The material origin of numbers Gorgias Studies in the Ancient Near East 14 Series Editorial Board Ronald Wallenfels Paul Collins Aidan Dodson Alhena Gadotti Kay Kohlmeyer Adam Miglio Beate Pongratz-Leisten Seth Richardson This series publishes scholarly research focusing on the societies, material cultures, technologies, religions, and languages that emerged from Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Levant. Gorgias Studies in the Ancient Near East features studies with both humanistic and social scientific approaches. The material origin of numbers Insights from the archaeology of the Ancient Near East Karenleigh A. Overmann gp 2019 Gorgias Press LLC, 954 River Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA www.gorgiaspress.com Copyright © by Gorgias Press LLC2019 All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise without the prior written permission of Gorgias Press LLC. Printed in the United States of America 2019 ܛ 1 ISBN 978-1-4632-0743-4 Cover. Mathematical tablet (HS 201) from Nippur. It dates somewhere between the Ur III (2100–2000 BCE) and Early Old Babylonian (2000–1900 BCE) periods and is part of the Frau Professor Hilprecht Collection, University of Jena, Germany. The table is a list of reciprocals, an excellent example of the relational data transforming the concept of number. In 1935, Otto Neugebauer read the last line of the right column as 32 being the reciprocal of 112.5 ('32 igi 1,52,30', Mathematische Keilschrift-Texte, p. 10). The photo was produced by Manfred Krebernik and his assistant, and use of the image is courtesy of the Frau Professor Hilprecht Collection, University of Jena, Germany. A Cataloging-in-Publication Record is available from the Library of Congress. The material origin of numbers: Insights from the archaeology of the Ancient Near East Do not delete the following information about this document. Version 1.0 Document Template: Template book.dot. Document Word Count: 12772 Document Page Count: 323 To Bill: My first, my last, my always, and everything in between. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of Contents ................................................................................................................ v Figures and Tables ............................................................................................................. vii Figures ........................................................................................................................ vii Tables ......................................................................................................................... viii Conventions ......................................................................................................................... ix Timeline ....................................................................................................................... ix Abbreviations for museum designators.................................................................. ix Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. xi Chapter 1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 2. Numbers through a different lens ................................................................. 9 Cognition is extended and enactive ......................................................................... 9 Materiality has agency ............................................................................................... 14 Material signs are enactive ....................................................................................... 19 Numbers through a new lens .................................................................................. 24 Chapter 3. What's a number, really? ............................................................................... 25 An archaeology of number and a role for material forms .................................. 30 Two useful theoretical constructs .......................................................................... 32 Chapter 4. Assembling an elephant, one bit at a time .................................................. 43 Numerosity, the sense of quantity .......................................................................... 43 Language and numbers ............................................................................................ 46 Development and numbers ..................................................................................... 49 Categorization and abstraction ............................................................................... 53 Finger-counting and human neuroanatomy ......................................................... 56 Chapter 5. Behavioral traces ............................................................................................. 65 A caveat about the historic ethnographic literature............................................. 67 Peoples count the same way .................................................................................... 70 Questions we might ask at this point ..................................................................... 85 Chapter 6. Language in holistic context ......................................................................... 89 Lexical numbers ........................................................................................................ 93 Grammatical number ............................................................................................. 100 Ordinal numbers ..................................................................................................... 102 What to look for in the Mesopotamian languages, and why............................ 104 vi THE MATERIAL ORIGIN OF NUMBERS Chapter 7. Ancient languages and Mesopotamian numbers ..................................... 107 The ancient languages of Mesopotamia: Sumerian, Akkadian, and Elamite ..................................................................................................... 110 Evidence of numerical language from ancient writing ..................................... 112 Lexical numbers ...................................................................................................... 115 Grammatical number ............................................................................................. 121 Ordinal numbers ..................................................................................................... 123 Wrapping up the evidence of the ancient languages ......................................... 127 Chapter 8. Fingers and tallies ......................................................................................... 131 The why, how, and what of finger-counting ...................................................... 133 Everything you wanted to know about tallies .................................................... 140 Evidence of tallies in the Ancient Near East...................................................... 146 The context for evaluating artifacts for use as tallies ........................................ 152 Chapter 9. The Neolithic clay tokens ........................................................................... 157 Tokens and numerical meaning ............................................................................ 161 Issues in interpreting tokens as numerical counters .......................................... 164 Newly catalogued token finds and their analysis ............................................... 166 The complexity of tokens and token-based accounting ................................... 174 Chapter 10. Numerical notations and writing ............................................................. 179 From tokens to impressions .................................................................................. 180 From impressions to commodity labels .............................................................. 184 How early Mesopotamian writing became the cuneiform script .................... 187 The effects of writing on numbers ....................................................................... 196 More effects of writing on numbers .................................................................... 201 Chapter 11. The role of materiality in numerical concepts ....................................... 207 The sequence of material forms used for counting ........................................... 209 Other materially influenced change ..................................................................... 217 Distribution, independence, and other so-called abstract qualities ................... 221 Chapter 12. Concluding remarks and questions ......................................................... 229 Some answers to the questions posed ................................................................. 232 Directions for future research ............................................................................... 241 Appendix: Data tables ..................................................................................................... 245 Bibliography ...................................................................................................................... 257 Index .................................................................................................................................. 297 vii FIGURES AND TABLES FIGURES 3.1 Conceptual blending with a material anchor 4.1 Subitization and magnitude appreciation 4.2 The cortical homunculus 4.3 Topographical layout of the motor and somatosensory cortices 5.1 One-dimensional devices 5.2 Two-dimensional devices 6.1 Frequency of use for the lexical numbers one through twenty in American English 6.2 Distribution of 452 languages with analyzable number words 6.3 Distribution of 168 languages with lexical numbers and grammatical number 6.4 Ordinal frequency 7.1 Sumer, Akkad, and Elam in the 3rd millennium BCE 7.2 Lexical tablet with phonetic values for the Sumerian numbers two through ten 7.3 Sumerian lexical numbers 7.4 Sumerian ordinal frequency by writing state 7.5 Sumerian ordinal frequency by document type 8.1 Geographic distribution of the oldest sites with possible tallies 8.2 Worked bones from Kebara and Ha-Yonim, Israel 8.3 Worked bone from Ksar'Aqil, Lebanon 8.4 Worked bones from Jita, Lebanon and Ain el-Buhira, Jordan 8.5 Pace of technological invention, elaboration, and accumulation 9.1 Correspondences between plain tokens, numerical impressions, and cuneiform number signs 9.2 Clay bulla and early numerical impressions 9.3 Chronology of artifacts used in Mesopotamian accounting and mathematics 9.4 Types of tokens 9.5 Temporal distribution of tokens 9.6 Geographic distribution of early tokens 9.7 Temporal distribution of plain types used as numerical counters 9.8 The cuneiform sign ŠID 10.1 Magnitude ordering of numerical signs 10.2 Uruk V artifacts with higher-than-expected N14 repetition 10.3 Geographic distribution of numerical tablets assigned to the Uruk V period 10.4 Administrative tablet (W 6066,a) from the city of Uruk 10.5 Representational modes of signs in early writing 10.6 Chronology of signs viii THE MATERIAL ORIGIN OF NUMBERS 10.7 Feature recognition of physical and written objects 10.8 The development of literacy from writing 10.9 Mathematical tablet (Erm 14645) 10.10 Change in numerical and non-numerical signs 10.11 Change in numerical signs 11.1 Chronology of material artifacts used in Mesopotamian numbers 11.2 The elaboration of numbers TABLES 3.1 Russell's logical types 4.1 Categorical judgments 5.1 Number words in four Yuki dialects 6.1 Ordinal word frequency in American English, Mandarin Chinese, and Arabic 7.1 Sumerian ternal counting and eme-sal numbers 7.2 Akkadian lexical numbers 7.3 Grammatical number in Sumerian, Akkadian, Elamite, and English 7.4 Sumerian ordinal frequency by time period and document composition 8.1 Early tallies 9.1 Counting systems used with tokens 9.2 Tokens by country and site 10.1 Uruk V numerical tablets with exceeded bundling 11.1 Affordances and limitations of material artifacts used for Mesopotamian numbers 11.2 Chinese and English numbers 12.1 Cuneiform numbers 12.1 Comparison of numerical notations A.1 Pre-Uruk V (8500–3500 BCE) numerical impressions and tokens A.2 Uruk V (3500–3350 BCE) numerical impressions A.3 Newly catalogued tokens ix CONVENTIONS TIMELINE Late Upper Paleolithic 30 to 12 thousand years ago Epipaleolithic 12,000 years before present to 8300 BCE Neolithic 8300–4500 BCE Chalcolithic (Copper Age) 4500–3300 BCE Pre-Uruk V 8500–3500 BCE Uruk V 3500–3350 BCE Uruk IV 3350–3200 BCE Early Bronze Age 3300–2000 BCE Uruk III 3200–3000 BCE Jemdet Nasr (JN) 3200–3000 BCE Early Dynastic (ED) I/II 2900–2700 BCE Early Dynastic (ED) IIIa 2600–2500 BCE Early Dynastic (ED) IIIb 2500–2340 BCE Old Akkadian (OA) 2340–2200 BCE Lagaš II 2200–2100 BCE Ur III 2100–2000 BCE Early Old Babylonian 2000–1900 BCE Old Assyrian (Old Assyr.) 1950–1850 BCE Old Babylonian (OB) 1900–1600 BCE Middle Assyrian (MA) 1400–1000 BCE Neo-Assyrian (NA) 911–612 BCE Neo-Babylonian (NB) 626–539 BCE ABBREVIATIONS FOR MUSEUM DESIGNATORS A Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, Illinois, USA AO Louvre Museum, Paris, France Ashm Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, England CUNES Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA DV State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation IM Iraq Museum, Baghdad, Iraq JA National Museum of Syria, Raqqa, Syria JRL University of Manchester, England MS, MT, MW Private, anonymous collections in Europe x THE MATERIAL ORIGIN OF NUMBERS NIM National Museum, Tehran, Iran NMSDeZ National Museum of Syria, Der-ez-Zor, Syria NMSR National Museum of Syria, Raqqa, Syria OIM A Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, Illinois, USA Sb Louvre Museum, Paris, France T National Museum of Syria, Damascus, Syria UM University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA VA, VAT Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin, Germany W Artifact found at the ancient city of Uruk in Iraq xi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This undertaking would not have developed in the way it ultimately did without the massive investment of time, expertise, and encouragement by the scholars who have been my mentors, supervisors, professors, colleagues, influences, and friends, listed here in roughly chronological order: Joan Ray, Rex Welshon, Thomas Wynn, Frederick Coolidge, Chris Gosden, Andrea Bender, Steven Chrisomalis, Pierre Pica, Jerrold Cooper, and Robert Englund. Non-chronologically, as they require special thanks, are several individuals. Denise Schmandt-Besserat encouraged my interest in, and facilitating my access to, data on the Neolithic clay tokens, including her own extensive research. Jacob Dahl introduced me to Assyriology, taking me from the little I recalled from middle school-that Mesopotamia was the land between the Tigris and the Euphrates-to my present understanding. John MacGinnis and Tim Matney granted me complete access to their database of recent token finds from Ziyaret Tepe, generosity unparalleled among my experience with the many owners of such data. Two anonymous reviewers provided insight that helped me refine the thesis toward the present publication. Lambros Malafouris significantly influenced the direction of my thinking, while allowing me complete freedom to develop it as it made sense to me. Last and never least, Colin Renfrew gave me the single most useful piece of advice I received during my doctoral studies. I also thank the Clarendon Fund for the generous scholarship that supported my doctoral research at Oxford, and the European Union's Horizon 2020 Programme for the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions individual fellowship grant funding my current postdoctoral research at the University of Bergen. Finally, I could not have persisted in this endeavor without the unstinting love and support of my family: Bill, my husband and best friend of nearly four decades; my son Archie, near to finishing his six-year residency in orthopedic surgery; my daughter Barbara, newly reported to the Pentagon for a fellowship in Air Force medical administration; and my granddaughters Jaiyah and Siena, now 15 and 1. It is with keen and unending sorrow that I note the loss of our other son Will, Archie's twin, to a long and difficult battle with alcoholism in 2016. Having the escape of a thesis to finish, along with the kindness of the Keble College community in Oxford and our neighbors Robbie and Dana in Colorado, helped me endure an otherwise life-shattering tragedy. Karenleigh A. Overmann Department of Psychosocial Science University of Bergen, Norway May