www.argument-journal.eu Published online: 27.10.2014 ARGUMENT Vol. 4 (1/2014) pp. 43–54 The relevance of "givenness" for the Indian religious traditions Marcus SCHMÜCKER∗ ABSTRACT The paper focuses on comparing some of the main results of the European tradition of phenomenology of religion represented and further developed by Jean-Luc Marion. His views on the constitution of the "I" appear promising for a comparison when contrasted with the views on the same phenomenon in Indian religious traditions. Marion, whose rich work is mainly devoted to the philosophy of donation, discovered a new way that led him from the givenness of the object of knowledge/perception, to the understanding of self-givenness of the subject, to a new understanding of the experience of god. The author chooses as a start ing point the central question in Marion's work: the constitution of the "I" and the problem of whether it is able to constitute itself or whether something exists that constitutes the "I" beforehand without leaving the concept of subjectivity. For the Indian side, he offers examples for the way in which the constitution of the "I" takes place or not and what relevance a kind of givenness has in this context not only for a concept of the subject but also for the theistic ideas in Indian traditions. KEYWORDS Jean-Luc Marion; Indian philosophy; phenomenology of religion; continental philosophy; subjectivity; Advaita Vedānta ∗ Senior Scientist at the Institute for the Cultural and Intellectual History of Asia, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna. E-mail: Marcus.Schmuecker@oeaw.ac.at. 44 Marcus SCHMÜCKER I Gift-giving and its implications may be characterized in the following way: No act of giving is with out con sequence. It entails obligations and duties. The re cipient is requested to respond. Thus, on the one hand, giving means a kind of sharing, be cause only the one who possesses something can give some thing to another person who has not. On the other hand, the act of giving may also establish superiori ty, because one receives what one has not and runs in to debts or de pend ency. Such a kind of in equality may turn into hierarchy. The re lation caused by giving is cha racterized by two points: the giver and the receiver become closer through shar ing but by getting into debt a distance occurs. In fact, the re la tionship can be come dangerous by turning from hierar chy into violence. Now, facing India: The society of classical India relies on the exchange of gifts (dāna).1 Every member of the society is bound by the duty to give and to re ceive. In his famous essay on The gift: forms and functions of ex change in archaic societies,2 Marcel Mauss analyses the gift in terms of re ci pro city. For him giving, taking and reply ing are fundamental ac ti vi ties in which way archaic societies re pro duce themselves and their social relations are realized. The de cisive point Mauss develops in his famous essay consists in his statement that the gift cannot be unanswered. In many ca ses it be comes an instrument with which the other, if it is a human being, can be impaired or even kil led or if it is a god can be forced to act. The gift can become dan ger ous, impure or lead to agonal contro versy. At the end of the second chapter entitled Theory of the gift (Hindu classical period) (Mauss, 1966: 53–59), Mauss characterizes the ma te rialis tic aspect of the gift in the following words: The gift is thus something that must be given, that must be received and that is, at the same time, dangerous to accept. The gift itself con stitutes an ir revocable link es pecially when it is a gift of food. The re ci pient depends upon the temper of the donor, in fact each depends upon the other (Mauss, 1966: 58). For India Mauss' observations were be partly affirmed and partly cri ticized, because he interpreted the exchange of a gift on the back ground of re ci pro city and expresses his wonder about its absence. Therefore in the reception of Mauss' essay it was discussed if gift-giv ing presupposes reciprocity or not (e.g. Heesterman, 1985: 36–37). There could be several reasons for a change in understanding the reciprocity like impurity, which leads to the unacceptability of a gift, or the liberality produced by the at titudes of asceticism.3 In this context, a con1 For a detailed description and relevance of literature about dāna see Heim, 2004: 4–28. 2 Originally: Essay sur le don: forme et raison de l'échange dans les sociétés archaïque. L'Annee Sociologique 1923–1924. 3 For a further elaboration of the concept of reciprocity and its parallels with theories of greeting (abhivādanadharma) and return greeting (Michaels, 1997: 253–258); Michaels 45The relevance of "givenness" for the Indian religious traditions nection with a philosophical method like phe no meno lo gy may seem surprising at first. But in fact the tradition of French phi lo sophy, especially as represented by Jacques Derrida and Jean-Luc Marion, has discussed important conclusions of Marcel Mauss' fa mous essay (Derrida, 1992: 6–60; Marion, 2012: 71–118). Both Derrida and Marion approach the cul ture of ex change and gift by commenting on Mauss' re search results on gift, exchange and giving, and developing their own thoughts in con trast to Mauss.4 Nevertheless both thinkers have a different approach in their criticism which is found in their different view of the phenomenological method. While Derrida concludes from his criticism on Mauss5 that after the phenomenological reduction nothing is left and a "pure gift" does not exist, Marion understood the gift on the background of "givenness".6 In the following passages I will neither discuss the arguments of Derrida and Marion in detail, nor defend Mauss against their criti cism. I rather would like to ask, if their main philosophical concept de veloped in critical dispute with Mauss can also be applied to In dia.7 Concerning this question I mainly refer to Marion's pheno me no logy of "givenness". points to the development of a "liberal spirit" under the in fluence of asceticism, which loosen up the exchange of gifts; he writes: "The return gift to a dāna is thus left ungiven not because the gift contains the giver's defilement but because ascetic generosity is the fundamental desidera tum. Altruistic generosity [...] is an ascetic virtue (and in some cases meant spe ci fi cally for ascetics). In order to approximate the required motive of disinterested ness, the attitude of giver and receiver must be, as far as possible, not of this world" (Michaels, 1997: 260). 4 For a broader context of Derrida's reception of Mauss and other philosophers, see Giovannangeli, 1992: 265–271. 5 One of Derrida's main criticisms developed against Mauss is that a gift is never understood a s gift, but only seen in the context of ex change. There are several passages one can refer to in Derrida's essay Given time; cf. for instance Derrida, 1992: 13–14, 24ff. 6 A concise summary of the different views on gift of Derrida and Marion gives Dalferth; contrasting Derrida's concept of the complete negation with Marion's self-given givenness, he says: "«Reine Gabe» gibt es nur, indem man von allem ab sieht, was Gabe zur Gabe macht (dem Geber, dem Empfänger, dem Gabeobjekt). Was aber bleibt von ihr, wenn man alles negiert, von dem man reden müsste, wenn von Gabe die Rede sein soll? Nichts, meint Derrida und negiert die Gabe als Phänomen, während Marion kontert, dass ohne Gegebenes nichts negiert werden könnte, so dass genau das Umgekehrte gelten müsse: Alles phänomenal Gegebene ist als Sich-Geben Gabe" (Dalferth, 2005: 85). 7 A first (as far as I know) comparison of Derrida's thought on the impossibility of the gift with the Indian gift of fearlessness was done by Maria Hibbets; she also points out that Mauss concept of gift cannot explain the gift of fearlessness (abhayadāna), which can be brought nearer to Derrida's concept of gift. She writes: "That the gift of fearlessness is both demanding (to the point of being impossible) and unrewarded reminds one of work of another modern thinker, Jaques Derrida. In his recent reflections on the gift, Derrida has argued that the gift is an almost impossible ideal (Derrida, 1992: passim). He criticizes Mauss for not seeing any contradiction between the terms «gift» and «exchange». Derrida means by «gift» what anthropologists mean by «pure gift», that I, a purely disinterested, freely bestowed gift. Thus, Derrida's analysis leaves no room for blurring the lines between exchange and gift (Derrida, 1992: 37). For Derrida, once the gift enters the cycle of exchange by an obligation to recipro46 Marcus SCHMÜCKER If we take Marion's critique against Marcel Mauss seriously, it is not only neces sary to re con sider the gift, it is also important to look for additional ma terial. Seeing both Marion and Mauss in context raises the following question: can we ask about the Indian tra dition, if the gift not only has its place in the realm of exchange and reciprocity, but points to a gift that is diametrically opposed to it? If so, the gift and that which is connected with it in Indian tradition is not only seen against the background of exchange and reciprocity, but it can also exempli fy of what Marion tends to show: Giving in India can also be un der stood beyond reciprocity or economical exchange. Marion, who follows the classical phenomenological method of re duction, directs his criticism of Mauss' observations against three di men sions of the gift, that is the giver, the receiver and the gift itself (Marion, 2012: 83). Hence, the path leads from the giver to the one who receives the gift; if any exchange of gift takes place, the gift is im molated for exchange. Why does Marion try to save the gift from ex change? In the following a few remarks on Marion's concepts are made in order to clarify the background of his argumentation against Mauss. II In the second chapter of Etant donné [Being given], Marion extends his concept of "givenness" and exemplifies it in its relation to the role of the gift. Referring to Derrida's remarks on the gift, and contrasting his own view against Derrida, Marion goes a step further. He does not make a claim for the impossibility of the gift like Derrida, but tries to affirm it and to connect it with "given ness". The originality of Marion's access is a trans formation of the phe no me no logical method by which he elaborates the character of "givenness" of any reality. What Marion is interested in he de s cribes by the word phe no me na lity which he explains as something that presents itself on a spe cific pre supposition and thus becomes a phe no me non.8 For ex ample: some thing reveals itself not by means of human un der stand ing but as far as something can reveal itself by itself. The manner in which something is seen by the subject is dif ferent from the way in which some thing that is given appears by it self.9 cate, it ceases to be a gift and becomes just another kind of trade, distinguished from other economic transactions only by the extension of time for its return" (Hibbets, 1999: 454–455). 8 Marion stresses the phenomenological status of givenness in another essay: "My intention in this essay will only be to verify the strictly phenomenological status of givenness, and therefore to understand it as a mode of phenomenality and not as an ontic given - as a givenness (Gegebenheit), and not as a metaphysical and ontological foundation" (Marion, 2011: 20). 9 One of Marion's descriptions what happens on the side of the subject in case of apparition of something given is as follows: "as soon as apparition do minates appearing and revives it, the subjective spe cifications of appearance by this or that sense are no longer essentially important: whether I see, touch, feel, or hear it, it is always the thing that comes upon me each 47The relevance of "givenness" for the Indian religious traditions Marion points out what pre sup poses each phe no me non. Whatever can be seen or can be known is pre ceded by a dy na mism of self-giving. His phenomenological method is marked by the key terms, namely "reduction" and "given ness", when he connects both accord ing to his maxim: the more re duction, the more "givenness". He cha rac ter izes their mutual de pend ency in the fol low ing words: The reduction measures the level of givenness in each appearance so as to esta blish its right to appear or not. [...] nothing appears except by giving itself to and in the conscious I, but only what can give itself absolutely to consciousness al so suc ceeds in giving nothing less than what appears in person (Selbstgege ben heit). Once again, there is no givenness that does not pass through the filter of re duction; there is no reduction that does not work toward a givenness (Marion, 2012: 15). For him reduction means re moving the ob stacles which prevent some thing from self-manifestation. The privilege of appearing in its appearance is also named manifestation - manifestation of the thing starting from itself and as itself, privilege of rendering i t s e l f manifest, of making i t s e l f visible, of showing i t s e l f (Marion, 2012: 8). Thus, the term reduction helps to understand the difficulty of how to approach reality in a way that it can appear or become manifest by it self be fore it is objecti fied or viewed within a specific context. The context for the gift would be its exchange. Marion ex plains the act of giv ing oneself as a gift which is received and for which no gift in re turn can be claimed (Marion, 2012: 75ff.). He applies his method by successively bracket ing the giver, the receiver and the gift itself. Such an ap plication of the method of epoché liberates the gift from endless exchange, from ob jecti fication and from the danger of superiority, hierarchy, etc. Presupposing that "givenness" remains and can still occur after bracketing the giver, the receiver and the gift, and after having shown that within this relationship a gift can never take place, Marion summarizes: From now on, the three terms of the gift are practiced in terms of given ness only by submitting to the reduction. They become pertinent, with re gard to givenness, only to the degree that they are immanent according to the reduction. Showing itself is equivalent, once again, to giving i t s e l f (with out exchange). And reci procally, what gives i t s e l f without return or ex change arrives in the end at this unreserved abandon, the visibility of the phenomenon that gives i t s e l f (Marion, 2012: 116). Marion's thinking is also critical towards po si tions which pre sup pose a context in which something appears or can be derived (for example through a priori) time in person. And the fact that it comes upon me only in parts and in outline does not stop it from com ing to me in the very flesh of its apparition" (Marion, 2012: 8). 48 Marcus SCHMÜCKER from its being a phenomenon. He criticizes the subject's approach which may also anti cipate that which can give itself; in this case some thing cannot appear in the way it appears by itself. Marion's method of phe no me no logy al so in context with other religious traditions shows that the pheno me non always has a surplus which can never be sub lated by the in ten ti onal ity of a human being. For Marion the phenomenon of "givenness" throws the re ceiving subject into pas si vity or, as he puts it, in the dative case be cause some thing always is given t o a subject. We cannot change the way in which some thing gives itself; it does not mean that our process of understand ing is al ready predicted but the way something gives itself by it self cannot be influenced. Be fore I come back again to Marion's thoughts on "givenness", I will point to an example of the In dian tra dition, which refers to Marion's con nection bet ween "given ness" and gift and tries to point out that a gift is not only given by the intension of reciprocity but transcends any kind of material exchange. However is it possible to speak of a gift with out reciprocity? III There are many aspects of the re gulation of giving and of receiving which constitutes and affirms the identity of classes in Indian society. Here, one can differentiate between the receiver (pātra/prati graha), the giver (dātṛ), the ob ject which is given, how something is given (dāna vi dhi), and the result of the giv ing (dā na phala).10 The result is especially important for the believe in the continuity of life after death or who seek immortality. According to this view, one believes: whatever is given may come back in/for an other life. Or in other words, life is re gulated by the idea of retribution in another life. I will offer a few examples of how the gift is reflected on the basis of re ci procity and how the giver or the receiver are qualified.11 One relevant aspect of the gift is expressed when the relationship between the varṇas is described; the necessity to give and to accept is taught for instance in the Manusmṛti 1.88–90:12 To Brāhmaṇas he assigned teaching and studying (the Veda), sacrificing for their own benefit and for others, giving and accepting (of alms). The Kṣatriya he commanded to protect the people, to bestow gifts, to offer sacrifices, to study (the Veda), and to abstain from attaching himself to sensual pleasures. The Vaiśya to tend cattle, to bestow gifts, to offer sacrifices, to study (the Veda), to trade, to lend money, and to cultivate land.13 10 See Brekke, 1998: 290, with reference to the Jain tradition. 11 For a good overview of the development of dāna, see Thapar, 2000: 521ff. 12 For the following translations I quote Bühler, 1970. 13Manusmṛti 1.88–90: adhyāpanam adhyayanaṃ yajanaṃ yājanaṃ tathā / dānaṃ pratigra haṃ caiva brāhmaṇānām akalpayat //. prajānāṃ rakṣaṇaṃ dānam ijyādhyayanam eva ca 49The relevance of "givenness" for the Indian religious traditions Examples for the religious merit of the gift can be found in the se venth chapter of the Manusmṛti verse 84–86: The offering made through the mouth of a Brāhmaṇa, which is neither spilt, nor falls (on the ground), nor ever perishes, is far more excellent than Agnihotras. A gift to one who is not a Brāhmaṇa (yields) the ordinary (reward; a gift) to one who calls himself a Brāhmaṇa, a double (reward); a gift to a well-read Brāhmaṇa, a hundred-thousandfold (reward); (a gift) to one who knows the Veda and the Aṅgas (Vedapāraga, a reward) without end. For according to the particular qualities of the recipient and according to the faith (of the giver) a small or a great reward will be obtained for a gift in the next world.14 Prescriptions for the exchange of gifts cannot prevent the act of giv ing from failing. Thus, many examples, for instance if the gift is poisoned,15 show that giving, re ceiv ing or ac cepting under the con dition of exchange did not suc ceed, neither for the giver, nor for the re ceiver. Ex change does not always find a positive end, if it takes place under re ci pro city. At this place the criticism of Derrida and of Marion, even they differ in their views, seems to be justified. The gift cannot be seen a s a gift in itself, it is dissolved in ex change. Either the gi ver or the receiver has an ad vantage or a disadvantage and is affected adver sely. Ex change often lies com ple tely in the realm of economy and re ci pro city is in danger to be lost in im balance. The insight may occur that stability or certainty is ne ver guaranteed. A rest of in cer titude always remains as do the danger of in equality and the pos si bility of trans gres sion. Against such an experience of potential instability the development of asceti cism may be seen as one result. I do not want to give reasons for the sources of asceticism in India (around 600 BC) but in order to change the way we think about the function/meaning of the gift it is important: as ceti cism runs con trary to any reciprocity of exchange. The view on gift and giving get a new meaning in this con text. It is well-known that the Indian saṃnyāsin is a person who leaves so ciety to acquire im mor ta lity and is declared ritually as dead in the social world. The world of obligation, re lations, ritual acti vities ruled by the law of vedic dharma is for ever and irreversibly left; in this way every thing changes for the saṃnyāsin for whom the new situation becomes ma nifest and can be exemplified by a dif fer ent view on his body. Patrick Olivelle describes this chang ing view as / viṣayeṣv aprasaktiṃ ca kṣatriyasya samādiśat //. pa śū nāṃ rakṣaṇaṃ dānam ij yā dhya yanam eva ca / vaṇikpathaṃ kusīdaṃ ca vaiś yasya kṛṣim eva ca //. Sanskrit text is quoted according to Jolly, 1887. 14 Manusmṛti 7.84–86: samam abrāhmaṇe dānaṃ dviguṇaṃ brāhmaṇa bruve / sahasra guṇam ācārye anantaṃ vedapārage //. pātrasya hi viśeṣeṇa śraddadhānatayaiva ca alpaṃ vā ba hu vā pretya dānasyāvāpyate phalam //. 15 For cases of poison in the gift, see Heim, 2004: 58–64. 50 Marcus SCHMÜCKER the body's "dec on struc ti on".16 The saṃnyāsin dis tances himself from his own body and also from any earlier ideal of obtaining immortality, e.g. offspring. He does not only leave his social existence, the realm of exchange and reciprocity, and his phy sical body, but al so the tra ditional way of accepting food. He can ac cept food, but can not give food to any body. He completely breaks out of the circulation of food. It is not only the re nunciation of a worldly life, but the avoidance of any action caused by the physical bo dy. Ne ver the less, a relation to the world exists which is unaffected by the pe rishable body (now seen as a corpse) and uninfluenced by factors which before had formed the so cial life. He lives a new way of being which can be described by the change from fear to non-fear/ fear less ness (abhaya). But why it is necessary to be without fear? Fear, that is the na tural state of saṃsāric existence, causes birth, sickness, aging, and death in living beings.17 Fear is both: some thing from which beings should try to escape through religious ex er tion and some thing without which the very same exertion is not possible.18 Freedom from fear is an important aspect of re li gi ous realization in In dian tradition.19 The re noun cer who has left every social connection is alone. He de pends on nothing. He is without a se cond and this is a ne ces sary con di tion for his fearlessness. As such, he can be identified with a so-called brah man, who is often charac terized by the epithet "fear less ness" (abhaya). Fearlessness is com ple men ted by im mortality (amṛta). The sentence "He is the immortal, free from fear; he is brah man" (etad amṛ tam abhayam etad brahmeti) is repeated six times in the Chān dog ya-Upa niṣad.20 The im portant thing is that the renouncer in his state of being fear less, of his being im mortal and of being brahman, donates the gift of fear less ness (abhayadāna), which is again connected with the pre cept of non-violence (ahiṃsā), to all living beings.21 What is given by the renouncer exists be yond any reciprocal exchange of gifts. The giver does not give any "ma te rial" substance, i.e. some thing to be consumed; as brah man he gives himself in a way, or one could say: it is the brahman who gives itself. As the highest brahman he is indeed self-given, in de pendent, he reveals himself by himself and is in no way 16 See Olivelle, 1995: 190: "The ascetic deconstruction begins with the body itself. Far from being something intrinsically pure that is under constant threat of im pu rity, ascetic discourse presents the body as impure in its very essence, the source indeed of all pollution." 17 See Olivelle, 1995: 193: "The stability and security of a house is just as illusory as that of a body. A house represents all that is evil in social living: lust, sex, at tach ment, and prolongation of saṃsāric life. An ascetic has rejected it and freed him self from home." 18 For this and other aspects of fear (bhaya) see Brekke, 1999: 439–467. 19 For examples of freedom from fear (abhaya) in the Bṛhadārāṇyaka-Upaniṣad (like 4.2.4; 4.3.32–33; 4.4.25) see Geene, 2007: 61–70. 20 See Chāndogya-Upaniṣad 4.15.1; 8.3.4; 8.7.4; 8.8.3; 8.10.1; 8.11.1. 21 Heim indeed observes that it is difficult to classify the abhayadāna in the literature of Dharmaśāstra; see, for example, Heim, 2004: 122. 51The relevance of "givenness" for the Indian religious traditions objectifiable. The recipient of the donation of fear less ness (abhayadāna) receives more than he can give back. Never the less, this kind of donation is still am bi valent, since the saṃnyasin stands outside of the world (he is ri tually declared as dead), but it is also re le vant for the world which re ceives peace in this way - more than it is possible to return. If the renouncer stands outside of the reciprocity of the gift it is also clear that the meaning of brahman as one without a second (advaita) be comes a practical meaning. Without fear means without death, pain, rebirth - ev ery thing which could also be re lated to the dangerous exchange of a gift, or may be seen as a consequence of exchange. Being without fear also implies the con sequence of non-in jury (ahiṃ sā). Being without fear (abhaya) is realized in complete independence and free dom, which pro tects the renouncer eternally from any second per son that could en danger his life or force him into reciprocity; never the less, he is giv ing but not something ma terial which might bind him back to the world. Being without fear is possible, because the renouncer is com ple tely in dependent from anything else; no reason precedes the brahman as the finite reason and thus the human being can experience himself as self-given. Only through him, who is out of this world, can the world receive non-injury, i.e. peace or freedom. However, this is more than the world can give back.22 The idea that freedom from fear is an important as pect of the highest spi ritual at tainment is present in the Upaniṣads as well as in the Vedānta tradition taught by Śaṅkara. One example from the Taittirīya-Upaniṣad 2.7: For when a man finds within that invisible, incorporeal (anātmya), in distinct, and supportless essence, the fearless state on which to rest, then he becomes free from fear.23 Śaṅkara comments on this passage and explains the difference bet ween fear (bhaya) and non-fear (abhaya) by pointing out the need of a second or the absence of a second. For him it is impossible that fear arises by itself, thus the state of being alone means release from fear: If he is the one who is steadfast in his own being, then he sees nothing else, hears nothing else, knows nothing else; [this is the case] because fear arises from some body and by somebody; fear is impossible by itself for itself. Therefore, one is exclusively by one self the cause for fearlessness. If there are causes for fear, they will be completely known by brahman, who is without fear. And this [being without fear] would be impossible if brah man, who protects from fear, does not exist. At what time can the result of being without fear 22 For a later development of abhayadāna, especially for the king, who protects every living being and thus gives fearlesness, see Hibbets, 1999: 442: "The description of security as something that the ruler can offer indicates that fearlessness is not regarded as the natural human condition - it has to be supplied by the generosity of the righteous king." 23 Trans. Olivelle, 1998: 305. Taittirīya-Upaniṣad 2.7: yadā hy aiṣa etasminn adṛśye 'nātmye 'nirukte 'nilayane 'bhayaṃ pratiṣṭhitāṃ vin date. atha so 'bhayaṃ gato bhavati. 52 Marcus SCHMÜCKER be proved? [Answer: When he sees nobody else and no difference occurs in the self, then fearlessness arises; this is the mean ing of the passage of Taittirīya-Upaniṣad 2.7].24 Sureśvara, Śaṅkara's closest pupil, picks up the thought that fear (bhaya) is caused by duality and in contrast, fearlessness (abhaya) by the one brah man alone. Duality arises by ignorance (avidyā), which means dependency on a second and the existence of fear. Thus the state of release can only be a state of fearlessness. Sureśvara de s cribes the difference between ignorance and brahman, i.e. between fear and non-fear in the following verses, which comment partly on Śaṅkara's explanations: "Having [erraneously] imagined by ignorance the one real existing self as many fold, the one, who is ignorant, may attain fear, even he is by his own nature with out fear (466)." "Because one accepts by the word hi [in the quotation of Bṛhad āraṇ ya ka-Upa niṣad 1.4.2)] a second, which is the cause for fear, the Śruti has de clared at another place: "By a second indeed, fear [arises] (467)." "By which duality/secondness fear is caused, this comes into being by ignorance; if ignorance is burnt by the right knowledge of brahman, fear arises from nothing else (725)." "Fear does not rise from something else, when ignorance is removed by knowledge of the highest Self in the pure inward self (726)."25 Indeed, for the further development of the phi lo so phical tradition in particular, the Advaita Vedānta, the meaning of brahman as sva taḥ siddha, svayaṃprakāśa, svayaṃ jyoti, etc. always implicates the meaning of „being al ready self-existent/self-given/self-shining" without any dependence from something else. It is al ways some thing that happened or existed before any in itiative from the sub ject's si de can take place. The brahman cannot be alienated by any individual or sub jective ten den cy. Something that has exis ted earlier than me as a finite individual in its own saṃsāric existence. If one would like to go one step further it 24 Śaṅkara's TUBh [= Taittirīya-Upaniṣadbhāṣya] zu TU 2.7: atha tadā sa tasminn nānātvasya bha ya hetor avidyā kṛtasyādarśanād abhayaṃ gato bhavati. svarūpapratiṣṭho hy asau yadā bha vati, tadā nānyat paśyati, nānyac chṛṇoti, nānyad vidyatyādi. anyasya hy an yato bhayaṃ bha vati, nātmana evātmano bhayaṃ yuktam; tadmād ātmaivāt ma no'bhayakāraṇam. sarvato hi nirbhayā braḥ maṇā dṛśyante, satsu bhayahetuṣu; tac cāyuk tam asati bha ya trāṇe brahmaṇi. tasmāt te ṣām abhayadarśanād asti tad abha ya kā raṇaṃ brahmeti. kadā 'sāv abha yaṃ gato bhavati sā dhakaḥ? yadā nānyat paśyati, ātmani cān taraṃ bhe daṃ na ku ru te, tadābhayaṃ gato bha va tīty abhiprāyaḥ. 25 Sureśvara's TUBhV [= Taittirīya-Upaniṣad-Bhāṣya-Vārtika], Brahmavallī, Verse 456; 466– 467: nir bha yo 'pi svato 'vidvān ekaṃ santam anekadhā / prakalpyāvidyātmānaṃ tam eva bhayam āp nu yāt //. bhayahetor dvitīyasya hiśabdena parigrahāt / dvitīyād vai bha yaṃ hīti śrutir uc cairato 'nvaśāt //. And the same meaning 725–726: bhayahetor dva yaṃ yasmāt tac cāvidyāsamudbhavam / pluṣṭāyāṃ vidyayā tasyāṃ na kutaś cana bhīr bha vet //. paramātmadhiyaitasmin pratyagātmani kevale / nirastāyām avidyā yāṃ bha yaṃ nās ti kutaścana //. 53The relevance of "givenness" for the Indian religious traditions is in terest ing to see that the neuter brahman itself is un derstood in later tradition of the Advaita Vedānta as an experience (anu bhū ti/anu bhava), which appears im me diately but can in no way be acquired by any means of knowl edge. The concept of gift that is related to fear causing duality which is realized by the giver and the givee, finds its op po sition in the concept of the re nouncer who is not bound to any relationship based on duality; in contrast to the gift-giving relation the renouncer stands for the self-given ness of the neuter brahman. How can we bring this example closer to Marion's way of think ing? IV As we have said for his philosophical work, Marion's in ten tion is to show that the human being is "gifted"; and this means: What ever is done from the subjective side is already preceded by an answer to what was already given. In the same way one could say that the self-shin ing (sva yaṃprakāśa) brahman cannot be influenced in his self-giv ing; whatever is added belongs to the realm of ignorance (avidyā). Now, a comparison between Marion's study of given ness and the example of the Indian tradition, i.e. the renouncer who gives up any kind of relation, seems not in vain. Nevertheless, Marion's critical analysis of Mauss' research on the exchange of gifts ex emplifies in another way what Marion works with: the more reduction, the more "givenness". The more the giver, the receiver and the gift can be bracketed, the more the gift, which can still exist, may appear in its "given ness" or "givenness" appears as a gift. The more the saṃsāric existence is left, the more the human being is understood in the light of being given. Like Marion argues against Mauss and shows from his own philosophical viewpoint and method, an understanding of gift without exchange, in the same way the Indian tradition itself develops by abhayadāna an other or a new practice of giving and re ceiving. The aspect of fearlessness is not mentioned in Marion's work. In the Indian context not only the independence of the person who is free of any bondage plays an important role, but also the fact that as the more the renouncer becomes free from the reciprocal exchange of the gift the more he is without fear (abhaya); and this is exactly what he gives and which is only possible as "givenness". However, this seems like a paradox, be cause fearlessness (abhaya) is given without cause and without response to some thing which might be given before. 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