Consciousness, Society and Values Edited by A.V. Afonso INDIAN INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDY RASHTRAPATI NIVAS, SHIMLA First published 2006 © Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Shimla All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without prior permission of the publisher ISBN: 81-7986-059-0 Published by T he Secretary Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Rashtrapati Nivas, Shimla Typeset at Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Shimla Printed at Pearl Offset Press Pvt. Ltd. 5/33, Kirti Nagar, New Delhi CHAPTER 8 Consciousness and Society: In Defence of a Phenomenological Approach to Social Reality KOSHY THARAKAN With the advent o f Postmodernism, the recent discussions in C on tin en ta l th ou gh t has ca lled into q uestion the philosophy o f the Subject, particularly the Cartesian "cogito" and the related method of reflection. As a matter o f fact, the questioning o f the reflective subject began with the Existentialists. One need only to recall how Kierkegaard inverts th e C artesian d ictum "co g ito ergo su m " to demonstrate the primacy o f existence over consciousness. One o f the important ramifications o f these questioning of the reflective subject is to do with the phenom enological doctrine o f intentionality o f consciousness. Recently, David Carr, him self a phenom enologist, has advanced a serious objection to the phenomenological approach to social reality. In what fo llow s, I will be a ttem p tin g a d e fe n c e o f phenom enology against criticisms like Carr's. According to Carr, phenomenology is incapable o f forging an adequate understanding o f the social as the cornerstone o f phenom enological philosophy, namely the doctrine o f in ten tio n a lity o f co n sciou sn ess, is a resp on se to the problem atic relation betw een hum an exp erien ce and nature. Hence, employing it in the sphere o f social relations is a case o f misapplication o f the principle.1 According to Carr the notion o f intentionality is purported to substitute for the notion o f causality. The causal investigation resulted 130 KOSHY THARAKAN in naturalizing the human subject, reducing 'Man' to the status o f an effect o f the vast causal order. He points out that such causal understanding o f the intentional object o f a thought resulted in the Cartesian problem o f proving the existence and nature o f the external world. Further, it is susceptible to the Humean scepticism as the causal relation is an external relation and thus is contingent. Thus, any attempt to draw inferences from our ideas to their origin in causal terms, to a world that causes the ideas is open to all sceptical doubts. However, Hum e's sceptical solution to the sceptical problem exhorts us to proceed with the causal investigations o f the world irrespective o f the fact that we are not sure o f the universality and necessity o f the causal orders. Now, Carr points out that this further complicates the problem: "... given the assumption o f the universality o f the causal order, all being m ust belong to that order, including mental being. The contents o f the mind must be considered entities or events which are related to the rest o f nature according to causal principles."2It is a short step from here to reduce the mental into the physical. Thus, the principle o f causality converts the human sciences into a naturalistic inquiry. * Carr rightly characterizes Husserl's intentionality thesis as a response to this situation. It removes the sceptical, as well as the solipsistic problem, by showing that human experience refers to something beyond itself as consciousness is always consciousness o f something. That is to say that intentional relation being a direct relation, we can assure ourselves that our knowledge is really about the object and not merely about the contents o f our m ind. As Carr shows, m ore importantly, the doctrine of intentionality liberates us at once from the very natural order with which it puts us in direct contact because o f its peculiar relation o f "consciousness o r - an important feature o f consciousness which has no place in the natural physical world. Thus Carr maintains that intentionality is professed as a solution to the problem we have with the natural world. He Consciousness and Society 131 says that "...intentional approach is essentially designed to deal with our relation to nature"3 and as such it cannot be gainfully used when we have to describe the problem of intersubjectivity, the kernel o f social reality. This is so because the approach o f intentionality is a reflective procedure in w hich o n e exam ines o n e 's own exp erien ce. Thus, by reflecting on my experience and my world, I constitute the meaning o f an alter ego. This way, "the other" is treated as a phenom enon, a cogitatum. Carr's contention is that this approach cannot do justice to "...the pervasiveness and priority o f our social being and the apriori character o f our relation to others."4 An important consequence of reflective analysis is that the other person is treated as a phenomenon from the point o f view of the phenomenologist and not in the image "the other" has o f himself/herself. Ii is from the perspective o f the reflecting ego that one grasps "the other", the other as an object o f knowledge. Here we may recall that Husserl's objective was to examine the origin o f the "concept" o f alter ego, and not to prove the existence of others. As Carr himself points out, Schutz has understood Husserl in this way and proceeded to reject the move to prove the existence of others, as it is impossible to phenom enologically constitute the other. Accordingly, Schutz proceeds from the "social world", which is primordial, in order to explicate the phenom enological structures o f the social world. Now, Carr's main criticism o f Schutz is that the latter always emphasizes the "understanding" relation, a relation in which there is no opacity or conflict, but only "co-operation". This is certainly a valid criticism o f Schutz's p hen om enology o f the social world. N evertheless, on e wonders whether it should be taken as a limitation o f the phenomenological approach as such. One need not begin with such "und erstand ing" as the basis o f society and consequently the problem o f "conflicts" can be taken up phenomenologically. If one keeps in mind the distinction b etw een "so c ie ty " and the "sc ien ce o f so c ie ty ", the "understanding relation" may be viewed as a prelude to the 132 KOSHY THARAKAN science o f society. It is o f course true that Schutz has em phasized "verstehen" as an experiential form o f reality rather than an epistemological or a methodological problem peculiar to the Social Sciences. Nevertheless, as Schutz points out, the experiential form o f reality as "...the common-sense knowledge o f everyday life is the unquestioned but always questionable background within which inquiry starts and within which alone it can be carried out." (emphasis added)5 Thus a p h en o m e n o lo g is t n eed n o t restrict h im se lf to the "understanding" that facilitates only co-operation and no conflicts. He can always question that understanding if need be. In other words, if H usserlian p h en om en o logy is a "phenom enology of respect", as Mohanty calls it, it need not be taken as rejecting conflicts. The phenom enology o f respect "... is methodologically committed to a respect for the given and to undertaking only such reflective analysis as is not repugnant to and is implied in the sense o f the given, or rather, in the given as a unity o f meaning. It does not judge but seeks to understand."6 Thus, if conflicts are the real characterization o f our relation with others, the phenom enology o f respect would be able to bring to the fore the sense o f such conflicts. Carr's main criticism of "the phenom enology o f respect" seems to be that in such an approach, "... the emphasis is on the sameness rather than the otherness o f the other."7 On the other hand, according to Carr, only by recognizing "the o th er" as an "o th er", as an antagonist, can we form a community. He says, "...only with an other who is recognized as an antagonist can I form a gen u in e com m unity by overcoming the antagonism in a common project. And this means surpassing the face-to-face relationship toward an action or experience whose proper subject is the we."8 In such a "we relation" there is no subject-object dichotomy. My relation with the other is one o f participation and not that o f a subject to an object. But in Schutz, Carr points out that, the relation is very much a subject-object relationship in which "...the object happens to be another subject..."9 Consciousness and Society 133 According to Carr, this is the outcome o f the doctrine o f intentionality, a concept that has influenced thinkers like Schutz and Merleau-Ponty who, even while abandoning transcendental phenomenology in favour o f an existential phenomenology, still attempt to build the science o f society, in which the other has to be an "object". Now, we may point out that Carr's worry is misplaced in the con tex t o f phen om enologica l philosophy o f social sciences. As a social scientific approach, it has to be definitely a science, and cannot remain contended with witnessing the ongoing flux o f social relations. It has to objectify its data, its phenomena, like any other science. But the advantage of a phenom enological approach precisely lies in that it does not reduce the "object" as a fact (Sachen) having its own reality, unconnected to the subject. The phenomenological perspective is to be distinguished from the objectivist's attitude in the naturalistic stance- an attitude exemplified par excellence in Positivism. The objectivist seems to forget that transcendental subjectivity which reveals the meaning of the relationships in the life-world is not subjectivity within the world. Thus, a proper phenom enological perspective attests to the claim that "...th e life-w orld d oes n ot co m p reh en d what its ach iev em en t is and w hat th is achievem ent makes possible.... [T]he com prehension o f structures and the understanding of constitution is not just a simple knowing o f intentional acts or experiences that runs along with such acts, but is something that can be disclosed only through a post-eventum regressive reflective analysis and with the aid of most diverse clues."10 What is important in the phenomenological approach is the "reflections" on the natural attitude and not what goes on in the natural attitude. In other words, the relationships in the life-world can be them atized only at the level o f reflection . Carr's own prescription to recognize the "o th er" as an "o th er" by "surpassing the face-to-face relationship toward an action or experience whose proper subject is we", seem to be deeply 134 KOSHY THARAKAN p h e n o m e n o lo g ica l and is in ag reem en t with the transcendental project o f phenom enology.11 In m aintaining that the doctrine o f in tentionality is designed to resolve the problems regarding the relation between hum an experience and nature, and therefore employing it to understand the social relations amounts to the misapplication o f the same, Carr seems to be holding a naive view o f social reality. If social relations are relations between persons, a "person" h im self or h erself is to be understood against the background o f the world and nature. Social scientific explanations cannot be reduced to the ones that pertain to individual's alone. As Husserl points out, "Nature" itself is, in phenom enology, brought under the intentional correlate o f the transcendental subjectivity. We may note here that "...transcendental consciousness and empirical consciousness are not two different domains, the latter an instance o f the former; but the two are the same. Transcendental consciousness is empirical consciousness, freed from its mundaneity, i.e., aware o f its own function as self-interpreting as well as meaning-giving, therefore as *Constituting both itself and its world."12 Thus, one fails to understand why Carr thinks that only Nature and not persons can be brought under the scope of intentional relations. Carr, however, is not alone in failing to grasp the relation between Nature and Society. Rather a long tradition o f sociology is guilty o f not integrating Nature and Society. As Murphy notes "... the theme o f the embeddedness o f social action in the process o f nature is still poorly integrated into mainstream sociology. The research on this theme has not yet influenced general sociological theory, which continues to proceed as if nature did not m atter."13This has the negative co n seq u en ce o f m anipulating N ature, which disturbs the delicate balance between man and Nature. Indra Munshi, an Indian sociologist, points out that one o f the important tasks o f sociologists is to take into account the dialectical relation between Nature and Society. This calls for a new understanding o f social reality that does not treat Consciousness and Society 135 social reality as an independent variable.14 Thus, we may argue that contrary to what Carr thinks of phenomenology, a proper phenom enological philosophy of social sciences can even address issues in the domain o f environmental philosophy and thereby enrich the concept o f "social reality" itself. There are phenom enologists who read the public relevance o f philosophy itself in terms of the potential o f phenom enology to understand the ecological crisis. Thus, drawing upon Arne Naess' "Deep Ecology", which claims that a new ecological understanding of the self naturally results in an ecological life-style, Melle notes that the crisis of our age consists in a crisis of purpose and values which can be overcome by phenomenological philosophy. He states that p h en o m en o lo g ica l approach being grou nd ed in intuitive evidence and reasoning will not be calculative and constructive, nor quantifying and converting. It will rather be intuitive, m editative and herm eneutical. M oreover, phen om enology being subject-oriented and ceaselessly engaged in the process o f self-exam ination, will not be objecdvisdc.15 Carr's co n ten tio n in cr itic iz in g the d octr in e o f intentionality as ill-equipped to understand the social reality consists in his belief that it is only with a "we relation", that is, o f the nature o f "participation", that one can forge a genuine community with the other. In other words, for Carr, since the intentional relation is an objectification, "the other" as an "object" for the intending subject, it prevents genuine understanding o f "the other" as a person. Consequently, he claims that only an understanding which is conceived as an ontological process can do justice to "the other". Such ontological understanding, one may argue, emanates from a primordial connection to the world and the other,-sgmd not the result o f intellectual reflection. It is the process o f dialogue that is carried out within a concrete engagement with "the other", a result o f "a fusion o f perspectives and h o r iz o n s". W hat is s ig n ifica n t to the o n to lo g ica l understanding is the claim that an intendonal strategy cannot 136 KOSHY THARAKAN yield an authentic understanding o f the other. However, Mohanty points out that such "...suspicion of method, and the idea that for a proper understanding, one should avoid an in ten tio n a lity w hich o b jectifie s the o th er ...a re unnecessary. It is perhaps true that an ontological relation, in a sense that is difficult to formulate, connects one to the other and that such an ontological relation is a condition necessary for the possibility o f understanding."16 However, M ohanty argues that ju st as o n e n eed n o t take methodological interpretation or intentional stance as the entire truth o f the "social relation", one should not also construe the "non-intentional" ontological openness as characterizing the entire truth o f the matter. M ohanty elaborates this point by taking the example o f understanding a text. To understand the text, "...one must install oneself in a non-intentional, ontological relation to it, which may be regarded a la Gadamer as a mutual dialogue. But this does not suffice for an understanding of the text, it only prepares a ground. For a correct understanding, one must learn the language, one must be able to interpret the text through philological-historical research..."17 It is inevitable, then, that one has to "objectify" to some extent what one wishes to understand. Such objectifications do not reduce "the other" completely to an object. There will definitely be some traces of subjectivity that cannot be objectified. Also, objectification is a two-way process in the context o f social reality. The other also objectifies me and about which I need not be worried so much. In fact, in a phenomenology of respect, a process o f such reciprocal understanding is carried out without "dehum anizing" the other. O n e may n o te h ere that Carr's su sp ic ion o f the p h en om enologica l project to understand social reality originates from his belief in the criticism o f the "philosophy o f subject" and the related questioning o f the reflexive philosophical method. Carr points out that som e thinkers criticize the phenomenological approach as they believe that it construes the relation between "Man and World" in terms Consciousness and Society 137 o f an instrumental reason. But Carr goes a step further in raising the problem whether phenomenology can talk about any social relation at all. One of the motives to suspect the credibility o f transcendental philosophy comes from the fact that the "...presuppositions under which the legislative ego can appear ...[is] traversed by "the a priori o f a counter law," by a condition o f "impossibility...."18 As Schurmann points out, the Heideggerian question of "being" is what leads to the suspicion o f a "...formal transgression at the very heart of transcendental legislation...."19According to Schurmann the nom othetical difference between transgression and leg isla tion can be understood in the fo llow ing three nom ontheses or positing of norms. The first nomothesis is that o f the "subject subjected". By prescribing what to be, the leg is la tio n im poses an order. Such ord erin g is transcendental "...if the source oflaws is sought in the subject as bestowing the traits o f objectivity on nature and the traits o f personality on itse lf."20 Thus, Kant's transcendental legislation attempts to order the experiences by way of positing norms. Now, in order to validate this transcendental legislation of norms, Kant has to answer to the question of "What is being?" Kant gives us two answers with respect to this question. The first, says Schurmann, is the "doctrinal" answer, as for Kant anything that is proved without a recourse to appearances, that is demonstrated a priori, is part o f a doctrine. Thus, Kant holds "being" as a category, one which synthesizes data into the unity o f objective experience. "As every other category, Dasein has objective validity only when it is gathered with the pure forms of intuition, time and space, and thereby constitutes whatever can becom e a phenom enon for us."21 Kant also gives us another answer elsewhere. Schurmann calls it the "subversive" concept o f being, where being is taken as givenness itself. Kant says: "Being is not a predicate, nor a determination o f anything." It is not a predicate, as it does not add any thought-content to our conceptions. Thus, being as the positing o f anything follows from the givenness. So, for Kant, "...without givenness KOSHY THARAKAN as its starting p o in t a ll k n ow led ge w ould rem ain impossible."22 Rant says: "That there is anything possible and yet nothing real is a contradiction since, if nothing existed, n o th in g th ink ab le w ould be g iv e n ."23 Thus, being as positedness follows from givenness o f ideal entities. In the critical philosophy o f Kant, this givenness is not to be taken as absolute givenness, but only as relative to our experience, as a relative positedness. Thus, the second notion o f being for Kant is that o f "g iven n ess" itself. As a prim ordial "givenness", it cannot be analyzed any further, but only be characterized negatively as "pre-cognitive". Now, the question is, if "givenness" is the prerequisite for any knowledge, then how is the "I" given, the existing "I"? In his Critique o f Pure Reason, Kant says: "T he 'I th in k ' expresses the act o f determ ining my existence."24 But, Schurmann points out that "my existence" cannot be a givenness to intellectual in tu itio n or to form al co n sc io u sn ess as it has to be determined by the "I think". At the same time the "existing I" cannot be a "transcendental I", nor can it be an "empirical I" as observed in our mental life, for such observations as self-experience require the inner observation to be conjoined to a pure concept o f understanding. But existence is not yet a category here, as Kant himself proclaims. Thus, "...the 'I think* is turned in to a p ro p o sitio n o f e x is ten c e , independently o f any recourse to categories.... [Kant] justifies that step by describing the existing I as 'indeterminately given', impossible to reify into a thinking thing."25 That is, the "I" as the source o f all determinations, as the logical sub ject o f all th in k in g ca n n o t its e lf be d eterm in ed categorically. This means that the "...subject thus shows itself to be broken. On the one hand, there is the determinative 'I think' that posits itself and unfolds into twelve categories, on the other, 'my ex is ten c e ' which stands in n eed o f determ ination ."26 Thus, here we see the transgression o f the legislation at its very core as "...the existing I shows that indeterm inacy and self-determ ination are two equally ind ispensable m om ents o f its b e in g ."27 This shows the Consciousness and Society 139 displacem ent o f the ''philosophy o f subject", as its main propeller- the "reflective ego", the "I think"-is incapable o f positing the "existing I" as determinate. According to Schurmann, this announces the death o f modernity, for the interest in legislation is only a consequence of modernity which places all that is within the power o f the subject, the reflexive power o f the "I think". The second nomothesis of "(Anti-) subjectivism" can be seen in Nietzsche. In it the break between thinking and being is co m p lete . "F ollow ing the strategy o f leg is la tio n - transgression, its new locus is that o f a break between thinking as making... and being as becoming,. "2* It is (anti-)subjectivism inasmuch as he hypothesizes with and against the subject. In Nietzsche, the subject is a non-systematic, irreducible multiplicity and as a "polymorphous" subject it turns against any o n e fic titio u s th in k in g I or on e tran scen d en ta l a p p ercep tio n . "N o lo n g er d en o tin g any su b ject as numerically one, the I ceases to be capable of instructing us about the legitimacy or illegitimacy of norms."29 However, the legislation occurs as an act o f dom ination .within a configuration o f forces as a work of will. In it then legislation becomes an act o f saying "I", it is a "will to power". In his criticism o f moral values, Nietzsche shows the identity o f legislation and transgression in two complimentary ways: as a "...willful imposition o f laws by one nomothetical type, and... as the sh ap in g o f power in to force in a form ation o f dom ination."30 O f these, only the first, the willful imposition o f laws is o f the subject. In the secon d , there is the displacement o f legislation from type to power and one may trace, says Schurmann, Ricoeur's "transcendentalism without a subject" to this displacement. 'T h e subject's self-positing thus dissolves in the will to power which is no on e's will, nor a type o f will. The counter-strategy revealed by the boundless drive for mastery over the earth marks the loss o f the subject as referent."31 It is so because there is the struggle o f power for determination as legislation can happen only if power follows the strategy adopted for the constellation o f forces. 140 KOSHY THARAKAN Again, legislation takes place only if power constitutes an ind eterm inate m om ent in every form ation . T hus, for Nietzsche, it is this struggle o f power which is the locus o f any legislation and transgression. But with this shift from subject to power, transcendentalism has to abandon its field, namely consciousness. The third nomothesis that Schurmann talks about is with reference to Heidegger, that o f the "subject de-centered". From Kant, who was the spokesm an o f m odernity , to Nietzsche, the harbinger o f late modernity, legislation finds itself taken away from the subject. But it is Heidegger who "...completes the move away from the subject. Phenomena are no longer in any way objects for the subject. It has ceased uttering the nomothetical "I" and claiming to position itself, be it ambiguously, at the centre o f the phenomenal field. It is de-centred."32 Like Nietzsche, Heidegger emphasizes the indeterm inate factor in determ ination as a process o f gathering phenom ena into certain constellations. In other words, what happens is not the unearthing o f a "structure"; the constellation is precisely the handiwork of "structuring". In order to em phasize "structuring" over "stru cture", H eidegger talks about "p resen cing ." In presencing, for ^Heidegger, there is concealm ent along with unconceal- ment. As Schuramann notes: "In H eidegger's use, epechein ("to halt" or "stop"...) addresses both the self-reservation or concealm ent in presencing and its historical orderings or stampings...."'3 Thus, Heidegger shows that "legislation" is an attempt at displacing the "oneness" of thinking and being by representational thinking, thinking as "re-presenting". As against legislation, Heidegger attempts to retrieve that identity o f thinking and being as one process, so that thinking merely manifests the modalities o f presence. This, Heidegger achieves through the conception o f being as time in such a way that the difference between a m ode o f beingness or presence and being or presencing constitutes the ontological difference or better, the temporal difference. Here what becomes originally legislative is the sudden epochs o f truth- Consciousness and Society 141 "alethia", the opening up of being as fundamental historical p osition s. It is these p osition s that justify any norm . Nevertheless, such an "...event o f presencing, or 'being', differs from every given order of presence; each fundamental position is therefore already transgressed, permeated with indeterminacy, as it establishes itself, Thus Schurmann argues that in spite o f the material de-centring o f the subject, there is a formal continuity from Kant to Heidegger, through Nietzsche which he characterizes as the "nomothetical difference between legislation and transgression" TM Now Schurmann claims that acknow-ledging this nom othetical difference has a significant m ethodological consequence for phenom eno- logy, namely that it cannot remain content with descriptions. "Merely to describe the phenom enal network, the "lifew orld", o f an age is to miss the factor o f transgression operative in it. In more sociological terms the rationality of d escr ip tio n am oun ts to ra tion aliz in g ex istin g social form ation s, leav ing th eir norm s and com m on sen se justifications u ntou ched ."16 This would leave the pheno- menological descriptions without any scope for a critique, even th ou gh such d escrip tion s w ould en ab le on e to concretize the abstract concepts by tracing them back to the life-world. But what is missing in such a descriptive endeavour is precisely those norms and justifications that condition the life-world. However, this lack o f space for critique is rectified, Schurmann points out, in radical phenom enology that problematizes the legitimation and transgression of norms. As he says: "Situating what is said, both in scientific and in ordinary language, in relation to the nom othetical difference makes phenom enology into something it could never be as long as it remained a discourse about consciousness and its acts: a tool for discursive in terven tion ."37By "discursive intervention", Schurmann means the critical act o f freeing the potential transgressions inscribed in the legislation by pointing out the displacements in the "topos" of our strategies that have led us to the site where we are. 142 > KOS3W THARAKAN Is it possible to adopt such a critical posture within the framework o f transcendental philosophy? Mohanty seems to affirm such a possibility. Transcendental philosophy for him, is something that lays bare the ways in which subjectivity constitutes objectivity. In order to be so, the subject has to reflect on its own operations. By "reflection" he means such "...m ethodical turning back o f consciousness on itself... [and] has to be distinguished, on the one hand, from that pre-reflective translucency or reflexivity which characterises all our conscious life... and on the other hand, from what passes by the name o f 'introspection' in older forms o f empirical psychology."38 Again, transcendental reflection, as against empirical reflection, is not an object-directed cogn itive affair. Rather, it "...aim s at ex p lica tin g the conditions o f the possibility o f any and every object-directed cognitive achievement which happens to be at hand."39 This transcendental reflection can be either noetic or noematic, depending on whether the reflection is on the noetic acts or on th eir n o em a tic co n ten ts . In tran scen d en ta l phenomenology, reflection begins with noematic reflection and proceeds to noetic reflection. The noematic reflection can be either phenom enological or critical. "Phenom eno- logical noematic reflection is interested in the 'constitution' o f noem ata in their correlative acts; a critical noem atic  reflection is interested in laying bare the conditions under which a noem a acquires 'validity', becomes 'true'- 'truth' and 'falsity' being possible predicates o f noemata...."40 Thus, we reiterate that transcendental p h en o m en o lo g y can appropriate the critical stance within its fold and may lead to what Schurmann characterizes as discursive intervention. With regard to the H eid eg g eria n cr itiq u e o f the metaphysics o f presence that projects a "metaphysics o f absence", Mohanty rightly observes that such a contrast is misleading. "If what is decisive is temporality with its integral horizon as contrasted with an exclusive concentration on the p resen t... one has to recall that the foundation o f such a conception o f temporality was laid first by Husserl within Consciousness and Society US the framework o f a philosophy of consciousness... and there was no reason why a philosophy of consciousness as such could not absorb them into itself."41 Thus, the principle o f "the interinvolvement o f disclosure and concealment", that is the possibility o f laying bare as also within itself a concealment, m ust be capable o f reso lv in g itse lf in the am bit o f transcendental phenomenology. In such a transcendental philosophy, the concept o f consciousness is construed as the m ost in c lu sive , w herein the d istin ction betw een the empirical and the transcendental itself tend to coalesce. A ccording to M ohanty, this is precisely the destiny o f transcendental philosophy. Another possible way to look at critical praxis is through the prism o f axiology. It is the axiological dimension of praxis that Mays stresses when he com m ends Paci's endeavour towards a phenom enological Marxism.42The phenom enologist 's concern with values is not to be understood merely as a "reflection" upon values. Rather, "...the discipline o f phenomenology, far from inhabiting solely the domain of strictly ep istem olog ical concerns, involves, no less, an axiological, and specifically an ethical vision... not merely a re flec tio n u pon 'v a lu es', con stru ed as a narrowly circumscribed species o f intentional object, but that every intentional objectis, in its own way, a value..."** Laycock points out that som e values are "ideals", such as transcendent in ten tio n a l ob jects and the W orld as the u ltim ately transcendent object as revealed by the phenom enological reduction is the locus o f absolute value. Thus, for him, the "...phenomenological reduction is...an ethically indispensable form o f praxis in which the otherwise concealed prereflective activity o f valuing, and in particular, intersubjective valuing, is revealed."44 According to Laycock, a "value" is the object o f "valuing." He points out that, for Husserl, the primordial instance o f valuing is a prereflective and prethem atic "interest." Interests are, so to say, a species o f valuing. Thus, for Husserl, intentional objects are "...values toward the realization o f which we may strive, and which, by degrees, 144 KOSHY THARAKAN we may ap p rox im ate , th ou gh n ever e ffe c tin g th eir exhaustive realization. Nothing, o f course, guarantees that our investigatory interest in a given transcendent object will be sustained. We can, at any moment, 'lose interest', thus turning away from this object toward another. Yet so long as the object remains o f interest to us, we strive to make it present through a potentially though never actually, infinite manifold of profiles."45 In other words, the transcendent object that is intentional, orients our efforts so as to realize these efforts in some degree o f success. It is in this vein that Paul Ricoeur remarks that "every attention reveals an 'I can' at the heart of the 'I think'".46 In other words, we may say that "practice" is em b ed d ed in "th o u g h t". P recisely th rou gh such intertwining o f consciousness and existence, a transcend- ental phenom enology can capture the social reality in the endeavour o f consciousness. NOTES I. Carr, David, "Alfred Schutz and the Project of Phenomenological Social Theory" in Phenomenology of the Cultural Disciplines, (Eds.), Daniel, Mano and Embree, Lester. '2 . Ibid., p. 324. 3. Ibid., p. 327. * 4. Ibid., p. 328 5. Schutz, Alfred, "Concept and Theory Formation in the Social Sciences" in Philosophy of Social Sciences: A Reader, (Eds.), Natanson, M aurice, p. 241. 6. Mohanty, J.N, "Husserl's Transcendental Phenomenology and Essen tialism" in The Possibility of Transcendental Philosophy, pp. 205206 . 7. Carr, David, op.cit, p. 331. 8. Ibid., pp. 331-332. 9. Ibid., p. 332. 10. Funke, Gerhard, "Phenomenology and History" in Phenomenology and the Social Sciences,Vol. II, (Ed.), Maurice Natanson, p.29. II. As Mohanty says, the introduction of the concepts of "life-world" has m odified in an im portant sense, H usserl's notion of transcendental subjectivity. The 'Life-world' stage of Husserlian Consciousness and Society 145 phenomenology has an enriched concept of the life of the subjectivity which is not negated even by the reductions and the consequent turn to the transcendental subjectivity. Here the important aspect to be noted is that the concept of life that Husserl talks about is still "...intentional, intersubjective and accomplishing of ideal objectivities. It consists not merely in the positioning, objectifying acts of consciousness, but also in the non-positional, anonymous, pre-objective, "operative" in ten tionalities constituting the sense of being "already given" that belongs to the perceptual world as perceived or what Formate und Iranszendenlale Logik calls the "aesthetic world". (Mohanty.J.N., "'Life-World' and 'A Priori' in Husserl's Later Thought" in The Possibility of Transcendental Philosophy, p. 109.) 12. Mohanty, J.N., "Husserl's Transcendental Phenomenology and Essentialism"in The Possibility of Transcendental Philosophy, p. 208. 13. Murphy, Raymond (1997), Sociology and Nature: Social Action in Context, Oxford: Westview Press, p. 19. Quoted in Indra Munshi, "'Environment' in Sociological Theory" in Sociological Bulletin, Vol. 49, No.2, September 2000, p.255. Nevertheless, in anthropo- logical literature, one finds many arguments after Levi-Strauss that holds "Nature" itself as a cultural construct. But the point that Murphy advances is that the mainstream sociological theorists who assume a sort of dualism between the "social" and the "Natural" misses an important feature of our times, namely the environmental concerns. 14. Of course, the Positivists do not treat social reality as an independent variable, but they go to the other extreme of reducing social reality to that of N ature which again is unwarranted. 15. Melle, Ullrich, "Philosophy and Ecological Crisis" in Phen-omenobgy of the Cultural Disciplines",{Eds.), Mano David and Lester Embree, p. 121. 16. Mohanty, J.N., "Understanding the Other" in The Self and its Other: Philosophical Essays, p. 123. 17. Ibid, p. 123. 18. Schurmann, Reiner, "Legislation-Transgression: Strategies and Counter-Strategies in the Transcendental Justification of Norms" in Phenomenology and the Human Sciences, (Eds.),J.N. Mohanty, p. 121. 19. Ibid., p. 123. 146 KOSHY THARAKAN 20. 'Ibid., p. 124. 21. Ibid., p. 125. 22. Ibid., p. 126. 23. Kant, Immanuel, "On the Sole Proof Basis for a Demonstration of God's Existence." Quoted in Schurmann, op.cil., p. 126. 24. Quoted in Schurmann, p. 127. 25. Ibid., p. 127. 26. Ibid., p. 128. 27. Ibid.,p. 129. 28. Ibid., pA M . 29. Ibid., p. 135. 30. Ibid., p. 137. 31. Ibid., pp. 140-141. 32. Ibid., p. 141. 33. Ibid., p. 142. 34. Ibid., p. 146. 35. Ibid. p. 147. 36. Ibid. 37. Ibid. 38. Mohanty, J.N., "On the Possibility of Transcendental Philosophy" in The Possibility of Transcendental Philosophy, p. xviii. 39. Ibid., p. xix. '40. Ibid. 41. Mohanty, J.N., "Consciousness and Existence: Remarks on the Relation between Husserl and Heidegger" in The Possibility of Transcendental Philosophy, p. 160. 42. Mays, Wolfe, "Phenomenology and Marxism " in Phenomenology and Philosophical Understanding, (Ed.), Edo Pivcevic, p. 247. 43. Laycock, Steven W., "Meaning and Ideals: Elements of an Husserlian Axiology"in AnalectaHusseriiana, Vol.XL, (Ed.), AnnaTeresa Tymieniecka, p. 179. 44. Ibid., p. 180. 45. Ibid., p. 185. 46. Ricoeur, Paul (1967), "Philosophy of Will and Action" in Phenomenology of Will and Action, (Eds.), Erwin W. Strauss and Richard Meredith, Pittsburgh, Duquesne University Press, p. 16, Quoted in Laycock, op.dt., p. 183.