl vatue judgrnent and because of this may involve taking a normative approach. As noted above, the chapter by Pfister aud Böhm openly take such a normative approach in a prescriptive variety. However, they also argue that by making environmentallY h-iendly decisions the individual can free himor herself "from being stuck in a social er moral dilemma." (p. 103). Likewise, Badke-Schauh and Buerschaper argue that "The dimensions of creativity seem to be categories which initiate growth and progress et mankind." (p. 177). Willén suggests that a decision in order to be creative should be anchored in reality, it shonld be praetical and realistie. Stoyeheva and Lubart concur: "thinking and acting go hand in hand." (p. 16). One way of introducing normative claims without inntducing one's own values is to let a panel judge ~vhether the produet is of high quality er not. A few el' the chapters also discuss dilTerent societal processes that may determine ~vhether a product is .veen as of high quality in specific social arenas (Steycheva & Luhart; Wilke & Kaplan). It is of interest to note dat the authors et ene chapter (Salo & Svenson) cxplicitly deny that a decision has to have high quality in erder to be creative, Accerding Le these authers "A creative decisien is not necessarilY a prescriptive er nermatively gaod selutien. cHAPrER I Creative solutions can be quiLe poor both for the decision maker her or himseif as wefl as for otbers." (p 149). For example, Salo and Svenson suggest that seif-deceiving reasoning may be regarded as creative. However, these authors do not clearly argue why quality aspects should noL be considered as a constitutive part ofcreativity. CONCLUDING REMARKS This volurne presents resenrch that relates decision making LO creativity with a focus on Lhe social contexl in which Lhese processes occur. The volunie is addressed to academic readers as well as to professionals with a scientific interest in Lhe Lield. The organization of the volurne is primarily hased on the individual/institutional continua. Thus, the first chaplers. are rnain]y wrilten from theoretical and, mostly, individual perspectives whereas the last chapters are more written from an empirical and organizational viewpoint. The major goal for the present volurne has heen to give recognition LO the fact that hurnan decision making typically occurs in changing, dynarnic, social contexts, and Lhat researchers interested in decision making in a socia] context therefore wiIl benefit by considering Lhe t-elation between creativity and decision making. SOOAL AND CREA Keeney, R. L. (1992) Press. SOCIAL AND CREAT1VE DECISION MAK~NG II REFERENCES iCeenty. R L ( I 992) Vulue /bc:it.ved i/i inki'ig: Å palli to (:441 live decisioui ,nakin:~ London: Rei-vord U ni vei-si ty Press.