'Give Me a Reason to Stay': An Examination of Multicultural Individuals' Ability and Willingness to Contribute to Culturally Diverse Teams Salma Raheem The London School of Economics and Political Science London, May 2018 The London School of Economics and Political Science 'Give Me a Reason to Stay': An Examination of Multicultural Individuals' Ability and Willingness to Contribute to Culturally Diverse Teams Salma Raheem A thesis submitted to the Department of Management of the London School of Economics and Political Science for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy London, May 2018. 2 Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the MPhil/PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work. The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without my prior written consent. I warrant that this authorisation does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. I declare that my thesis consists of 87, 521 words (including footnotes but excluding bibliography and appendices). 3 Abstract Multicultural individuals, because of their multiple identity affiliations, have access to different cultural knowledge sets. Studies have shown them to have greater cognitive and behavioural flexibility compared to monocultural individuals. They are often claimed to be uniquely positioned to contribute to culturally diverse teams because of their access to multiple cultural schemas. However, there are limited empirical studies, especially using field data, that have tested this assertion. Addressing this gap, this thesis uses a mixed methods approach, in the context of a multicultural healthcare organisation in Bahrain, to investigate how multicultural individuals can influence diverse teams' processes and performance. In the first study, perspective taking behaviour is hypothesised to be a key mediating mechanism by which multicultural individuals can impact diverse teams. Building off the category-elaboration framework, this study uses a longitudinal research design to test a conditional process model. Results highlight the importance of perspective taking as a key mediating mechanism and the moderating effect of organisational inclusive climate. Contrary to what is often theorised, multicultural individuals were not found to impact team dynamics. The second study uses a combination of qualitative methods and adopts an inductive approach to investigate the first-hand accounts of how multicultural individuals negotiate their everyday dynamics in diverse teams. This second study provides novel insights as to how a cultural learning orientation (not access to cultural schemas) becomes an integral part of a multicultural individual's identity and influences their ability and willingness to contribute to diverse teams. Analysis of multiculturals' experiences indicate the criticality of a learning organisational culture. As one of the key contributions of this thesis, I propose that future research on multiculturals' potential impact in organisations needs to consider not just their ability to contribute to organisations, but also the conditions under which they are willing to do so. 4 To Umma, Uppa, Sanaa and Zain and to my nieces and nephews 5 Acknowledgements They say it takes a village to raise a child. With a pinch of salt, I'd like to say it takes several communities of support to complete a PhD. My PhD journey has been a kind of roller coaster ride that came about during a very challenging time in my life. It provided an opportunity for me to learn about my own resilience and strength, develop amazing relationships and grow, both personally and professionally. For these lessons, relationships and opportunities, I am immensely grateful. I am first and foremost, grateful to God for the moments in life that have brought me to where I am now and for all the opportunities, challenges, love and support He has sent my way. I owe an immense amount of gratitude to my parents, Zubaida and C.H. Abdul Raheem, who have supported me like only parents can. All my life, they have always had my back and they continue to support my children and me. Time and time again, they have provided the most sacrifices and the best examples of character and conduct. This strong family support finds resonance with my brothers, Hisham and Aabid and their spouses, Safa and Sehla. Hisham and Aabid, I know you both want to go on your own PhD journeys. Thank you for support with mine and I wish you (and your partners) the best of luck with yours. My PhD journey would not have begun had it not been for Prof. John R. Schermerhorn, Jr. who taught me organisational behaviour during my MBA. Over the span of ten years and three continents, he continued to keep in touch, support my dream of pursing a PhD, support my application when I got the opportunity to enrol and has already informed that he's coming for my graduation. Over the duration of the PhD he has reached out to check on my progress, provide resources and advice whenever I asked and was constantly encouraging me to 6 take the next step to completion. He is the best kind of mentor one could hope to have. I would like to thank my supervisors, Prof. David Marsden and Dr. Emma Soane for their patience, guidance and support in the PhD. I also am extremely thankful for their compassion and patient understanding when I needed time to deal with health and personal issues. As David once reminded me: keep your "Eyes on the prize". I would also like to thank Prof. Naufel Vilcassim, Head of the Department and Prof. Amitav Chakravarti, the Doctoral Program Director, who have been extremely supportive in helping me through completion, especially near the latter stages of the PhD. The Department of Management has evolved during my time here, and I feel lucky that this allowed me to interact and work with wide range of faculty from the different research groups. I would first like to thank Dr. Hyun-Jung Lee, for supporting my enrolment in the PhD program and for being my first supervisor. I am also grateful to Dr. Chia-hui for always being accessible whenever I needed help with the quantitative aspects of the research. Prof. Jone Pearce's doctoral seminars were of immense help in understanding organisational theory and developing the structure of the thesis as were Prof. Jacqueline Coyle-Shapiro's classes and doctoral seminars. I thoroughly enjoyed being part of Dr. Heather Kappes team while teaching on her summer course as well as working with Dr. Tara Reich and Dr. Connson Locke as well Dr. Jonathan Booth and Dr. Uta Bindl over the years and I thank them for their friendship. I would like to thank Prof Om Narasimhan for his friendship and invaluable support and guidance in navigating the PhD journey. Imran Malik and Leo Beattie deserve very special mention. They are amazing resource persons for the PhD cohort and the backbone of administration of the PhD program. On a personal level, they have been the best of support one could ask for in this journey. Beyond the department, the LSE has a host of people who provide invaluable services and who often go about doing their work at exceptional levels, quietly 7 and without any fanfare. I want to place on record my deep appreciation for the professionalism and expertise in various capacities of many of these individuals who have helped me through these years. They include Dr. Sunil Kumar, Dr. Sarabajaya Kumar, Dr. Ohemaa Nkansa-Dwamena, Ms. Rose Harris and Dr. Claudine Provencher. I am especially grateful to my colleagues, Jonathan, Ceren, Elisa, Karin, and Katsu – amazing mentors and friendswithout whose many contributions this thesis would have been worse off. I thank you for the love and support. Beyond the LSE, I would like to thank Dr. Chris Stride from the University of Sheffield without whom the empirical studies in this thesis would not have come to fruition. I would also like to thank Prof. Amalendu for his guidance during admissions to the PhD program, continued friendship and the support of his team at Amrita Business School, Cochin, India during the data analysis stage. I owe immense gratitude to my childhood friend Lakshmi Varma, for all the love and encouragement and for willing to read anything I sent her. To Alia I am grateful for wise counsel and unfettered practical positivity. To Puja, Mohua and the BBM gang for the fun, laughter and quiet strengthall of which was much needed during this journey. I thank Dr. Sajna Abraham, for being a role model, for all the laughter, silly Hindi movies and firm kindness in encouraging me to completion and I thank her family for their love and support over the years. I am very grateful to God for Abdul and Mumtaz who give me a home away from home. I am extremely grateful to my flatmates, Akshaya, Faryal, Richa and Varini, for the sisterhood, home, food, and so much laughter and for putting up with all my drama in the last few months of the PhD. To my uncles, aunts and cousins, thank you for the love, confidence, prayers and encouragement. A special mention to my cousin and his wife, Dr. Sheriff and Dr. Ameena for hosting me while I was in Bahrain for data collection. To my children, I owe them immense gratitude for the sacrifices they have made while I spent time away to pursue my PhD. Although they have expressed nothing but pride in my pursuing my PhD, I hope they will forgive me for being a physically absent mother through their teens in India. It is with great pride that I 8 acknowledge that I am the first person in my family to pursue a PhD. However, I know that there are equally intelligent members amongst the youth in my family. At this juncture, I pass on the baton to the children in our extended family and especially to Sanaa, Zain, Yara, Ayra, Yazaan, Aiza and Zaaramay you surpass us all, insha'Allah. 9 Table of Contents Declaration.................................................................................2 Abstract...............................................................................................3 Acknowledgements .......................................................................5 List of Tables .............................................................................13 List of Figures ............................................................................16 Chapter 1: Introduction.....................................................................................18 1.1 General overview..................................................................................19 1.2 Clarifying key concepts.........................................................................24 1.3 Structure of the thesis............................................................................26 1.4 Summary...............................................................................................29 Chapter 2: Multicultural Individuals ...............................................................30 2.1 Chapter Overview ..............................................................................31 2.2 Aims of this Chapter...........................................................................31 2.3 Multicultural Individuals: Who are they?...........................................32 2.4 Earlier conceptualisations of multicultural individuals: the 'marginal man' vs the 'marginal space'..............................................................34 2.5 A critical review of current conceptualisations and measurements....37 2.5.1 Acculturation Perspective..................................................40 2.5.2 Identity Perspective............................................................43 2.5.3 Cognitive Perspective.........................................................45 2.5.4 Behavioural perspective.....................................................46 2.5.5 Other perspectives..............................................................47 i. Multicultural experience..............................................47 ii. Demographics..............................................................48 2.6 The conceptualisation of multicultural individuals in this study..........49 2.6.1. An inclusive and multidimensional conceptualisation.......49 2.7 Potential Benefits of multicultural team membersHow they make a difference..........................................................................................52 2.7.1 Why multicultural individuals are considered a potential source of benefits to diverse work contexts ......................53 i. Cultural knowledge and behavioural flexibility.........56 ii. Integrative complexity................................................54 2.8 Integrative complexity, multicultural experience and perspective taking................................................................................................57 2.9 Why organisational context matters for multicultural individuals...59 2.10 Chapter Summary.............................................................................61 Chapter 3: Multicultural Individuals and Diverse Team Dynamics: Model Development........................................................................................................63 3.1 Chapter Overview...................................................................................64 3.2 Aims of this Chapter...............................................................................65 3.3 Defining Diversity..................................................................................65 10 i. Perceived cognitive diversity..................................................68 3.4 The Diversity-Performance relationship ................................................69 3.4.1. Key performance variables................................................70 3.4.2. Social categorisation approach..........................................73 3.4.3. Value in diversity approach...............................................75 3.5 Unpacking the Underlying Assumptions in the Diversity-Performance Literature......................................................................................................78 3.6 The Categorization-Information Elaboration Model..............................86 3.6.1 The CEM framework and team performance.....................89 3.7 Information sharing, Cohesion, Conflict and Team Member Satisfaction.....................................................................................93 3.8 Perspective taking: mediating the diversity-information elaboration relationship...................................................................................................96 3.8.1 Perspective taking and information elaboration.................99 3.8.2 Multicultural individuals and perspective taking..............101 3.8.3 Perspective taking and intergroup biases..........................103 3.8.4 Perceived discrimination and perspective taking.............105 3.9 The Context of Organisational Climate for Inclusion..........................109 3.10 Table of Hypotheses and Hypothesised Process Model.....................115 3.11 Chapter Summary...............................................................................118 Chapter 4: Research Design and Methodology........................................120 4.1 Chapter Overview...............................................................................121 4.2 Aims of this Chapter...........................................................................121 4.3 Ontological and Epistemological Approaches.....................................122 4.3.1 The research paradigm........................................................122 4.3.2. Typology of Paradigms......................................................123 4.3.3 Critical Realism .................................................................123 4.3.4 Epistemological and methodological implications for the use of Critical Realism in this thesis................................................126 4.4 Reflexive review as a critical realist researcher...................................129 4.4.1 Personal identity.................................................................129 4.4.2 My personal motivations....................................................131 4.4.3 Professional experience .....................................................131 4.5 Research Setting ..................................................................................132 4.5.1 XYZ Hospital......................................................................133 4.5.2 The Kingdom of Bahrain....................................................136 4.6 Overall research resign.........................................................................139 4.6.1 Using a mixed methods approach.......................................139 4.6.2 Triangulation.......................................................................141 4.6.3 Timeline of the research process during field work...........142 4.7 Overview of quantitative study............................................................147 4.7.1 Rationale for the hypotheticodeductive approach............147 4.7.2 Data collection process.......................................................148 4.7.3 Ensuring quality of quantitative research: validity and reliability .....................................................................................148 4.8. Overview of qualitative study.............................................................149 4.8.1 Rationale for an inductive approach...................................149 11 4.8.2 Data collection process.......................................................150 4.8.3 Quality in qualitative research ...........................................151 4.9 Chapter Summary.................................................................................153 Chapter 5: A Longitudinal Study of Multicultural Individuals and Diverse Team Processes and Outcomes ..........................................................................154 5.1 Chapter Overview....................................................................................155 5.2 Aims of this Chapter................................................................................155 5.3 Methods....................................................................................................156 5.3.1 Design and Procedure ......................................................156 5.3.2 Participants ......................................................................162 5.3.3 Pilot survey......................................................................162 5.3.4 Measures Used.................................................................165 5.4 Results......................................................................................................176 5.4.1 Sample.............................................................................176 5.4.2 Descriptive statistics, correlations and scale reliabilities.............................................................................178 5.5 Data Analysis and Tests of Hypotheses...................................................180 5.5.1 Information elaboration, conflict, cohesion and Satisfaction............................................................................183 5.5.2 Perspective taking, information elaboration and inclusive climate...................................................................................184 5.5.3 Antecedent variables and perspective taking...................188 5.5.4 Hypothesised moderated mediation hypotheses..............189 i. Perceived discrimination and cohesion.....................192 ii. Perceived discrimination and satisfaction.................205 iii. Perceived discrimination and task conflict................213 iv. Perceived discrimination and process conflict..........217 v. Perceived discrimination and relationship conflict...223 5.6 Discussions and Key Contributions.........................................................230 5.6.1 Multicultural Individuals.....................................................231 5.6.2 Implications for diversity research......................................235 i. Perceived discrimination and cohesion...................235 ii. Perceived discrimination and satisfaction...............235 iii. Perceived discrimination and task conflict.............237 5.7 Chapter Summary....................................................................................239 Chapter 6: Multicultural Individuals' Experience of Diverse Team Dynamics............................................................................................................241 6.1 Chapter Overview....................................................................................242 6.2 Aims of this Chapter................................................................................243 6.3 Rationale for a Qualitative Approach......................................................243 6.4 The Cultural Context of the Study...........................................................244 6.4.1. Continued Support from Leadership................................245 6.4.2. Establishing Relationships of Trust with Participants.....246 6.4.3. Ensuring Accuracy of Information..................................246 6.5 Data Collection Strategies Employed to Ensure Quality of Data............248 12 6.5.1. Being Embedded in the Field...........................................250 6.5.2. Being a cultural insider....................................................252 6.5.3. Triangulation....................................................................253 6.6 Methods...................................................................................................257 6.6.1. Data collection techniques and process...........................257 6.6.2. Selection of Sample.........................................................258 6.6.3. Coding and analysis.........................................................260 6.7 Findings and Discussions........................................................................261 6.7.1 Being multicultural vs identifying as multicultural.......263 6.7.2 Results from thematic analysis......................................268 i. Theme1: Influence of Personal Background...................269 ii. Theme 2: Relationship with Team Members...................276 iii. Theme 3: Enabling and Disabling Environmental Factors..............................................................................289 6.8 A Framework for future research on Multicultural Individuals Impact on Diverse Team Dynamics..........................................................................296 6.9 Chapter Summary....................................................................................302 Chapter 7: Overall Discussion and Synthesis of Findings.............................305 7.1 Chapter Overview....................................................................................306 7.2 Summary of findings of each study.........................................................307 7.3 Overall significance and implications of findings...................................311 7.4 Practical implications...............................................................................313 7.5 Limitations...............................................................................................315 7.6 Future research.........................................................................................318 7.7 Conclusion...............................................................................................320 References ................................................................................................................321-348 Appendices Appendix 1 – Interview Protocols...................................................................................350 Appendix 2: Copy of email sent as formal introduction and description of the research............................................................................................................................353 Appendix 3: Full list of teams at XYZ Hospital with number of nationalities represented in each multicultural team................................................................................................354 Appendix 4: Survey instruments used at Time 1.............................................................355 Appendix 5: Scale for Organisational climate for inclusion (Nishii 2013) ....................374 Appendix 6: Additional Analysis....................................................................................376 13 List of Tables Chapter 2 Table 2.1: Definitions of Multiculturalism/Multicultural Individuals and Related Constructs..........................................................................................................................38 Chapter 3 Table 3.1: List of hypotheses addressed in this study......................................................115 Chapter 4 Table 4.1: Basic Beliefs of Alternate Inquiry Paradigms................................................124 Table 4.2: The Domains of Critical Realism...................................................................125 Table 4.3: Bahraini and Non-Bahrain workforce participation.......................................137 Table 4.4: Bahraini and Non-Bahrain population............................................................137 Table 4.5 Summary of studies: research aims, methods and analytical techniques........140 Chapter 5 Table 5.1: In-patient and Out-patient visitors per month (2015 and 2016) ....................158 Table 5.2: Summary of details of pilot survey sample of professionals based in the Middle East......................................................................................................................164 Table 5.3: Changes made to survey items after feedback from pilot study.....................165 Table 5.4 (Part 1): Summary of measures used in this study (antecedents, mediators and moderator) .......................................................................................................................166 Table 5.4 (Part 2): Summary of measures used in this study (outcome variables) .........167 Table 5.5: Multicultural Identity Index items......................................................172 Table 5.6: Descriptives, correlations and scale reliabilities.............................................179 Table 5.7: List of hypotheses between information elaboration and outcome variables...........................................................................................................................183 Table 5.8: Summary of results: information elaboration and outcomes variables..........183 Table 5.9: Model coefficients: perspective taking and information elaboration.............184 14 Table 5.10: Moderation effects of inclusive climate on the perspective taking – information elaboration relationship................................................................................186 Table 5.11: Model coefficients: perceived cognitive diversity and perspective taking...189 Table 5.12: Model coefficients: perceived discrimination and perspective taking.........189 Table 5.13: List of hypotheses: conditional indirect effects between perceived discrimination and outcome variables.............................................................................190 Table 5.14: Model Coefficients for conditional process model: perceived discrimination and cohesion................................................................................195 Table 5.15: Indirect and direct paths from perceived discrimination to information elaboration.......................................................................................................................199 Table 5.16 (A-C): Bootstrap confidence intervals for indirect effects, conditional indirect effects and moderated mediation.....................................................................................200 Table 5.17A: Direct and Indirect path effects from perceived discrimination and cohesion...........................................................................................................................202 Table 5.17B: Ratio of Direct and Indirect path effects from perceived discrimination and cohesion...........................................................................................................................203 Table 5.18: Model Coefficients for conditional process model: perceived discrimination and satisfaction............................................................................208 Table 5.19 (A-C): Bootstrap confidence intervals for indirect effects, conditional indirect effects and moderated mediation.....................................................................................209 Table 5.20A: Direct and Indirect path effects from perceived discrimination and satisfaction.......................................................................................................................211 Table 5.20B: Ratio of Direct and Indirect path effects from perceived discrimination and satisfaction.......................................................................................................................212 Table 5.21: Model Coefficients for conditional process model: perceived discrimination and task conflict...........................................................................214 Table 5.22 (A-C): Bootstrap confidence intervals for indirect effects, conditional indirect effects and moderated mediation.....................................................................................216 Table 5.23: Model Coefficients for conditional process model: perceived discrimination and process conflict.....................................................................218 15 Table 5.24 (A-C): Bootstrap confidence intervals for indirect effects, conditional indirect effects and moderated mediation.....................................................................................220 Table 5.25A: Direct and Indirect path effects from perceived discrimination and process conflict.............................................................................................................................221 Table 5.25B: Ratio of Direct and Indirect path effects from perceived discrimination and process conflict................................................................................................................222 Table 5.26 Model Coefficients for conditional process model: perceived discrimination and relationship conflict..............................................................225 Table 5.27 (A-C): Bootstrap confidence intervals for indirect effects, conditional indirect effects and moderated mediation.....................................................................................226 Table 5.28A: Direct and Indirect path effects from perceived discrimination and relationship conflict.........................................................................................................227 Table 5.28B: Ratio of Direct and Indirect path effects from perceived discrimination and relationship conflict.........................................................................................................227 Table 5.29: Summary results of hypotheses tests............................................................229 Table 5.30: Descriptives, correlations and scale reliabilities for unbalanced panel........234 Chapter 6 Table 6.1 List of Multicultural Individuals with a score of 4 or above on the MII.........259 Table 6.2A: Findings from Thematic Analysis Theme1: Influence of Personal Background...............................................................................................................270-271 Table 6.2B: Findings from Thematic Analysis Theme 2: Relationship with Team Members..........................................................................................................................279 Table 6.2C: Findings from Thematic Analysis Theme 3: Enabling and Disabling Environmental Factors.....................................................................................................291 16 List of Figures Chapter 3 Figure 3.1: The Category – Elaboration Model.................................................................89 Figure 3.2: Moderated Mediation Model.........................................................................118 Chapter 4 Figure 4.1: Bhaskar's model of the society/persona connection.....................................126 Figure 4.2 Map of Bahrain and the GCC.........................................................................136 Figure 4.3. A visual representation of a concurrent triangulation methods used in this research design.................................................................................................................141 Figure 4.4: Timeline of key events during fieldwork......................................................145 Chapter 5 Figure 5.1: Timeline of quantitative study.......................................................................159 Figure 5.2: Hypothesised Moderated Mediation Model..................................................181 Figure 5.3: Model 91 from Hayes (2018) .......................................................................182 Figure 5.4: Statistical diagram of interaction effect in hypothesis 7...............................185 Figure 5.5: The moderating effects of inclusive climate at +1, 0 & -1 /SD....................187 Figure 5.6 Hypothesised Path Diagram: perceived discrimination and cohesion...........193 Figure 5.7 Statistical Diagram: perceived discrimination and cohesion.........................193 Figure 5.8: Path diagram with results: perceived discrimination and cohesion..............194 Figure 5.9: Plot for the moderation effect of inclusive climate on information elaboration.......................................................................................................................197 Figure 5.10: Hypothesised Path Diagram: perceived discrimination and satisfaction....206 Figure 5.11: Statistical Diagram: perceived discrimination and satisfaction..................206 Figure 5.12: Path diagram with results: perceived discrimination and satisfaction........207 Figure 5.13: Hypothesised Path Diagram: perceived discrimination and task conflict.................................................................................................................213 Figure 5.14: Statistical Diagram: perceived discrimination and task conflict.................215 17 Figure 5.15: Path diagram with results: perceived discrimination and task conflict.......215 Figure 5.16: Hypothesised Path Diagram: perceived discrimination and process conflict.................................................................................................................217 Figure 5.17: Statistical Diagram: perceived discrimination and process conflict.................................................................................................................217 Figure 5.18: Path diagram with results: perceived discrimination and process conflict.............................................................................................................................219 Figure 5.19: Hypothesised Path Diagram: perceived discrimination and relationship conflict.............................................................................................................................223 Figure 5.20 Statistical Diagram: perceived discrimination and relationship conflict......224 Figure 5.21: Path diagram with results: perceived discrimination and relationship conflict.............................................................................................................................224 Chapter 6 Figure 6.1 Timeline for qualitative study........................................................................249 18 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 19 Chapter 1: Introduction "The increasing tendency towards seeing people in terms of one dominant 'identity' ('this is your duty as an American', 'you must commit these acts as a Muslim', or 'as a Chinese you should give priority to this national engagement') is not only an imposition of an external and arbitrary priority, but also the denial of an important liberty of a person who can decide on their respective loyalties to different groups (to all of which he or she belongs)." ― Amartya Sen, The Idea of Justice 1.1 General Overview Diversity is a way of lifein fact, it is life in the natural world. As our world becomes more interconnected, the reality that there are multiple ways of being which do not necessarily fit into preconceived categories or 'boxes' of identity, makes some individuals uncomfortable while others celebrate. Some thrive on the multiple worlds that make up their background, lifestyle choices, and mental makeup, while others struggle to reconcile the differences these multiple worlds and affiliations produce and while still others take comfort and refuge in a more homogenous, stable framework. For quite some time now, organisations and management scholarship have recognised that diversity of people, especially from an information processing perspective, brings diversity of views, ideas, knowledge, skills, expertise and perspectives and that this diversity is fertile ground for innovation, creativity and superior organisational performance (e.g. Cox and Blake, 1991; Vivian Hunt, Layton and Prince, 2015). However, extant research shows that the link between diversity and performance is not so straight-forward (e.g. Joshi, Liao and Roh, 2011; Stahl et al., 2010), and that many times diverse teams fail to deliver the expected benefits, resulting in diversity in teams being referred to as a 'doubleedged sword' (Milliken and Martins, 1996). This highlights the issue that the mere existence of different viewpoints or diverse knowledge within a team is in itself insufficient to reap the benefits of diversity. Instead, what is needed is a means by which the existence of this diverse knowledge is acknowledged, defined, shared and synthesized for greater team performance (van Knippenberg, 20 De Dreu and Homan, 2004). This requires the ability of team members to elicit, consider and evaluate multiple perspectives through effective communication, interpersonal skills and cognitive complexity before a team decides on a course of action to achieve their team goals. More recently, organisations and management literature recognise the specific value of intra-personal diversity (e.g. Fitzsimmons, Miska and Stahl, 2011; Doz, 2013). As the opening quote from Nobel laureate, Professor Amartya Sen indicates, there is an imperative to acknowledge the growing number of people who choose to belong to, and identify with more than one social group, instead of a single dominant identity. By being affiliated with more than one social group, these individuals may choose to be multicultural. In this regard, for organisations, the assumption that employees are usually monocultural, i.e. that they identify with only a single culture, must be taken with caution. Unlike monocultural individuals, multicultural individuals have knowledge of more than one societal culture, identify with more than one societal culture, and have internalised their associated cultural schema (Vora et al., 2017b). Cultural schemas are the set of knowledge, beliefs, values, habits, norms such as language use, cultural traditions, communication style and other domain-specific selfschemas associated to each culture (Markus, 1977; Markus and Kitayama, 1991). Previous research has demonstrated the ability of multicultural individuals to switch, known as cultural frame-switching (CFS), from one schema to another depending on the context (Hong et al., 2000; LaFromboise, Coleman and Gerton, 1993). Further, with access to internalized (different) sets of culture specific knowledge, multicultural individuals are able to spontaneously adjust their behaviour to what is appropriate to the cultural context they find themselves in (Hong and Khei, 2014). Additionally, in the process of psychologically engaging with another culture, they develop the ability to contrast the various schema between cultures, and both appreciate and question long-held beliefs, practices, and assumptions that characterize one culture to the next (Tadmor et al., 2012a; Tadmor, Tetlock and Peng, 2009). In this process, they develop the ability to 21 acknowledge multiple perspectives and choose between them, resulting in a greater cognitive flexibility (Tadmor, Galinsky and Maddux, 2012; Tadmor, Tetlock and Peng, 2009). This cognitive flexibility transcends cultural specific contexts and have a lasting impact on other domains (Benet-Martinez, Lee and Leu, 2006; Brannen and Thomas, 2010; Crisp and Turner, 2011; Tadmor, Galinsky and Maddux, 2012) including work domains (Tadmor, Tetlock and Peng, 2009). Thus, a multicultural identity gives these individuals access to multiple schemas, behavioural repertoires, and develops their cognitive flexibility. For these reasons, multicultural individuals are often posited to have the requisite abilities to help bridge the gap on the diversity-performance link by synergizing the several disconnected diverse attributes (i.e. different sets of knowledge, skills, ideas etc.) brought by team members in diverse work contexts, for superior performance (Brannen and Thomas, 2010; Fitzsimmons, Miska and Stahl, 2011; Fitzsimmons, Lee and Brannen, 2012; Hong, 2010; Pekerti et al., 2015). However, there are limited studies in the field which have tested this assertion in an organisational context. Most of the research on multicultural individuals is grounded in work done by psychologists who have focused on aspects such as identity formation and well-being during acculturation (e.g. LaFromboise, Coleman and Gerton, 1993; Benet-Martinez and Hong, 2014; van Oudenhoven and Benet-Martínez, 2015; Wei et al., 2010). Research in psychology has also looked at the development of cognitions (e.g. Hong et al., 2000; Benet-Martinez, Lee and Leu, 2006). Research conducted by international business scholars have studied multicultural individuals in relation to intercultural communication and effectiveness (e.g Lee, 2010). As much of the research has been done in the field of psychology, a substantial amount of the research on multicultural individuals has been conducted within laboratory environments (e.g. Brannon, Markus and Taylor, 2015; Saad et al., 2012; Leung et al., 2008) and in comparison to monocultural individuals (e.g. Fitzsimmons, Liao and Thomas, 2017) as opposed to organisational settings. In fact, the research on multicultural individuals within 22 organisational settings has largely been conceptual (Fitzsimmons, Miska and Stahl, 2011; Pekerti et al., 2015; Brannen and Thomas, 2010). There has been to date, very limited research which has empirically investigated the impact of multicultural individuals in organisational contexts, especially diverse work contexts. This thesis addresses this gap and investigates the synergistic effect of including multicultural individuals in diverse teams for improved co-operation and co-ordination leading to greater team member satisfaction, team cohesion and lower conflict. For this investigation, the thesis uses a mixed methods approach, with a quantitative study and a qualitative study based on field data collected from a healthcare organisation in the Middle East. The quantitative study builds on previous theorising from the literature on multicultural individuals and diversity and proposes that perspective taking would be a key mechanism for the elaboration and synergistic utilisation of task relevant information. In other words, given that multicultural individuals, compared to monocultural individuals, have access to multiple schemas and the cognitive flexibility to evaluate multiple competing perspectives, the quantitative study hypothesises that engaging in perspective taking behaviours would be a key mechanism by which these individuals enhance the sharing and utilisation of information between diverse people to support performance. The qualitative study in this thesis takes an inductive approach and uses grounded theory. It addresses the lack of research on how multicultural individuals negotiate their everyday dynamics within diverse contexts. It seeks to understand their lived experience and contribute to theory building on how multicultural individuals impact team processes and outcomes. The use of a mixed methods research approach provides multiple complementary perspectives in understanding how multicultural individuals impact diverse team processes and outcomes. Both studies equally, provide unique findings in order to advance our understanding of whether and how multicultural individuals, do in fact, contribute towards diverse team functioning. While the quantitative study takes a hypothetico-deductive approach and contributes to the study of multicultural individuals and their impact on diverse teams by examining whether multicultural individuals impact the processes of perspective taking and 23 information elaboration in diverse organisational contexts and how an inclusive organisational climate might influence these processes, the qualitative study contributes to the phenomenon under investigation by providing rich data and novel insights including the influence of multicultural individuals upbringing on workplace motivations and behaviours with respect to interpersonal team dynamics and the impact of diversity beliefs of leaders. As a result of the mixed methods approach, this investigation provides two critical insights into understanding this phenomenon; firstly, that unlike previously theorised, multicultural individuals' ability to contribute towards diverse teams does not arise primarily from their knowledge or access to multiple cultural schemas or from cognitive or behavioural repertoires. Instead, multicultural individuals demonstrate a dynamic passion to seek and learn about different cultures and ways of being which makes them open to new ways of thinking and important members in diverse teams, for creating a culture of inclusiveness. Thus, this cultural learning orientation of multicultural individuals is indicative of the process by which these individuals contribute towards diverse team functioning. A second key insight that the mixed methods approach illuminated is the impact of the organisational context on the willingness of multicultural individuals to contribute towards diverse teams. The cultural learning orientation also highlights the critical importance of the organisational context as a culture of inclusiveness is essential for any form of cultural learning to occur. An integral part of what affects the context includes the negative impacts of perceived discrimination and the negative perceptions leaders had of the value of diversity both of which severely impacted multicultural individuals' willingness to contribute towards the organisation and even their willingness to stay in the organisation. Having established the context of this research, next in this introductory chapter, I will clarify a few terms used and provide a brief overview of the structure of the thesis. The overview of the structure includes the purpose of each chapter and how it fits into the overall thesis. 24 1.2 Clarification of terminology used in this thesis This study is centred around multicultural individuals, their interactions with colleagues, perceptions of these interpersonal dynamics and the outcomes of these interactions in culturally diverse teams. Given this focus, I provide some clarification of the terminology used in this study. To begin with, I differentiate between the use of the terms 'multicultural' and 'culturally diverse teams'. As discussed in detail in Chapter 2, multicultural individuals are individuals who have knowledge of, identify with and have internalised the cultural schema associated with more than one societal culture (Vora et al., 2017b). The terms 'multiculturals' and 'multicultural individuals' are used interchangeable in this thesis. A societal culture refers to the values, norms, preferences and other characteristics shared to some extent by members of a community (Caprar et al., 2015). Using the term societal culture in this way allows for dynamism in recognising a community's cultural influence in identity construction (Beech, 2010; Brunsma, Delgado and Rockquemore, 2013). Multicultural individuals may belong to several such communities, which have their own cultural norms, with different levels of saliency and abstraction. These could span continents or nations such as religious (e.g. Hinduism), regional (e.g. Arab) or sub-regional (e.g. Gulf Cooperation Council countries) cultures. They may also vary within a nation such as between ethnic groups (e.g. Caribbean and African cultures in the UK). It is to be noted that although the conceptualisation of multicultural individuals incorporates this dynamism in identity construction, the focus of this thesis is on the impact of multicultural individuals in diverse work contexts and thus the scope of the thesis does not include an investigation of identify configurations or development of multicultural individuals. The terms 'diverse teams' and 'diverse work context', are used interchangeably in this thesis to specifically refer to cultural diversity represented specifically by variety in national cultures. It is crucial to point out that the concept of 'diverse teams' does not refer to 'a variety' of teams. Indeed, the reference to diversity in the organisational context of the study is always with respect to the national diversity represented by the employees within teams in the organisation. Nationality of employees was determined based on the nationality stated on their 25 passports. To delineate situations where individuals may have dual citizenship or have changed citizenship, individuals were also asked to provide their 'country of origin' (also 'home country') during data collection. The diverse work context of the study is explained further in Chapter 4, while Chapters 5 and 6 include further details on the sample of employees who took part in this study. A second point to highlight is that the focus of this study is at the individual level. In other words, this is not a multilevel study as the phenomenon of interest is the impact of multicultural individuals in a diverse work context, and their lived experience of interpersonal dynamics in that context. The quantitative study measures individuals' perceptions of the interpersonal dynamics amongst their colleagues and team members, as well as individuals' perceptions of how they are performing as a team. Thus, references to team dynamics and outcomes, such as cohesion, are in relation to individual members perceptions of team members interactions and team performance, and not measures of team level phenomenon. Further details of variables used in the quantitative study are explained in Chapters 3 and 5. A third point to clarify is the use of the term 'longitudinal' in the quantitative study. The design of the study is longitudinal in that variables of interest are measured at three points in time. This is not to say the project is interested in examining change over time. Instead, the purpose of the longitudinal research design is twofold. Firstly, it incorporates theorising about the temporal nature of teamwork and interactions (e.g. Standifer et al., 2015; Harrison et al., 2002) such as perspective taking and information elaboration amongst other members of a team. This is discussed in length in Chapter 3. Secondly, the longitudinal research design helps to avoid common method variance as a result of predictor and criterion variables measured at the same point in time (Podsakoff et al., 2003) and is used for methodological rigour. 26 1.3 Structure of the thesis This thesis investigates how multicultural individuals can impact team processes and outcomes, by conducting two separate but complementary studies using field data from a healthcare organisation. This thesis describes this investigation and discusses the findings over the next six chapters. In Chapter 2, I examine the existing literature on multicultural individuals with three core aims. First, I critically review the literature on the conceptualisation and operationalisation of the construct of multicultural individuals with a view to introduce the theoretical foundation for the conceptualisation of the construct as used in this thesis. Second, I discuss the existing literature and theorise how perspective taking may be a key mechanism by which multicultural individuals impact team processes and outcomes. Lastly, I provide a rationale as to why context may make a critical difference to our understanding of how multicultural individuals contribute to team dynamics. In this way, Chapter 2 contributes to the overall thesis by setting the stage for identifying who multicultural individuals are, why they are important for diverse teams and how context may play an important role in research investigating how multicultural individuals can impact diverse teams. To understand how multicultural individuals' impact diverse team dynamics, it is necessary to examine what is already known about diverse work teams. In Chapter 3, I fulfil this objective and examine the extant literature on diversity and the diversity-performance relationship. I also critically examine the literature to provide a rational for using the category-elaboration model as a theoretical framework for understanding the phenomenon of how multicultural individuals may impact team processes and outcomes in diverse work contexts. Thus, Chapter 3 contributes to the thesis in three ways. One, s it provides the theoretical framework and discussion that underpin the development of the hypotheses and moderated mediation model of the quantitative study. Second, it presents the mediating role of perspective taking as key process to information elaboration, in both the contexts of the study of multicultural individuals and diversity. Third, it introduces the constructs of perceived cognitive diversity and perceived discrimination as factors that impact diverse team functioning, allowing for a 27 more wholistic understanding of the diversity-performance relationship and the role of multicultural individuals in this context. Chapter 4 describes the overall research design and methodology used in this thesis making four important contributions. First it introduces critical realism as the research paradigm for this project, including the ontological assumptions and the corresponding epistemological commitments which underpin the studies undertaken. Second, it addresses my position as a researcher, my interests and motivations in conducting this research. Third, it explains the context of the study, namely a multi-speciality hospital with a diverse workforce operating in historically multicultural societal context of Bahrain. The chapter explains the appropriateness of testing and studying this phenomenon in this context. Fourth, it explains the significance of the use of mixed methods in this study. Finally, the chapter provides an overview of the research methods used in both studies. Chapter 5 presents the quantitative study and its findings. This investigation is juxtaposed with the impact of perceived cognitive diversity and perceptions of discrimination given a culturally diverse work environment. Thus, allowing for a more wholistic understanding of the diversity-performance relationship and the role of multicultural individuals in this context. The primary data collection tool are surveys conducted at three points in time over a period of approximately forty days. To test the hypothesised model, conditional process analysis techniques are used in this study. The key contribution of this chapter is the testing of hypotheses showing support for the impact of perceived discrimination and a moderated mediation model in the context of diverse teams. Contrary to previous theorising, results did not show support for the impact of multicultural individuals on perspective taking, or information elaboration as mediating mechanisms that influence diverse team dynamics. Thus, results suggest that further research on multiculturals' potential impact needs to consider not just their ability to contribute to organisations, but also the conditions under which they are willing to do so. 28 Chapter 6 presents the qualitative study and its findings. It takes an inductive approach to understanding how multicultural individuals impact diverse teams and outcomes by examining their lived experience in these diverse contexts. This chapter provides rich data as it takes a deeper look into the interpersonal interactions, the impact of contextual elements of the organisation such as leadership attitudes towards diversity as well as the relevance of personal motivations and background of multicultural individuals in their willingness and ability to contribute towards diverse teams. Thus, this chapter complements and qualifies the results of the quantitative analysis of Chapter 5 by providing a much more holistic understanding of this phenomenon. The data collection took place through semi-structured in-depth interviews of multicultural individuals as well as participant observation, informant interviews and analysis of company documents. This chapter makes two key contributions to this thesis. First, findings indicate that multicultural individuals develop a 'cultural learning orientation' as a part of their approach to seeking novel cultural experiences and as a reason for interacting with cultural others. Second, this chapter contributes to theory development by providing a framework which addresses both the ability and willingness of multicultural individuals to contribute to diverse team dynamics. Chapter 7 synthesises the findings and draws conclusions. It ties together the findings of both the quantitative and qualitative study, discussing the complementary angles by which both studies inform our understanding of how multicultural individuals impact team dynamics, and under what conditions they are willing to contribute towards diverse team performance. By combining the findings of both studies, this chapter highlights how the organisational context plays a critical role in the willingness of multicultural individuals to contribute towards diverse teams. For example, while the quantitative study provided support for the detrimental effects of perceived discrimination in diverse work contexts, the qualitative study provided support for a complementary finding of how negative attitudes towards diversity from amongst team leaders and senior management contributed towards the feelings of discrimination and created a culture of resentment towards the organisation amongst multicultural individuals. 29 The chapter finally highlights both the contributions and the theoretical and practical implications of the thesis, proposing directions for future research. 1.4 Chapter summary In summary, this chapter introduced the research context and identified the gap in the literature that this thesis seeks to address. I have also clarified key terminology used in this thesis and provided a summary of each chapter, including their aims and contributions. 30 CHAPTER 2: MULTICULTURAL INDIVIDUALS 31 Chapter 2: Multicultural Individuals 2.1 Chapter Overview: This chapter outlines our current research on multicultural individuals and their potential to impact team processes. I begin in Section 2. 2 with outlining the three core aims of this chapter. In Section 2.3, I provide a brief introduction to the concept of multicultural individuals and in Section 2.4, I explain how the conceptualisation is rooted in early sociological work. In Section 2.5, I critically evaluate the current, varied conceptualisations of who is considered multicultural and the different methods used to operationalise these conceptualisations. I then build on this literature, to provide the rationale to my approach to the conceptualisation of multicultural individuals in this thesis. In section 2.7, I draw on previous studies which identify cognitive skills of multicultural individuals and in Section 2.8, explore how their inherent skills could positively impact diverse team processes and outcomes in the form of increased perspective taking and information sharing. In Section 2.9, I make the case from why organisational context is a critical component of this discussion and conclude with a summary of this chapter in Section 2.10. This sets the stage for Chapter 3 where I discuss key processes and outcomes in the functioning of diverse teams in multicultural organisations, and the hypotheses and model development of this thesis. 2.2 Aims of this Chapter The aims of this chapter are three-fold. First, to critically evaluate the diverse conceptualisations of multicultural individuals and operationalisations in order to provide the reader with a clear rationale for the conceptualisation used in this thesis. Second, to demonstrate why the mechanism of perspective taking may be critical to understanding how multicultural individuals may be able to impact team processes and outcomes, and lastly, to indicate how organisational context may be an important 32 component of studies of multicultural individuals and their potential for organisational outcomes. 2.3 Multicultural Individuals: Who are they? In management research, the study of multicultural organisations (e.g.s Cox & Blake 1991; Lauring & Selmer 2011; Gilbert & Ivancevich 2000; Cox 1991) and multicultural teams (Horwitz and Horwitz, 2007; Stahl et al., 2010; DiStefano and Maznevski, 2000; Ely and Thomas, 2001; Brett, Behfar and Kern, 2006) for organisational competitiveness and enhanced team performance are well-researched fields which continue to be of great relevance and importance, especially in a more globalised world. However, these studies often rely on the assumption that employees belong to homogenous social groups which can be furthered sub-grouped into a variety of categories for study, such as gender, ethnicity, race or, as in the case of cross-cultural research, as representative of national cultures (e.g. Gelfand, Erez and Aycan, 2007; Tsui, 2007). This assumption does not always hold for employees of today. With increasing exposure to a more globalised world, individuals today are exposed to multiple cultures, belief systems, groups of people and ways of life and thus, the assumption that employees are influenced by a single societal culture is rapidly becoming outdated. Further, with overseas work assignments, international relocation and settlement, inter-group marriages and long-term migration, exposure to multiple and/or different cultural environments is much more common for today's employees than in the past. For many youngsters, this exposure happens even from birth if parents are from different cultural backgrounds or live in foreign countries (Lyttle, Barker and Cornwell, 2011; Moore and Barker, 2012). There is research to suggest that even without physically leaving one's home country, multicultural influences proliferate in a highly interconnected world (Ferguson, Ferguson and Ferguson, 2017; Chen et al., 2016). 33 Irrespective of the manner in which the exposure to multicultural environments arises, the exposure to such multicultural environments have been found to impact the cognitive make up individuals and impact their behaviours (Lücke, Kostova and Roth, 2014; Maddux et al., 2014; Chen et al., 2016). During this exposure to different societal cultures, an individual may become multicultural. A multicultural individual is someone who has knowledge of more than one societal culture, identifies with them and has internalized the cultural schemas associated with each of the societal cultures. Cultural schemas are the sets of knowledge, beliefs, values, habits, norms which are domain-specific self-schemas associated to each culture (Markus and Kitayama, 1991; Markus, 1977). Thus, similar to diverse organisations and teams, individuals too may represent 'individualised diversity' and may not, in fact have a monocultural identity or cognitive framework. The concept of the "multicultural man" (Adler, 1977) is not entirely new and finds its origins in sociology (Park, 1928; Goldberg, 1941). Further work in this area is found in psychology in research related to acculturation, identity, and cognition, as well as research related to intercultural communication and effectiveness. However, the study of multicultural individuals and their behaviour and impact within organisational contexts is still in its nascent stages. Further, the management field lacks consensus on a common conceptualisation resulting in various operationalisations of the construct. A look at the earlier conceptualisations of multicultural individuals provide us with an understanding of how current conceptualisations in the management literature have been arrived at. This type of reflective enquiry into the origins of this topic is important as it informs us of the current diversity in conceptualisations and gives us a better understanding of how we study the impact of such individuals in organisational contexts in the research we conduct today. In the next section, I provide a brief overview of the early conceptualisations before I move on to a critical review of the existing conceptualisations and operationalisations. 34 2.4 Earlier conceptualisations of multicultural individuals: the 'marginal man' vs the 'marginal space' The conceptualisation of who is multicultural and how one becomes multicultural has been debated in the literature. The fields of sociology, psychology, international business, and research in areas such as acculturation, identity, intercultural competence, and cognition, to name a few, have conceptualised multicultural individuals differently. Most of this debate can be narrowed down to two primary schools of thought in early works from sociology. The first school of thought focused on the 'marginal man' while the second focused on the 'marginal space occupied by the marginal man.' Earlier work was based on the premise that individuals originally have a homogenous identity, and that the transition from a homogenous, single identity to a bicultural identity ( i.e. two cultural identities) , were wrapped in the notions of "state of twoness" or "double consciousness" (DuBois, 1903), "marginality" (Park 1928), and "crisis" (Stonequist, 1935). For these scholars, the assumption was that the two cultural groups were 'divergent' and that such individuals were caught in the situation of striving to reconcile the differences of their identity affiliations. As a result of attempting to reconcile "a divided loyalty," Park (1928) and Stonequist (1935) argued that such 'marginal individuals' found themselves in between two social groups, with a sense of belonging to neither. As a result, marginals would endure psychological conflict, continuous ambiguity, identity confusion, feelings of a 'divided self' and normlessness (Stonequist, 1935). To quote Stonequist (1935): "His racial status is continually called in question; naturally his attention is turned upon himself to an excessive degree: thus increased sensitiveness, selfconsciousness, and race-consciousness, an indefinable malaise, inferiority and various compensatory mechanisms, are common traits in the marginal person" (Stonequist, 1935, p.6) 35 Both Park (1928) and Stonequist (1935) based their arguments on the concept of double consciousness (DuBois, 1903). DuBois highlighted, specifically, the AfricanAmerican experience in the US context, when drawing on the issues of dual identity. DuBois (1903) referred to psychological toll in belonging to two social groups, one of which "was often "dominant" over the other" (DuBois, 1903, p.8). In their work, Park (1928), Stonequist (1935) and DuBois (1903) drew largely on the experiences of African-Americans, Jews, Anglo-Indians, and other Eurasians. Implicit in these discussions is the era of 'white superiority,' colonialism or a dominant culture which were racially or ethnically oppressive against minority groups. This gives rise to the nuanced influence of power of dominant cultures in accepting an individual of multiple/different social backgrounds. It also describes a loss of agency and access to opportunities for those who occupy these 'marginal' spaces because their dual identity. Given this context, it is not surprising that the discussion of marginals included aspects of dual identity conflicts, disjointed loyalties and difficulties in adjustment and acceptance. It is important to highlight this, as even though it is not expressly mentioned in acculturation-based conceptualisations of multicultural individuals, most of the acculturation literature is based on this imbalance of power between dominant and minority social identities and access to resources that comes from being a member of the dominant cultures. Unfortunately, this diminishes any chance of discussing if individuals exhibit any levels of agency in second culture acquisition and whether a multicultural individual might actually enjoy their unique position of belonging to more than one societal group. This also precluded discussions of whether an individual could affiliate with a third or fourth culture. Additionally, this approach to the literature does not differentiate between individuals who may be born into a multicultural household or grow up in multicultural environments and individuals who, at a later stage, in their life, live in multicultural contexts. 36 In contrast to discussions of Park (1928), Stonequist and DuBois, Goldberg (1941) and Green (1947) sought to qualify this approach and focused on the space that the 'marginal man' occupied in society. They advocated that being a member of more than one cultural group was not necessarily detrimental and in fact, there may be several advantages to this situation. Goldberg (1941) contended that the area where two cultures overlap is a culture in itself and belonging to this marginal culture allows for marginals to partake of the traits of both cultures. In fact, the marginal culture could even provide its members "security, adequate facilities for participation in group life, and the opportunity to express their own cultural interests" (Goldberg, 1941, p.58) without being disassociated from both the cultures. Both authors contended that, psychologically, cultural hybrids must perceive the marginal culture as necessary and from a sociological perspective, a desirable culture to be a part of (Green, 1947; Goldberg, 1941) in order to enjoy the security and benefits of this new culture. Park (1928) argued that although this process of 'reintegrating' was difficult, it allowed the 'marginal man' to become not just emancipated from the confines of one rigid, homogenous set of norms, beliefs or assumptions, but allowed these individuals to become "enlightened" (Park, 1928, p.888). According to Park (1928), this process of contrasting, comparing and reconfiguring ideas and age-old assumptions about how life should be lived, with another culture's assumptions, value systems and traditions, allowed for the possibility of innovation and progress for society. He concluded that "It is in the mind of the marginal man-where the changes and fusions of culture are going on-that we can best study the processes of civilization and of progress." (Park, 1928, p.893). This caveat of Park's (1928) is important, because unlike the presumption of conflict and negative associations related to a minority culture (which has limited acceptance by the majority culture and limited access to resources), the possibility of drawing from both cultural affiliations to produce innovative perspectives, new ideas and 37 norms, could lead to "progress for society" and be a unique position of strength for the multicultural individual. Thus, the 'marginal space' is not one of loss but gains to access an insightful view of the world and of being. Interestingly, much of the research related to intercultural communication, adjustment and effectiveness such as expatriate effectiveness, cross cultural competencies, global mindset and so on, tend to build on this school of thought in the conceptualisation of multicultural individuals and their value to organisations. Having discussed these two points of origin of the early conceptualisations and demonstrated how different bodies of literature drew from these two schools of thought, in the following section, I discuss and critique the current conceptualisations and operationalisation of multicultural individuals. This review and critique provides a theoretical rationale for the conceptualisation of the construct for this thesis. 2.5 A critical review of current conceptualisations and measurements Research on multicultural individuals is mostly found in the acculturation, identity, cognitions and intercultural effectiveness literature from the fields of psychology and international management. As the construct has been studied in different contexts, there is a diversity of conceptualisations and methods used to measure the construct. Table 2.1 demonstrates some of the variations found in the conceptualisations found in the literature. In this section, I provide critical review of what is currently used in the literature following with in Section 2.6, I provide the theoretical rationale for the conceptualisation used and measurement developed in this thesis. 38 Table 2.1: Definitions of Multiculturalism/Multicultural Individuals and Related Constructs Construct Conceptualization Definition Used By (References): Multiculturalism as the acculturation strategy of integration "biculturalism is one of four possible acculturating strategies, where acculturating individuals integrate the behaviors, values, and identities pertaining to each of their two cultures." (Nguyen & Benet-Martínez, 2013, p. 123) or "internaliz[e] the values of both groups" (Tadmor & Tetlock, 2006, p. 174) or "identify with both cultures" (Tadmor et al., 2012, p. 522) Nguyen & BenetMartínez, 2007, 2013; Guo et al., 2009; Matsunaga, Hecht, Elek & Ndiaye, 2010; Schwartz, Zamboanga, Rodriguez, & Wang, 2007; Tadmor & Tetlock, 2006; Tadmor et al., 2012 Multiculturalism as cognition "Multiculturals are individuals who have an understanding of more than one societal culture" (Lücke et al., 2014, p. 170) and this can be separated into "cognitive content and structure...content is what a person knows and structure is how this is accessed" (p. 172) Lücke et al.,2014 Multiculturalism as internalization "Internalized more than one culture" (Benet-Martínez & Haritatos, 2005, p. 1016) Benet-Martínez & Haritatos, 2005; Hong et al, 2000; Luna, Ringberg, & Peracchio, 2008; Ringberg et al., 2010; Bender & Ng, 2009 Multiculturalism as exposure + internalization "the experience of having been exposed to and having internalized two or more cultures" (BenetMartínez, 2012, p. 624) Benet-Martínez, 2012; Martin & Shao, 2016 Multiculturalism as immersion + internalization or integration "Bicultural individuals are those who have been fully immersed and have internalized or integrated two cultural frameworks" (Dau, 2016, p. 50) Dau, 2016 Multiculturalism as comfort in other cultures "Most generally, biculturalism represents comfort and proficiency with both one's heritage culture and the culture of the country or region in which one has settled" (Schwartz & Schwartz & Unger, 2010; Friedman & Liu, 2009 39 Unger, 2010, p. 26) OR "the ability to comfortably understand and use the norms, ways of thinking, and attitudes common within two cultural systems" (Friedman & Liu, 2009, p. 344) Multiculturalism as internalization + identification "Identify with two or more cultures and have internalized [the] associated cultural schemas" (Fitzsimmons, 2013, p. 525) Brannen & Thomas, 2010; Fitzsimmons, 2013; Lakshman, 2013 Multiculturalism as knowledge and identification "we define multiculturalism in this chapter as the acquisition and usage of multicultural knowledge and/or assimilation of multicultural identities within a single individual." (Hong & Khei, 2014, p.12) Hong & Khei, 2014 Multiculturalism as individuals influenced by other cultures "...biculturals, or individuals who have been equally influenced by an East Asian and Western cultural orientation..." (Lau-Gesk, 2003, p.301) Lau-Gesk, 2003 Multiculturalism as exposure + influenced by other cultures "...multiculturals, individuals who have been exposed to and influenced by two or more distinct cultures..." (Kramer et al., 2009, p.661) Kramer et al., 2009 Multiculturalism as different cultural backgrounds "Multiculturality...is a phenomenon in which individuals have different cultural backgrounds, which can encompass languages, nationalities, ethnicities, skin colours, and gender" (Zhang & Guttormsen, 2016, p. 234) Zhang & Guttormsen, 2016 Multiculturalism as knowledge, identification, internalisation and commitment "defining characteristics of the nCultural consist of being knowledgeable about the multiple cultures that the individual identifies with and that the individual has internalized as well as become committed to these cultural identities" (Pekerti et al., 2015, p. 10) Pekerti et al., 2015; Pekerti & Thomas, 2016 (as provided in Vora et al., 2017c) 40 The conceptualisations outlined in Table 2.1 draws from the acculturation, identity, cognitions and intercultural effectiveness literature from the fields of psychology and international management. I critically review the conceptualisation of multicultural individuals from each of these perspectives. 2.5.1 Acculturation Perspective Acculturation is perhaps the oldest perspective on phenomenon of individuals adopting a second culture (e.g.s Park 1928; Redfield et al. 1936). Acculturation refers to changes in an individual's 'cultural patterns' (i.e., practices, values, identities) that result from sustained, first hand intercultural contact (Ward and Geeraert, 2016). The traditional focus of this area of research has been on immigrants or those belonging to one cultural group (also referred to as home or heritage culture) as they attempt to integrate into a dominant, majority group (also referred to as host or mainstream culture)(Berry, 1997). Berry's typology of acculturation has been the most cited work in this area. Berry proposed four acculturation strategies: maintaining links with only one culture (separation and assimilation), with neither culture (marginalization), or with both cultures (integration). Integration was considered a form of biculturalism whereby individuals desire to participate in and maintain links with both their home and host cultures, integration occurs when "individuals integrate the behaviors, values, and identities pertaining to each of their two cultures" (Nguyen and BenetMartinez, 2013, p.13). Individuals who adopted any of the other three strategies were generally not considered multicultural. This research has explored minorities wellbeing and adjustment to a dominant culture (Nguyen and Benet-Martinez, 2013). In line with the focus on immigration, most of the acculturation research has been focused on biculturalism with the study of first and second generation migrants, such as Latinos and Asians to (predominantly) Western nations (see Nguyen & BenetMartinez 2013 for a review). Thus, scales in these studies are usually very specific to two distinct cultural groups and focus largely on cultural consumption, attitudes and preferences as proxy indicators of the level of embeddedness into the dominant and minority group. A classic example is (Szapocznik, Kurtines and Fernandez, 1980) work on HispanicAmericans. A sample item from work on is "How much do you 41 enjoy Hispanic T.V. programs?" (Szapocznik, Kurtines and Fernandez, 1980). Participants are measured on their "Americanism" and "Hispanicism" scores and their level of biculturalism was the difference of these two scores (Szapocznik, Kurtines and Fernandez, 1980, p.356). Those with scores of zero were considered bicultural while deviations were considered more monocultural (either 'more' American or Hispanic). While the acculturation perspective was an important means to understand the phenomenon of changes in one's cultural pattern in the past, the approach is now outdated and suffers from several drawbacks. To begin with, the approach is predicated on conceptualisations that draw from Park and Stonequist's work which identify the 'marginal man' as a person in 'crisis' and completely disregards the level of agency exercised by individuals who are open to and seek new cultural experiences and second or multiple cultural acquisition (e.g. "constructive marginality"; Bennett 1993;Gardner et al. 2004; Pekerti & Thomas 2016)), which may lead to the emergence of hybrid cultural identities (Kim, 2008, 2015; Martin and Shao, 2016) or that there are now societies where in which a single culture is not dominant over others such as the situation of superdiversity (van de Vijver et al., 2015). Much of this research is also based on the assumption of stress or conflict between an individuals' identity patterns such as home vs host or minority vs dominant identity patterns often termed as bicultural stress; Romero & Roberts (2003) or bicultural conflict; (Stroink & Lalonde 2009). It also ignores the possibility that multicultural individuals may actually enjoy having multiple identity configurations and see themselves in a position of strength as opposed to 'crisis'. Secondly, acculturation research related to multicultural identities have largely omitted the impact of context in multicultural identity development, although, as explained in Section 2.4, it is predicated in problems related to power differentials associated to particular identities in society, such as 'white superiority'. This has led two kinds of assumptions: the first being that the different cultures that a multicultural individual is affiliated to are somehow in conflict (e.g. home vs host 42 cultures) which has in turn has led to an overemphasis on issues such as 'bicultural stress' (e.g. Pina-Watson, Llamas and Stevens, 2015; Romero and Roberts, 2003) ; this leads to the second assumption, namely the overemphasis on 'integration' being the ideal form of response to second culture acquisition. As mentioned earlier in the discussion of the 'marginal man' (please see section 2.4), the assumption in the acculturation literature is that integration of identities is desirable to avoid psychological conflict and to enhance access to dominant cultural resources. This assumed negative impacts of 'living on the margins' of these two, seemingly incompatible, social groups or the challenges in amalgamating multiple identities (Rudmin, 2009, 2003). In turn, it has led to an overreliance on studies on bicultural individuals as the underlying assumption of a sequential process of exposure and acquiring a second culture and omits the possibility of multiple cultural exposure and acquisition. Further, using the foundation of Berry's (1997) integration strategy as a form of biculturalism, many researchers make the assumption that individuals with 'hyphenated' identities, such as second-generation migrants e.g. Chinese-Americans, or Arab-Americans are bicultural because of their second-generation status (e.g. Stroink and Lalonde, 2009). In other words, generational status is often conflated with multicultural identity in this field of research. In reality, in today's world, one may already live in a multicultural society, have parents from two different cultures or even have changes in one's cultural identity through remote acculturation (Ferguson, Ferguson and Ferguson, 2017). Lastly, there is an issue with this stream of research concerning the question of process versus state. Some scholars argue that "the use of acculturation as a basis for studying biculturalism confuses the processes of becoming bicultural with the way in which people experience or manage their bicultural identities" (Brannen & Thomas, 2010; p. 7). In this sense, identity formation is a dynamic process and reducing the process to an end state such as an "integrated" individual, omits the possibility that individuals are at various stages of second (or more) cultural acquisition. 43 Analysing these drawbacks, future management research on multicultural individuals will benefit from moving towards a more positive approach in terms of avoiding the assumption of conflict and accounting for individual agency in second cultural acquisition, as being interculturally competent is considered a highly desirable skill in todays globalised work context (e.g. Lloyd and Härtel, 2010; Bird et al., 2010). Additionally, the influence of context cannot be ignored when undertaking research on multicultural individuals. 2.5.2 Identity Perspective The identity perspective is the most common approach to the conceptualisation of multicultural individuals. Definitions often include the criterion that individuals must identify with more than one culture to be considered multicultural (Fitzsimmons, 2013; Vora et al., 2017b; Benet-Martinez and Hong, 2014). Further, the identity perspective has also garnered traction with research on bicultural identity integration (BII) (BenetMartínez and Haritatos, 2005) construct, which focuses on the degree to which multicultural individuals monthly integrate or separate their cultural identities. Similar to acculturation studies, measures used in the identity perspective ask participants to indicate their level of identification with host-home cultures (Lee, 2010) or to a particular identity group (e.g. "East-Asian Americans"; Chiou 2016). Some studies using the identity prospective directly ask respondents to identify whether they are multicultural individuals. These types of studies generally provide a definition of who was multicultural and then ask respondents to indicate whether they identify with the definition (e.g Fitzsimmons et al. 2017). An example is the definition used by Fitzsimmons and colleagues as follows: "You're multicultural if you have more than one cultural identity. A cultural identity is a culture that is so familiar to you that it becomes part of who you are. A culture can refer to a region or a country. For example, Chinese, Indian, and French-Canadian are all cultures. You can be a member of a culture even if you've never lived there, but it must be so deeply embedded in you that it 44 influences your values, your behaviors and the way you see the world." (Fitzsimmons, Liao and Thomas, 2017, p.72) Although this approach has benefit of being simple and straightforward, it suffers from certain critical drawbacks. The first issue, as evidenced in the vignette provided above, is that the respondent understanding of 'culture' is strongly influenced by the researcher's definition of the same. The definition of 'culture' used by the researcher could influence whether a participant opts to identify with being multicultural or not. For instance, in the above example a culture does not need to be defined by a geographic boundary such as "a region or country". Instead, other social group identities, such as a religious group have their own cultures and may be a strong part of an individuals' identity e.g. orthodox Christian Syrians, relative to an identity tied to a geographic region. If the identity measure, is dichotomous (i.e. participants identify as either being multicultural or not), these measures have a similar issue with acculturation measures that focus on state rather than dynamics of changing identities. In other words, identity configurations are a part of dynamic process especially for those considering a second cultural identity configuration. Lastly, these measures do not necessarily address whether participants actually have any knowledge of the cultures they claim to identify with. For example, a fourth or fifth generation Irish American may have Irish ancestry, and therefore identify as being part Irish, but they do not necessarily have internalised or even have knowledge of the values or norms of being Irish. In effect, there may be members of the sample identified as multicultural through the use of an identity conceptualisation, who are in fact, not multicultural. This is an important drawback in multicultural identity research as it has the potential to conflate the results of studies where only identity is used as a measure of multiculturalism and no other measure is used to any self-serving biases that may arise from asking participants to self-identify. Thus, although the identity conceptualisation is a straightforward approach which allows for respondents to exercise agency, the approach is subject to social desirability bias as well as self-report bias. 45 Critically reviewing the identity approach suggests that research on multicultural individuals needs to balance the dynamism in identify formation, reduce the potential for self-serving biases and be cognisant of pre-empting responses from participants through researcher-defined conceptualisations of multicultural identity configurations. 2.5.3 Cognitive Perspective Unlike the acculturation and identity perspective which focuses on 'the marginal man', the socio-cognitive perspective focuses on the 'the marginal space' that multicultural individuals occupy. In specific reference to black female employees, Bell (1990) states, "the bicultural experience is a source of empowerment: the resources coming from both cultural contexts affirm and nurture a black woman's inner resources, giving her a feeling of spiritual, emotional, and intellectual wholeness." (Bell 1990, p.464). The cognitive perspective considers that multicultural individuals have access to diverse bodies of cultural knowledge and their associated internalised cultural schemas i.e. a set of cultural values, beliefs, assumptions, norms, and expectations (Hong et al., 2000) or cultural self-concept, such as both independent and interdependent self-concepts (Yamada and Singelis, 1999) or a cultural meaning system (Lücke, Kostova and Roth, 2014). These cognitive cultural representations relate to language use or preference, daily living habits, cultural traditions, communication style, cultural identity/pride, perceived discrimination/prejudice, generational status, family socialization, and cultural knowledge, beliefs, and values (Zane and Mak, 2003). According to the cognitive perspective, this access to accurate, tacit knowledge, richer cultural understanding and ability to simultaneously maintain several cultural meaning systems is unique to this group of people and provides multicultural individuals an edge over others (Brannen and Thomas, 2010; Fitzsimmons, Miska and Stahl, 2011; Bell and Harrison, 1996; Hong, 2010; Dau, 2016). A key insight from this conceptualization is that the multiple mental representations of cultural systems, may be activated by contextual cues, referred to 46 as cultural frame switching (CFS; Hong et al. 2000; e.g.s. Cheng et al. 2006; BenetMartínez et al. 2002). Rooted in a strong theorizing and experimental studies, the cognitive perspective is a well-established method of understanding of the outcomes of multicultural individuals. However, field studies using a cognitive approach are rare as the strength of this field lies in experimental psychology where often participants are primed to activate one or more of their cultural schemas. Thus, understanding what the content of these schemas actually are and how they are used is rarely discussed in this field of research. Another area of concern is that this body of work does not take into consideration the existence of hybrid cultural schemas. For management scholars, there needs to be a greater understanding of how different cultural schemas impact cognition and what this means for multicultural individuals in the workplace. 2.5.4 Behavioural perspective The behavioural perspective builds on the view that the ability to function effectively through culturally appropriate behaviours and demonstrate behavioural flexibility in different cultures as an integral part of being multicultural (Hanek, Lee and Brannen, 2014; Yagi and Kleinberg, 2011; Lakshman, 2013; Nguyen and Benet-Martínez, 2007). For example, Dau,(2016) notes that multiple cultural affiliations allow biculturals to "have access to a more sizeable tool kit of actions, reactions, and perceptions than do monoculturals" (Dau, 2016, p.50). Some authors include bilingual skills as a part of being multicultural (Ringberg et al., 2010; Chao et al., 2007; Schwartz and Unger, 2010). LaFromboise et al. (1993) work on bicultural competence was an influential paper from this perspective. Bicultural competence includes the ability to function with a certain level of individuation and sense of self, an ability to analyse social cues as well as comfort with belief that one can live effectively with each identity affiliation (LaFromboise, Coleman and Gerton, 1993). Although intuitively appealing to conceptualise multiculturalism this way, most scholars recognize that behavioural skills are an outcome of the multicultural identity 47 rather than a necessary component of it (Hong, 2010; Brannen and Thomas, 2010; Bell and Harrison, 1996). Secondly, demonstrating culturally appropriate behaviour can be an outcome of adaption to an intercultural context (Molinsky, 2007, 2013) and not related to one's change in identity patterns or on account on internalizing any associated cultural schemas. Using this conceptualisation reduces and conflates individual-level multiculturalism to a set of intercultural skills and competencies, including cognitive skills such as a global mindset (e.g. Levy et al., 2007). 2.5.5 Other perspectives Two key other perspectives are used often in the conceptualisation of multicultural individuals. These broadly fall into two categories, namely multicultural individuals conceptualised as those individuals that multicultural experiences and secondly, the use of demographic data to define the construct of who is a multicultural individual. i. Multicultural experience. Conceptualisations based on multicultural experience typically assume that individuals are multicultural if they have had a certain level of cross-cultural experience or have lived abroad for a specific amount of time. For example, several choose respondents who have been in the host country for at least five years (Cheng, Sanchez-burks and Lee, 2008; Benet-Martinez, Lee and Leu, 2006; Mok et al., 2007). It is not clear as to why this period of time is specified. The assumption is that this length of time in a foreign environment would entail some level of immersion in the new culture. However, as a proxy it does not address the issue of whether respondents have knowledge of, internalised or identified with the new culture to be considered multicultural. Further, it conflates constructs such as expatriate adjustment and competence that arises from extended foreign experience with individual-level multiculturalism. In other words, cultural experiences alone do not make a person multicultural. A slightly different version of measuring multicultural experience is the Multicultural Experience Survey (MES; Leung & Chiu, 2010). It asks respondents about time spent 48 outside their home U.S. state, foreign language ability, and exposure to nonmainstream American culture. However, this is a stand-alone measure designed for one study of European Americans. ii. Demographics Another common proxy used for the conceptualisation of multicultural individuals is the use of demographic variables such as migrant status and geographic contexts. For example, some researchers contend that respondents from Hong Kong and Singapore are multicultural by virtue of the country's colonial history or current multicultural society (Cheng, Lee and Benet-Martinez, 2006; Hong, 2010; Chen, Benet-Martínez and Bond, 2008; Ng, 2010). Similarly, some authors suggest individuals that belong to a cultural group that differs from the mainstream society, or they have ancestry which is from more than one cultural group or have one parent from a different cultural from the mainstream culture, are multicultural (Collins, 2000; Yampolsky, Amiot and de la Sablonnière, 2013). This conceptualisation has the value of explicitly considering how contextbe it the society or the family unitcan shape one being multicultural, unlike all other conceptualisations. However, it strongly generalises that all members subject to the context react the same way and therefore, does not take into account how individuals exercise agency of their individual identity formation (Cederberg, 2014). In this section (i.e. Section 2.5), I summarised the historical origins of the conceptualisations of multiculturals individuals and critically reviewed the existing varied conceptualisations and operationalisations of the construct. In the review, I have elucidated the strengths and drawbacks of each conceptualisation. This lays the foundation for the next section in which I provide the rationale for the conceptualisation used in this thesis. 49 2.6 The conceptualisation of multicultural individuals in this study As critically reviewed and summarised in the previous section, there is a wide variety of conceptualisations and measurement approaches to the construct of multicultural individuals. Given this divergence, I use a more inclusive and multidimensional approach to the conceptualisation of a multicultural individual. In this section I define and describe this approach and provide a rationale for how it addresses the shortcomings of the previous approaches. Having then established the boundary conditions of the construct of multicultural individuals, in Section 2.7, I explore how multicultural individuals have the potential to impact organisations with respect to team dynamics. 6.7.3 An inclusive and multidimensional approach In this thesis, multicultural individuals are defined as those individuals who have knowledge of and identify with more than one societal culture and who have internalised the associated cultural schemas (Vora et al., 2017a). Hence, bicultural individuals, that is, those who have associated with only two cultures, are a sub-set of multicultural individuals. This multidimensional approach comprises of three key components, namely: knowledge, identification, internalisation. Individuals must demonstrate knowledge, identification and internalisation of more than one culture to be considered multicultural, as per this conceptualisation, although the degree to which they have knowledge of, identify with and internalise any one of the cultures they are affiliated with, can vary (Vora et al., 2017a). For example, a person may have varying levels of knowledge of several cultures, identify with a few at varying levels of intensity but internalise only two of them. Thus, the three components are independent but mutually reinforcing (Vora et al., 2017a). Knowledge refers to individuals' level of understanding about a culture's values, attitudes, norms, beliefs, and appropriate behaviours, including language (Vora et al., 2017c). This includes both tacit and explicit knowledge. Language is considered a carrier cultural systems and cultural knowledge and is a part of the multiculturalism 50 literature (LaFromboise, Coleman and Gerton, 1993; Liu et al., 2015; Chen, BenetMartínez and Bond, 2008). Identification refers to the extent to which individuals feel that they belong to a cultural group, choose to identify with the group, and take pride in their membership of the group (Vora et al., 2017a). Identification with the cultural group indicates that individuals assign value to the priorities and beliefs of the group and to conforming with the cultural group's expected behavioural norms. Internalisation refers to the extent to which individual accept and adopt the cultural values, beliefs, assumptions and practices as their own (Vora et al., 2017b). This set of cultural schema influences individuals' perceptions of the world, and their behaviours and reactions to it. In this sense, internalisation indicates how much a culture has become a part of an individual's mental representation of the world (Fitzsimmons, 2013; Tadmor et al., 2012a). This multidimensional approach builds on the existing strong theoretical foundations of the cognitive approach as well as the history of findings from the acculturation and identity literature. Using this multidimensional approach has several benefits over a unidimensional approach as it addresses the shortcomings of any singular approach and takes into consideration that in a globalised world, there may be multiple paths to becoming a multicultural individual. For example, unlike the previous assumptions in the literature, which assumed individuals are multicultural on the basis of the immigration status, number of years lived abroad or by virtue of living in a multicultural society, this conceptualisation expressly addressing whether individuals have knowledge of these multiple cultures and identify with them. The internalisation dimension further reinforces the idea that individuals must be motivated by this association in terms of their value systems and behaviours such that these cultural associations influence their world views and perspectives. Therefore, the multidimensional approach also precludes automatically assuming that those of 51 mixed heritage or having lived in a multicultural environment or even travelled and lived in several different communities are necessarily multicultural by virtue of birth or social context. Unlike the acculturation approach, the multidimensional concept is also inclusive in that it removes any a priori assumptions of conflict and stress between identity patterns allowing for flexibility in individuals identity patterns (Beech, 2010). This takes into consideration the dynamic nature of identity construction where the multicultural individual's identity can vary on a continuum. This dynamism allows us to move away from the identity approach of conceptualisation which either imposed a dichotomous view (monocultural vs multicultural) or imposed a researcher-led definition of multiculturalism on an individual's multicultural identity. In this way, the multidimensional approach allows for individual agency in the construction of a multicultural individual's identity including allowing for emergent hybrid identities. Lastly, the multidimensional approach does not conflate knowledge of and flexibility in culturally appropriate behaviours with multicultural identity. The multidimensional approach also refers to 'societal culture'. Societal culture refers to the values, norms, preferences and other characteristics shared to some extent by members of a community (Caprar et al., 2015). The use of nationality as a proxy for culture is a common research practice that has often been criticised in the study of culture (Caprar et al., 2015). Referring to societal culture as those practices shared within a community is thus an important departure from the use of nationality. Understanding cultural influences this way allows for different levels of abstraction and dynamism in identify construction (Beech, 2010; Brunsma, Delgado and Rockquemore, 2013). For example, societal cultural influences may span continents or nations such as religious (e.g. Islam), regional (e.g. Arab) or sub-regional (e.g. Gulf Cooperation Council countries) cultures; and vary within nations such as at the state level (e.g. New York vs Texas) or within a province such as with ethnic groups (e.g. the Tartars and Mongols of Xianjing province of China). 52 Thus, in using a multidimensional approach to the conceptualisation of multicultural individuals, this approach attempts to address the shortcomings of any singular approach while at the same time ensuring that it is inclusive in providing agency to individuals to self-identify and in addressing a more globalised context where there may be several ways to becoming multicultural. As per the multidimensional approach, individuals must satisfy all three components of knowledge, identification and internalisation of a societal culture and thus this approach builds on previous research on each of the other individual approaches to the conceptualisation of multicultural individuals. Lastly, the reference to a societal culture also allows for including several levels of cultural influence and identity construction. This section of chapter elaborated on the conceptualisation of multicultural individuals as a multidimensional approach incorporating components of knowledge, identity and internalisation of more than one societal culture, as necessary and mutually reinforcing components of a multicultural identity. Having provided clarity on who a multicultural individual is, in the next sections of this chapter, I proceed to describe how they may bring benefits to organisations by impacting team processes. 2.7 Potential Benefits of multicultural team membersHow they make a difference Previous sections in this chapter discussed the conceptualisations of multicultural individuals including, earlier conceptualisations which focused on the 'marginal space' occupied by multicultural individuals from which individuals may be able to draw on 'unique resources' (Dau, 2016). In this section, I build previous literature that suggests that there are several benefits to having multicultural individuals in the workplace, especially in diverse, intercultural contexts. In the context of diverse work environments, I propose that perspective-taking skills might be the key mechanism that allows for multicultural individuals to contribute towards desired organisational outcomes such as increased cohesion amongst team members, reduced conflict and greater satisfaction. I begin this discussion with a brief overview of why 53 multicultural individuals are posited to be important to important contributors. 2.7.1 Why multicultural individuals are considered a potential source of benefits to diverse work contexts In an increasingly diverse and complex globalized work environment, there are several intercultural competencies recognized in the international business literature that have been identified as essential for effective adaptation and performance (Lloyd and Härtel, 2010; Peltokorpi and Froese, 2012; Johnson, Lenartowicz and Apud, 2006; Stahl and Caligiuri, 2005; Pekerti, 2017; Shaffer et al., 2006; Caligiuri and Tarique, 2012; Leiba-O'Sullivan, 1999). For example, Scullion at colleagues (2010) identify cognitive complexity, cultural intelligence and an ability to balance seemingly incompatible demands as key skills sought after in managers in both international and domestic organizations. Inherent in almost all of these competencies are cultural knowledge, behavioural flexibility (Johnson, Lenartowicz and Apud, 2006) and integrative complexity (Tetlock, 1983; Levy et al., 2007). Research on multicultural individuals suggest that, by virtue of their multicultural identity, such individuals may possess all these three key attributes. i. Cultural knowledge and behavioural flexibility With respect cultural knowledge, as multicultural individuals have internalized more than one cultural schema providing them with the accessibility to these sets of culture specific knowledge (Hong and Khei, 2014; Hong, 2010). Bell & Harrison (1996) state with regard to bicultural individuals, "because of diversity in cultural backgrounds, value systems, and expectations, and especially the developmental processes that led to their acquisition, bicultural people already possess cognitive, affective, and behavioural repertoires that are useful for international assignments, repertoires that cannot be learned solely through short term cross-cultural training." (Bell & Harrison 1996, p.50). As multicultural individuals identify and internalise these bodies of knowledge, they have both tacit and explicit cultural knowledge (Thomas et al., 2015). Therefore, the depth of their knowledge is from in-depth first54 hand immersion and is unlike those with transitory immersion as an expatriate, sojourner or visitor to a country or as a person who is well read on a specific culture (Lücke, Kostova and Roth, 2014). On a similar vein, access to these culture-specific bodies of tacit knowledge allows multicultural individuals to adjust their behaviour to what is appropriate to the cultural context they find themselves in (Hong and Khei, 2014; Hong, 2010; BenetMartinez, Lee and Leu, 2006; Friedman and Liu, 2009). Research also shown that multicultural individuals show greater behavioural competence in adapting to foreign environments compared to monocultural individuals (Nguyen and BenetMartinez, 2013). ii. Integrative complexity In the process of psychologically engaging with another culture, multicultural individuals develop the ability to contrast the various schema between cultures and both appreciate and question long-held beliefs, practices, and assumptions that characterize one culture to the next (Tadmor et al., 2012a; Tadmor, Tetlock and Peng, 2009). They also demonstrate the cognitive ability to culturally shift their frames of reference, known as cultural frame switching (CFS), between their different schemas, based on context (Benet-Martínez et al., 2002; Hong et al., 2000). Thus, compared to monoculturals, over time, through the process of evaluating different perspectives, switching between them and resolving any inconsistencies, multicultural individuals develop greater cognitive flexibility which transcends cultural specific contexts and have a lasting impact on other domains (Benet-Martinez, Lee and Leu, 2006; Brannen and Thomas, 2010; Crisp and Turner, 2011; Tadmor, Galinsky and Maddux, 2012) including that of work domains (Tadmor, Tetlock and Peng, 2009). A key cognitive development of this process during second-culture acquisition is 'integrative complexity' (Benet-Martinez, Lee and Leu, 2006; Tadmor, Tetlock and Peng, 2009; Tadmor, Galinsky and Maddux, 2012). Defined as the willingness and capacity to acknowledge the legitimacy of competing perspectives on the same issue 55 (differentiation) and integrate conceptual links among these perspectives (integration; Suedfeld and Bluck, 1993), integrative complexity is a dimension of information processing. When individuals are exposed to and actively engage in multiple cultures (i.e. internalise the resulting new cultural schemas), individuals develop the ability to contrast the various schema between cultures and both appreciate and question longheld beliefs, practices, and assumptions that characterize one culture to the next (Tadmor, Satterstrom, et al. 2012; Tadmor et al. 2009) resulting in transformation of their basic cognitive processing abilities (Benet-Martinez et al. 2006; Crisp & Turner 2011; Maddux et al. 2014; Tadmor, Hong, et al. 2012; Leung & Chiu 2010). Previous work by Tadmor (2012a), Leung (2010) and colleagues have shown the positive relationship between multicultural exposure and engagement to receptiveness to ideas from foreign cultures and developing creative, unconventional or novel ideas, i.e. outcomes that result from a process of considering and synthesizing diverse perspectives (Leung & Chiu 2010; Tadmor, Hong, et al. 2012; Tadmor, Galinsky, et al. 2012). Further, Tadmor, Galinsky and Maddux (2012) find that individuals who choose integration of cultural identities (as an acculturation strategy) compared to those who chose one identity over another (assimilation, separation acculturation strategies) have higher levels of integrative complexity. This is because, because learning and integrating information about other cultures stimulates deeper information processing and complex thinking (Godart et al., 2015). Building on this work, Maddux and colleagues (2014) demonstrate in their longitudinal study of students in a 10-month international program, that the extent to which individuals learnt and adapted to new cultures predicted increases in integrative complexity even when controlling for important personality/demographic variables including time spent abroad, age, the Big Five personality traits and previous academic achievement (Maddux et al., 2014). These results lead to the assertion that this complex style of information processing becomes a habitual way of making sense of domains in which conflicts and differing perspectives abound. 56 In sum, unique attributes such as the access to accurate, tacit and explicit cultural knowledge, the ability to culturally frame switch between cultural schema and adapt behaviour and greater levels of integrative complexity compared to monocultural individuals, are purported to give multicultural individuals an edge over others (e.g. Fitzsimmons et al. 2011; Brannen & Thomas 2010; Hong 2010). Given these findings, it is not surprising that several researchers suggest that multicultural individuals could potentially impact organization performance, especially in the context of diverse work environments and in multicultural teams. Researchers suggest that in diverse organisational environments, multicultural individuals may have positive impacts as cultural boundary-spanners (Friedman and Liu, 2009; Brannen and Thomas, 2010; Yagi and Kleinberg, 2011), as creative synthesizers of new knowledge and information (Pekerti et al., 2015), in knowledge transfer (Liu et al., 2015), in leadership (Gillespie, McBride and Riddle, 2010), in creativity related tasks (Leung and Chiu, 2010; Cheng and Leung, 2012; Saad et al., 2013, 2012) and during intercultural negotiations (Fitzsimmons, Miska and Stahl, 2011). Although the potential positive impact of multicultural individuals in diverse organisations has been suggested, there are currently a limited number of studies, especially empirical studies, in the field. Additionally, in general, research in the multiculturalism field has focused primarily on bicultural individuals as opposed to multicultural individuals and hence, further work is required. As outlined in this section, previous theoretical arguments suggest that unique cognitive skills, such as integrative complexity, could play a role in how multicultural individuals could impact diverse organisational contexts. In the next section of this chapter, I build on this research and propose that perspective-taking behaviours, a skill closely related to integrative complexity, could be a key mechanism which explains how multicultural individuals could positively impact diverse organisational contexts such as enhancing information sharing and reducing conflict in diverse teams. 57 2.8 Integrative complexity, multicultural experience and perspective taking Perspective-taking refers to the effortful and effective understanding of diverse viewpoints of others in a particular situation or context (Galinsky, Ku, & Wang, 2005; Parker, Atkins, & Axtell, 2008). As a multi-faceted concept that is used across disciplines, the definitions of perspective-taking vary in the experiential aspect targeted by perspective-taking (i.e., perception, cognition, affect) and whether it is a stable disposition (Davis, 1980a, 1983)(Davis, 1980) or a situationally malleable process (see Parker, Atkins and Axtell, 2008 for a review). Yet, these definitions converge on perspective-taking as a cognitive process that entails trying to understand or considering another's viewpoint (Caruso, Epley and Bazerman, 2006; Parker, Atkins and Axtell, 2008) by "deliberately adopting their perspective" (Caruso, Epley and Bazerman, 2006; Ku, Wang and Galinsky, 2015; Parker, Atkins and Axtell, 2008; Hoever et al., 2012). In intercultural or diverse work environments, enacting perspective taking behaviours supports greater information sharing, fosters coordination and reduces conflict and misunderstanding between employees in diverse work environments (Loyd et al., 2013; Galinsky et al., 2008, 2014). (I expand on perspective taking and team dynamics in greater detail in Chapter 3). However, perspective-taking needs a catalyst to be effective and without agency, it can be ineffective for team information processing (Galinsky et al., 2014). Such antecedents to perspective-taking fall into two broad categoriescognitive capacity and motivation levels of the individual (Ku, Wang and Galinsky, 2015). In the preceding section (Section 2.7) , I described how previous research has found links between multicultural identity and integrative complexity (e.g. Lee 2010; BenetMartinez et al. 2006; Tadmor et al. 2009). Integrative complexity is a dimension of information processing and decision making where individuals demonstrate a willingness and capacity to acknowledge the legitimacy of competing perspectives on 58 the same issue (differentiation) and integrate conceptual links among these perspectives (integration; Suedfeld, 2010). Integrative complexity is a derivate of the larger umbrella construct of cognitive complexity and is an individual attribute that signifies both ability and willingness to consider competing perspectives and forge conceptual links (Suedfeld, 2010). Cognitive complexity, is the ability to perceive, differentiate, and integrate information (Ku, Wang and Galinsky, 2015). Cognitive complexity is one of the antecedents to perspective taking capacity (Parker, Atkins and Axtell, 2008; Ku, Wang and Galinsky, 2015). However, Ku and colleagues (2015) emphasise that cognitive capacity – i.e. cognitive ability alonedoes not lead to perspective taking. Instead, antecedents to perspective taking are a combination of both ability and willingness (Ku, Wang and Galinsky, 2015). Thus, the individual attribute of integrative complexity, found amongst multicultural individuals, should provide both the willingness and ability for perspective taking behaviours. Multicultural experiences also encourage perspective taking behaviour. Todd and Galinsky (2012) find that when individuals are primed with a multicultural ideology (i.e. the ideological approach that advocates embracing both intergroup commonalities and differences), multicultural ideology strengthened motivations to engage in perspective-taking and led participants to adopt spontaneously an (outgroup) target's visual perspective and to recognize that an outgroup target did not possess their privileged knowledge. Experimental evidence also indicates that individuals who read statements endorsing a multicultural approach to diversity (e.g. the benefits of multicultural society) are more accurate in their perceptions of other groups (i.e. greater accuracy in perspective-taking) and engage in smoother interracial interactions than do individuals who read statements endorsing a colour-blind approach, i.e. when differences are suppressed (for review, see Galinsky et al. 2015). These findings indicate an openness and willingness to engage in perspectives, ideas and thoughts from other cultures amongst individuals with multicultural exposure. 59 2.9 Why organisational context matters for multicultural individuals In the previous section, I have demonstrated how, in diverse organisational contexts, the links between the integrative complexity of multicultural individuals have posited to foster information sharing, promote coordination and reduce conflict among different employee groups. I propose that this link occurs through the process of perspective taking. However, I now draw attention to the influence of organisational context to the impact that multicultural individuals can have. The need for authentic self-expressionto be who you areis a basic need for all human beings (Daniel, Gino and Breaking, 2013). For individuals with multiple identity affiliations, such as multicultural individuals, this can be a challenging task (Ramarajan, 2014). This can be challenging in three ways: 1) if multicultural individuals find that the value systems and norms of their multiple identity affiliations are incompatible in some ways (e.g. Haritatos & Benet-Martínez 2002; Benet-Martínez & Haritatos 2005); 2) if they find an incongruence with that the values and expected norms of the external environment and their internal value systems and norms of any of their identity affiliations (e.g. Cheng, Lee and Benet-Martinez, 2006) and 3) if they are discriminated against because of their affiliation and membership to a minority group (e.g. Yampolsky and Amiot, 2016; Bell, 1990). When attempting to explore the impact that multicultural individuals can have in diverse organisations, these last two challenges become significant. In any form of identity development, autonomythe feeling that one's actions and thoughts are freely chosen and reflective of one's core self (Deci and Ryan, 1985) is paramount for healthy identity development and well-being (Sanchez, Shih and Wilton, 2014). Consistency, in accepted patterns of norms, values and behaviours reduce uncertainty, between social contexts and the value systems of an individual provide individuals with guidance during their identity development and acceptable behaviours (Roccas and Brewer, 2002). When social cues consistently deny autonomy in identity determination, it takes a psychological toll on the individual (Deci and Ryan, 60 2000). Similarly, when the values and accepted patterns of environment contradict internally held values and assumptions, multicultural individuals are pushed into a 'forced choice' paradigm where multicultural individuals have to choose a set of beliefs or norms which are consistent and accepted by their environment (Sanchez, Shih and Wilton, 2014; Cheryan and Monin, 2005). This form of identity denial where the social context requires individuals to 'fit into a box', makes it difficult for multicultural individuals to establish their own unique identity while trying to belong and be part of a larger community (Townsend, Markus and Bergsieker, 2009; Sanchez, Shih and Wilton, 2014). Fitzsimmons (2013) frames this situation with respect to organisational contexts. She contends that unless organisational contexts are able to prime and make salient both organisational identity and multicultural identity, multicultural individuals may only access organisational schemas and not their multicultural schemas, within the work context. Identity denial can also lead to "othering" and discrimination (Sanchez, Shih and Wilton, 2014; Cheryan and Monin, 2005; Yampolsky and Amiot, 2016; Dervin, 2012). "Othering" serves to create differences between social groups and carries a sense of hierarchy (Abu-Lughod, 1991; Dervin, 2012) Early conceptualisations of multicultural individuals allude to this practice of hierarchy, acceptance and power differentials between a majority and minority group (Bell, 1990; DuBois, 1903; Park, 1928). For example, Park (1928) uses the term "cultural hybrid" (i.e. multicultural individual) and says: : "a cultural hybrid, a man living and sharing intimately in the cultural life and traditions of two distinct peoples; never quite willing to break, even if he were permitted to do so, with his past and his traditions, and not quite accepted, because of racial prejudice, in the new society in which he now sought to find a place." (Park, 1928, p.892) Similarly, when multicultural individuals perceive discrimination, they report greater conflicts within their identity affiliations (Benet-Martínez and Haritatos, 2005). Research also finds that perceptions of discrimination and the related stress, adversely 61 affects multicultural individuals ability to reconcile their identities as an integrated whole (Yampolsky and Amiot, 2016). Therefore, it is not surprising that supportive environments, such as organizations with multicultural policies of inclusion and low levels of cultural frictions (Shenkar, Luo and Yeheskel, 2008) allow for better integration. A climate for inclusiveness also allows for an 'on openness' for employees to engage core aspects of their self-concepts, including multiple identities, with one another on a day-to-day relational basis without reservations (Nishii, 2013). Further, (Fitzsimmons, 2013) contends that both at the organisational and environmental level, multiculturalism policies that promote and make multicultural identities salient, will support autonomy for multicultural individuals and access to their cognitive schemas. In conclusion, the ability of multicultural individuals to positively impact organisational outcomes may be contingent on the organisational context of inclusion and perceived discrimination. 2.10 Chapter Summary In this chapter, I summarised and critically reviewed the existing literature on the conceptualisation of multicultural individuals. This informed the rationale for a more inclusive and multidimensional approach of identifying who is a multicultural individual as used in this thesis. In Section 2.4, I explained why researchers believe that multicultural individuals, with their integrative complexity skills, could support several organisational outcomes especially in a diverse and intercultural organisation. In Section 2.7, I built up this research and proposed that integrative complexity component of a multicultural individual can support perspective taking behaviours. Perspective taking behaviour could in turn, meditate a multicultural individual's ability to impact team processes such as information sharing and impact cohesion and conflict in diverse team performance. In section 2.8 I drew the boundary condition of how organisational climate and perceived discrimination could impact a multicultural individual's ability to support work processes and outcomes in diverse work settings. 62 This then sets the stage for the discussion of diversity in organisations in Chapter 3. Specifically, in Chapter 3, I explore the antecedents, moderators and mediating mechanisms that impact diverse team performance. 63 CHAPTER 3: MULTICULTURAL INDIVIDUALS AND DIVERSE TEAM DYNAMICS: MODEL DEVELOPMENT 64 Chapter 3: Multicultural individuals and diverse team dynamics: model development 3.1 Chapter Overview The previous chapter described the literature on multicultural individuals, including how multicultural individuals may benefit teams, especially diverse teams, in intercultural contexts. Following that discussion, in this chapter, I focus on research on diverse teams and team processes and develop the theoretical model which forms the basis of the quantitative study in this thesis. In the first section, Section 3.2, I outline the aims of this chapter. In Section 3.3, I briefly review the construct of 'diversity', differentiate between visible (i.e. nationality-based diversity) and 'invisible' diversity (i.e. cognitive diversity) and explain the importance of perceived cognitive diversity in a multicultural work environment. In Section 3.4, I review what we currently know about the diversity – performance relationship and the different approaches used to understand diversity. In Section 3.5, I use a critical lens to unpack the underlying assumptions of the two key approaches used in team diversity literature. Following which, in Section 3.6, I draw on the framework of the categorisation-information elaboration model (CEM; van Knippenberg, De Dreu and Homan, 2004; van Knippenberg and van Ginkel, 2010) to propose, in Section 3.7, a process model with information elaboration as a mediating mechanism by which diversity impacts team processes. In Section 3.8, I hypothesise that perspective taking behaviour is a key mediating variable facilitating information elaboration in diverse work contexts and that this key mechanism defines how multicultural individuals and diversity (both nationality-based and cognitive diversity) impact team processes and outcomes. In Section 3.9, I also propose a moderating effect of organisational inclusive climate on information elaboration. In Section 3.10, I outline and summarise the model and the key hypotheses drawn from the discussions and conclude with a summary Section 3.11. This sets the stage for Chapter 4 where I provide the research design and methodologies used in this thesis. 65 3.2 Aims of this Chapter This chapter seeks to satisfy several aims. Firstly, I aim to draw a distinction between our understanding of cognitive (invisible) and nationality based (visible) diversity. Secondly, to provide a clear rationale for using the CEM model as a theoretical framework in understanding the phenomenon of how multicultural individuals may impact team processes and outcomes in diverse work contexts. Thirdly, this chapter seeks to introduce the mediating role of perspective taking as a key process to information elaboration, in both the contexts of the study of multicultural individuals and diversity. This chapter also seeks to outline why the moderating effect of organisational climate for inclusion is integral to the mediating process. This then provides for the final aim of the chapter, which is to provide the reader with a comprehensive understanding of the proposed moderated mediation model and key hypotheses. 3.3 Defining Diversity As organisations expand globally and a growing number of minority groups join the workforce, organisational dependence on diverse or heterogeneous teams has increased. In management literature, 'diversity' is often referred to group characteristics that reflects the degree to which there are objective or subjective attributes which may be used to detect individual differences among members (van Knippenberg & Schippers, 2007; Williams & O'Reilly, 1998). In theory, diversity thus refers to an almost infinite number of dimensions, ranging from age to nationality, from religious background to functional background, from task skills to relational skills, and from political preference to sexual preference (Shore et al., 2009; van Knippenberg, De Dreu and Homan, 2004). Indeed, diversity is defined as "real or perceived differences among people with regard to race, ethnicity, sex, religion, age, physical and mental ability, sexual orientation, work and family status, and weight and appearance that affect their interactions and relationships" (Berry and Bell, 2007, p.21). Reviews of the field indicate that diversity research has traditionally focused on gender, race/ethnicity, culture, age, tenure, educational 66 background and functional background (see Milliken & Martins 1996; Williams & O'Reilly 1998; Horwitz & Horwitz 2007; Joshi et al. 2011). Thus, in diversity studies it is important to specify which type of diversity is being investigated. Diversity attributes are studied in several ways based on how they are categorised; for example, demographic or non-demographic. Demographic diversity relates to characteristics such as age, gender, culture and nationality while non-demographic diversity attributes generally refer to job-related or informational diversity attributes such as educational level, functional background or tenure. Conversely, diversity attributes in teams are sometimes studied as task-related (e.g. tenure) and non-taskrelated (e.g. ethnic and gender) diversity (Webber and Donahue, 2001) . Diversity attributes have also been categorised and studied as surface-level or deep-level diversity, whereby surface-level diversity refers to attributes that are easily identifiable or visible (e.g. age, gender, ethnicity, functional background, and organisational tenure) while deep-level diversity refers to differences that are primarily 'invisible' and relate to attitudes, personality and values (Harrison, Price, Gavin, & Florey, 2000; Mohammed & Angell, 2004; Phillips & Loyd, 2006). The study of diversity has seen a growing importance of attributes of perceived differences, in comparison to objective differences i.e. actual differences between individuals (Shemla et al., 2016). While previous research has largely focused on objective diversity, such as tenure, age or cultural diversity, perceived diversity focuses on subjective perceptions of differences amongst employees within their work unit. These may include, for example, differences in values, worldviews, status, and personality (Shemla et al., 2016). Shemla et al. (2016, p.S91) define perceived diversity as "the degree to which members are aware of one another's differences, as reflected in their internal mental representations of the unit's composition". One of the key problems associated with objective measures of diversity is the assumption that objective measures are an accurate reflection, or worse, an approximate proxy of underlying psychological attributes; this assumption has been challenged (Bantel and 67 Jackson, 1989; Kilduff, Angelmar and Mehra, 2000). For example, the demographic diversity attribute of national culture is assumed to reflect variations in individuals' values, norms and attitudes (i.e. cognitive diversity) and often used as proxy to indicate behavioural differences that might which my impact interpersonal interactions and team dynamics. However, individuals vary within a nationality and they do not necessarily hold the same homogenous set of values or behavioural norms or attitudes amongst one another. In other words, commonly studied and generalised country-level differences do not have the same impact at the individual level (Hofstede, 2011). Secondly, this focus on a demographic attribute of culture does not take the impact of the social context in which individuals find themselves into account (Jonsen, Maznevski and Schneider, 2011). To this effect, the behaviours of team leaders or indeed the organisational culture might impact an individual's perception of others and in turn influence their behaviour. In other words, individuals from different countries may be aligned in their attitudes and approaches to team dynamics because of the organisational context they find themselves and thus, differences in nationality may not represent a difference in attitudes or perceptions. In support of this argument, some authors state that perceptions of diversity, even if uncorrelated to actual objective measures of diversity, may hold "unique and proximal explanatory power than actual diversity" (Harrison and Klein, 2007) as there is sufficient evidence in organisational research to indicate that individual perceptions of the social environment have a greater and more direct influence on behaviours compared to the social environment itself (Harrison and Klein, 2007; Shemla et al., 2016; Harrison et al., 2002; Homan et al., 2010). Further, individuals significantly differ in their perceptions of, and reactions to, objective differences, which may in turn affect team dynamics (Shemla et al., 2016; Harrison et al., 2002; Hentschel et al., 2013). For example, team performance is impacted when team members vary in their perceptions of the value of diversity. Homan et al. (2010) find that in informationally heterogenous teams, performance differs based on whether team members believe in the value of having an informationally diverse team composition, irrespective of the actual differences within the team. Lastly, objective measures of diversity are occasionally conflated with the conceptualisations of 68 diversity (e.g. education level as a proxy for informational diversity) leading to calls for conceptual clarity on the construct of diversity (Harrison and Klein, 2007). Thus, in a study of diversity and its impact on team dynamics, a distinction is necessary between perceived and objective measures of diversity. To this effect, in this thesis I differentiate between the objective form of diversity, namely nationality based cultural diversity (hereafter referred to as cultural diversity), salient in a multicultural work environment and the perceptions of cognitive diversity that individuals in a multicultural work environment may hold, so as not to conflate the effects of the two. In other words, building on research cited above, I make the distinction that the mere presence of individuals from different countries (i.e. cultural diversity) does not necessarily equate to differences felt between employees in terms of their thought processes or perspectives (i.e. perceived cognitive diversity), which may impact interactions in a multicultural work environment. Instead, I focus on perceived cognitive diversity to incorporate any feelings of difference in thought processes and perspectives that individuals may hold about their teammates, as these perceptions of difference will influence how individuals interact with one another. 3.3.1 Perceived Cognitive Diversity Generally, literature exploring cognitive diversity focuses on variability regarding relatively unobservable attributes such as attitudes, values and beliefs (Kilduff, Angelmar and Mehra, 2000). Various conceptualisations of cognitive diversity exist (see Mello and Rentsch, 2015 for an extensive review). Perceived cognitive diversity, on the other hand, refers to the degree to which individuals are aware of differences in attitudes, perspectives, knowledge, skills, values and beliefs amongst individual team members (Dahlin, Weingart and Hinds, 2005; Vegt and Janssen, 2003; Shemla et al., 2016). As a form of perceived group heterogeneity, perceived cognitive diversity focuses on how individuals within a group assess how similar they are for a particular attribute such as values, beliefs of right and wrong, and skills or knowledge 69 (Shemla et al., 2016). The importance of being aware of differences versus subjectively judging these differences cannot be overstated (Shemla et al., 2016; Hentschel et al., 2013). Awareness allows for individuals to acknowledge the existence of differences, whereas subjective evaluations result in affective and cognitive responses to differences (Shemla et al., 2016; Hentschel et al., 2013; Homan et al., 2010). The process of being aware of differences allows for individuation of team members as opposed to the categorisation of members into social groups (Homan et al., 2010; Shemla et al., 2016; Swann et al., 2003). Individuation facilitates the process of individuals being accepted as unique contributors to the group (Swann et al., 2003, 2004) and a recognition that individuals in a diverse group may have different social needs (Aladwani, Rai and Ramaprasad, 2000), which can impact team dynamics. In this section, I have defined diversity and drawn attention to the distinction between objective and perceived diversity. I have also provided a theoretical justification and highlighted the significance of the focus on perceived cognitive diversity in a multicultural organisational context. Thus, in the next section of this chapter, I explore the existent literature on the diversity-performance relationship to provide a theoretically justified rationale for how multicultural individuals can impact this relationship. 3.4 The Diversity-Performance Relationship Having defined diversity and highlighted the importance of perceived cognitive diversity, in this section I outline the current literature on the diversity-performance relationship. I first focus on key performance outcomes and then describe two key theoretical approaches that have been used to understand the diversity-performance relationship. This then leads to the next section, which critically reviews the underlying assumptions of the two theoretical approaches in understanding the diversity-performance relationship. 70 3.4.1 Key Performance Variables A key interest within diversity research is to understand the impact of diversity for group outcomes such as team performance. Although 'performance' generally connotes a measure of qualitative or quantitative output, team performance is a multidimensional construct that encompasses several outcomes including those related to subjective or objective output and variables indicative of a well-integrated team (Horwitz and Horwitz, 2007). Measures of interest that are indicative of team social integration include both individual-level and team-level outcomes such as team cohesion, a member's organisational commitment, a member's satisfaction, turnover intentions, team viability, team potency, trust and conflict (Harrison, Price and Bell, 1998; Horwitz and Horwitz, 2007; Jehn and Bezrukova, 2010; Mello and Delise, 2015; O'Reilly, Caldwell and Barnett, 1989; Stahl et al., 2010; Tröster, Mehra and van Knippenberg, 2014). Much of the focus of diversity research has investigated group performance, group attitudes such as satisfaction, group processes such as conflict and cohesion, and emergent states such as trust and respect (Harrison and Klein, 2007; Jackson, Joshi and Erhardt, 2003; Joshi, Liao and Roh, 2011; Milliken and Martins, 1996; van Knippenberg and Schippers, 2007; Williams and O'Reilly, 1998). Thus, the diversity-performance literature explores distinct kinds of diversity as well as various kinds of group outcomes. Collectively examining cohesion, conflict and team member satisfaction allows for the exploration of diversity effects on a breadth of social integration related outcomes (Tekleab, Villanova and Tesluk, 2009; Homan et al., 2007a). In their meta-analytical review of studies focusing on culturally diverse work groups, Stahl et al. (2010) provide evidence of the importance of outcomes related to conflict as well as cohesion and satisfaction. Meta-analytical reviews of 108 studies on culturally diverse work contexts show consistent main effects of cultural diversity on all three outcome variables. Thus, in this thesis, I include all three types of outcomes. I further differentiate between three types of conflict, namely: task, process and relationship conflict as there is evidence to indicate that there are varying effects of culturally 71 diverse work environments on different types of conflict (Stahl et al., 2010). To ensure conceptual clarity of these key outcomes, they are briefly outlined below. Team Cohesion: Team cohesion is a multidimensional construct (Beal et al., 2003; Carless and Paola, 2000; Carron, Widmeyer and Brawley, 1985) which, in a broad sense, refers to forces that keep group members together (Tekleab, Villanova and Tesluk, 2009). It includes factors that encompass three dimensions, namely: attraction to members of the group, a united pursuit of group tasks and group pride (Beal et al., 2003; Carless and Paola, 2000). In diversity research, the dimensions of group attraction and unity in pursuing group objectives have been argued to be most paramount in understanding the impacts of diversity (e.g. Webber and Donahue, 2001; Harrison, Price and Bell, 1998; Mello and Delise, 2015). Thus, in this study I use the definition provided by Carron et al. (1985; 2012), which taps into both the social component of cohesion (i.e. the attractiveness of group members) and the task component (i.e. a shared commitment to the group task). Team cohesion is defined as "the dynamic process which is reflected in the tendency for a group to stick together and remain united in the pursuit of its instrumental objectives" (Carron and Brawley, 2012, p.731). Task, Relationship and Process Conflict: As the terms suggests, task conflict is defined as "disagreements among team members about the content of the tasks being performed" (Jehn, 1995, p.258). Team members, especially if they have diverse perspectives, may have divergent preferences and interpretations of tasks expected of the group (Pelled, Eisenhardt and Xin, 1999). Thus, task conflict is the awareness of differences in viewpoints, ideas and opinions pertaining to the content of group tasks (Jehn and Mannix, 2001; Jehn, 1994). Task conflicts may refer to procedures and policies, distribution of resources, goals and the interpretation of facts (De Dreu and Weingart, 2003). Although conflict related to tasks may be taken very personally and overlap with emotional outbursts, it 72 is important to emphasise that task conflict is not about emotional conflicts and negative interpersonal issues, and thus should not be conflated with these other forms of conflict (Hjerto and Kuvaas, 2017; de Wit, Jehn and Scheepers, 2013; Jehn, 1997). Relationship conflict is the awareness of interpersonal incompatibilities that may arise from personality clashes or dislike amongst group members that result in feelings of annoyance, tension, irritation and frustration (Jehn, 1995; Jehn and Mannix, 2001; de Wit, Jehn and Scheepers, 2013; Jehn, Northcraft and Neale, 1999). Given a diverse work context, these interpersonal incompatibilities may ensue from multiple sources such as differences in personal styles, value systems, political views or prejudices, interpersonal behavioural styles or stereotypical attitudes (Jehn and Mannix, 2001; Jehn, 1997; De Dreu and Weingart, 2003). These kinds of interpersonal mismatches, if severe, may lead to antagonistic, unpleasant or intimidating interactions and hostility (Pelled, Eisenhardt and Xin, 1999). Thus, relationship conflict addresses disagreements related to interpersonal dynamics and the resulting affective component of conflict (Jehn and Mannix, 2001). Process conflict relates to disagreements about how tasks will be accomplished (Jehn, Northcraft and Neale, 1999; Jehn, 1997), how tasks are delegated and how resources are allocated (Jehn and Mannix, 2001). Thus, process conflicts convey disagreements about who has responsibility to ensure specific tasks are completed and how much of the available resources need to be provided for successful completion (Jehn, 1997; Jehn and Mannix, 2001). In a diverse context, there may be several perspectives on how tasks need to be accomplished, how work should be delegated and how resources need to be allocated, based on how work processes are understood. In summary, task conflicts are therefore cognitively based conflict regarding disagreements about what must be done. Process conflicts are about how things need to be done and by whom, and relationship conflicts are affective based regarding disruptive interpersonal relations that result in emotional conflict. 73 Team Member Satisfaction: Team member or group member satisfaction refers to the degree to which individuals are content to be a part of their team and work with their team members (Tekleab, Villanova and Tesluk, 2009; Witteman, 1991; Ilgen et al., 2005). Team member satisfaction is considered an important team outcome in studies of diversity (e.g. Stahl et al., 2010; Horwitz and Horwitz, 2007; Ilgen et al., 2005; Thatcher and Patel, 2012) and cultural diversity in particular (Stahl et al., 2010). As the construct takes into account satisfaction that emerges from pleasant interactions as well as the collective effort of team members, it includes satisfaction with the group in general and group performance in particular (Stahl et al., 2010; Witteman, 1991; Kong, Konczak and Bottom, 2015). Kong et al. (2015) further assert that team member satisfaction emerges over time through repeated interactions between group members (Kong, Konczak and Bottom, 2015). In the study of diversity and its impact on key performance outcomes such as cohesion, conflict and team member satisfaction, diversity research has primarily taken two key theoretical approaches to studying the diversityperformance relationship. The first approach builds on the concept of homophily and uses social identity and social categorisation theories (Tajfel and Turner, 1986, 1979; Hogg and Terry, 2000) in understanding the effects of diversity on performance. The second approach in understanding the diversity-performance relationship follows from the information/decision making perspective (Joshi, Liao and Roh, 2011; Mannix and Neale, 2005; Williams and O'Reilly, 1998). These two approaches are detailed in the next section. 3.4.2 Social Categorisation Approach This theoretical approach builds on the concept of homophily leading to social identity and social group categorisation. Homophily refers to the tendency of people to interact with others who have similar traits; cultural, attitudinal or even physical 74 characteristics (Centola et al., 2007). Homophily is the general disposition of individuals to interact more often with people just like themselves (McPherson, Smith-Lovin and Cook, 2001). These similarities and differences are then used as a basis for categorising oneself and others into groups i.e. developing social group identities, distinguishing between similar ingroup members and dissimilar outgroup members (van Knippenberg and Schippers, 2007; Hogg and Terry, 2000). However, categorising individuals into groups because of similarities or dissimilarities in cultural (e.g. Chinese) or physical attributes (e.g. skin colour) can potentially lead to us-vs-them sub-group formations within a team (Homan et al., 2007a; Joshi, Liao and Roh, 2011; van Knippenberg, De Dreu and Homan, 2004). This is because social identities have their own emotional or value perceptions some identities are associated with greater power or status while others are evaluated as less favourable within a given context (Tajfel & Turner, 1979, 1986; Turner, 1975). A key premise of the social categorisation theory is that individuals seek to maintain positive social identities that provide them with a higher status and increased self-esteem (Tajfel and Turner, 1986; Turner, 1975) and thus, in the context of diverse social groups, they will seek to affiliate with social identities that provide them greater status or power (Joshi, Liao and Roh, 2011; Carton and Cummings, 2012). Further, this process of identifying and seeking positive social categorisation activates differential evaluations and expectations of in-group and out-group members. As individuals are motivated to actively maintain their social identities and mitigate identity threats, they may exhibit a favourable bias towards members of their own sub-group/in-group and develop a negative bias towards other groups (Hogg & Terry, 2000; Tajfel & Turner, 1986; Turner & Haslam, 2001). Additionally, members of one sub-group may feel a low personal attachment to members of other sub-groups that may in turn negatively impact their desire to interact with them (Carton and Cummings, 2012). Members of one sub-group often evaluate members of other sub-groups (i.e. outgroups) more negatively than members of their own subgroup (Tajfel and Turner, 1986). Such negative evaluations include stereotyping where out-group members are judged more stereotypically than in-group members (van Dijk, van Engen and van Knippenberg, 2012). 75 Given that this approach to studying diversity focusses on negativity towards others, who may present differently, and the desire to maintain power and status through categorisation, it is not surprising that the social categorisation approach to understanding the diversity-performance link suggests that diversity leads to social division, sub-group formation, and negative bias towards those who are different and that diversity will negatively impact team dynamics. In line with this perspective, the social categorisation approach suggests that homogeneous groups will experience more group cohesion (O'Reilly et al. 1989), higher member commitment (Riordan and Shore, 1997; Tsui, Egan and O'Reilly, 1992) and social integration while benefiting from fewer relational conflicts (Jehn, Northcraft and Neale, 1999) and a lower likelihood of membership turnover (Wagner, Pfeffer and O'Reilly, 1984) compared to diverse groups. This view also postulates that increased diversity results in decreased interpersonal liking, and communication and coordination challenges (Chatman & Flynn, 2001; Chatman et al., 1998; Harrison et al., 1998; Harrison et al., 2000). 3.4.3 Value in Diversity Approach By contrast, the information-processing/decision making approach offers a more optimistic view of the diversity-performance relationship. In this approach, diverse or heterogeneous teams are purported to have significant benefits over homogenous teams on several fronts. This optimistic "value in diversity" approach (Cox, Lobel and McLeod, 1991; Cox and Blake, 1991) argues that diversity is beneficial for team outcomes as members of diverse teams have access to multiple perspectives, skills and knowledge (Jehn, Northcraft and Neale, 1999; Homan et al., 2007a; van Knippenberg, De Dreu and Homan, 2004). In turn, diverse groups are more likely to possess a broader range of task-relevant knowledge, expertise, skills and abilities that are distinct and unique, and to have different opinions and perspectives on the task at hand that may enhance positive team outcomes (Mannix and Neale, 2005; van Knippenberg, van Ginkel and Homan, 2013; van Knippenberg, De Dreu and Homan, 2004; Williams and O'Reilly, 1998). In essence, diversity provides diverse groups 76 with a larger pool of informational resources to access compared to homogenous groups and this can in turn stimulate constructive discussions around differing ideas and viewpoints as well as greater elaboration of task-relevant information (van Knippenberg and Schippers, 2007; Homan et al., 2007b; van Knippenberg, De Dreu and Homan, 2004). The focus of this approach in understanding diversity is in the recognition of unique informational assets that individuals bring to a team that helps to enhance team task achievements and goal attainment (Pelled, Eisenhardt and Xin, 1999). Thus, unlike the social categorisation perspective, differences between team members do not equate to difficulties in interpersonal relationships but instead, differences equate to differing informational perspectives and ideas that need to be synergistically reconciled for the benefit of team performance. There are purported benefits to the process of reconciling diverse team members' informational resources. The need to reconcile multiple and sometimes conflicting viewpoints may force a group to more thoroughly process task-relevant information and may prevent them from opting too easily for a course of action on which there seems to be consensus, for example, groupthink behaviours (Crisp and Turner, 2011; van Knippenberg, De Dreu and Homan, 2004; van Knippenberg and Schippers, 2007; van Knippenberg and van Ginkel, 2010). Further, research has shown that teams benefit from exposure to a broader range of networks and diverging and potentially surprising perspectives that can lead to enhanced problem-solving, decision making, creativity, innovation and adaptability effects (Ely and Thomas, 2001; Ancona and Caldwell, 1992; Bantel and Jackson, 1989) In line with this approach, diversity is expected to bring value to organisations and teams and positively impact performance because diversity brings new informational resources to the group and this information can be accessed, communicated and integrated (Williams and O'Reilly, 1998; van Dijk et al., 2017; Ancona and Caldwell, 1992). There is some research to support this argument, as research finds that 77 informational diversity leads to better decision making (Homan et al., 2007b; van Knippenberg, De Dreu and Homan, 2004), innovative ideas (Ancona and Caldwell, 1992; Bantel and Jackson, 1989), greater creativity (Hoever et al., 2012; Nishii and Goncalo, 2008; Shin et al., 2012), a superior quality of team performance (Watson, Kumar and Michaelson, 2016; Ely and Thomas, 2001; Bell et al., 2011; Hamilton, Nickerson and Owan, 2003) and organisational competitive advantages (Nielsen and Nielsen, 2013; Hambrick, Cho and Chen, 1996). For example, Hambrick, Cho, & Chen (1996) found that top management teams in the airline industry that were diverse in terms of education and expertise showed a greater propensity for action than more homogeneous teams, and Hamilton, Nickerson, & Owan (2003) found that skill diversity in teams of textile workers were associated with higher productivity. To summarise and compare both theoretical perspectives, the social categorisation approach focuses on the formation of sub-groups and social divisions within a group due to a diversity attribute. These sub-groups are posited to hold emotional and value perceptions amongst team members. Thus, the social categorisation perspective focuses more on the relational aspects between team members. On the other hand, the information/decision making perspective centres on task-related aspects of group processes. This view proposes that diversity within teams provides members with multiple sources and perspectives of information they can be used to enhance team performance. On the basis of the social categorisation approach, an argument is often made whereby demographic or more surface-level diversity, such as age, gender, ethnicity or culture, negatively affects relationships within the group, as demographic differences make it easy to trigger sub-group formation and social categorisation processes (Mannix and Neale, 2005; Williams and O'Reilly, 1998; Joshi, Liao and Roh, 2011; van Knippenberg and Schippers, 2007; Horwitz and Horwitz, 2007). The argument is also made that informational diversity or task-related diversity (i.e. deeplevel diversity), such as functional diversity or cognitive diversity, contributes to group performance as these differences support the information processing processes within a team (Mannix and Neale, 2005; Williams and O'Reilly, 1998; Joshi, Liao 78 and Roh, 2011; van Knippenberg and Schippers, 2007; Horwitz and Horwitz, 2007; Jehn, Northcraft and Neale, 1999). However, this argument has not found consistent empirical support and several meta-analyses refute this suggestion (van Knippenberg and Schippers, 2007; Jackson, Joshi and Erhardt, 2003; Webber and Donahue, 2001; van Dijk, van Engen and van Knippenberg, 2012; Stahl et al., 2010; Milliken and Martins, 1996; Kozlowski and Bell, 2001; Bell et al., 2011). In this section, I have reviewed key performance outcomes of the diversityperformance relationship, namely: cohesion, conflict and team member satisfaction. I then discussed the two key theoretical approaches that have been used to understand the diversity performance relationship. I highlighted how these traditional approaches have taken opposing views of the diversity-performance link and indicated that several meta-analytical studies examining these two approaches provide mixed results. This leads to the next section, of this chapter which critically reviews the underlying assumptions of the two theoretical approaches to understanding the diversity-performance relationship to understand why previous research using these approaches have been inconclusive. This sets the stage for the discussion in Section 3.6 of the category-elaboration model, which seeks to address the deficiencies of these two approaches. 3.5 Unpacking the Underlying Assumptions in the Diversity-Performance Literature At first glance, both theoretical approaches of social categorisation and information elaboration seem to provide a simple and elegant way to understand the impact of diversity on performance. However, this simplistic assumption that demographic diversity will primarily lead to social categorisation and negatively impact performance, while information elaboration, as a result of informationally related diversity, will lead to positive impacts of diversity on performance, has found to be equivocal in the study of direct effects of diversity and many studies show no significant effects between diversity and performance (e.g.s. Joshi and Roh, 2009; 79 Kozlowski and Bell, 2001; Harrison and Klein, 2007; van Knippenberg and Schippers, 2007; Milliken and Martins, 1996). This has led to diversity being termed as a double-edged sword (Milliken and Martins, 1996). In this section, I explore why the traditional approaches to the study of diversity have provided inconclusive results by exploring the underlying assumptions of both approaches and methodological issues related to diversity research. I begin this discussion by providing three key critiques of the existing approaches. I then present three issues related to the design of diversity research, which may impact our understanding of the diversityperformance link. I then, in Section 3.6, proceed to discuss the category-elaboration model (CEM; van Knippenberg, De Dreu and Homan, 2004), which is an improvement on the existing approaches and the theoretical framework used for this study. The first underlying assumption relates to the social categorisation approach. As detailed in the previous section, the social categorisation approach contends that individuals will develop social divisions based on differences amongst team members, form sub-groups and that these sub-group formations will result in biases between members of sub-groups, subsequently leading to relational conflict. However, the transition between the formation of sub-groups to members of one subgroup to actively discriminating against another, is a significant assumption and one that is challenged (Wolsko et al., 2000). As van Knippenberg and colleagues (van Dick et al., 2008; van Knippenberg, De Dreu and Homan, 2004) argue that, "social categorization per se should not be equated with intergroup biases" (van Knippenberg, De Dreu and Homan, 2004, p.1010). Instead they argue that it is intergroup bias and not social categorisation per se that is disruptive to diverse group functioning (van Knippenberg, De Dreu and Homan, 2004). Homan et al. (2008) make a similar claim and find consistent results for this argument. In their work, they used a rewards structure to trigger sub-group saliency between different sets of heterogenous groups. They compared performances when reward structures were centred on three types of diversity saliency – reward structures when a super-ordinate 80 team identity was emphasised, when a diversity attribute was de-emphasised and when sub-group activation was made salient. Compared to diverse teams where super-ordinate team identity was rewarded and teams in which the diversity attribute was de-emphasised, only those teams where the sub-groups were made salient suffered in team performance (Homan et al., 2008). They concluded that "teams with similar levels of diversity do not necessarily experience similar social categorization processes and exhibit similar performance .... (and that the) ... relation between diversity and performance is more complex than is assumed in the social categorization perspective" (Homan et al., 2008, p.1217). Jehn and Bezrukova (2010) also come to similar conclusions and find that sub-groups do not necessarily become activated unless members of a sub-group have a greater sense of entitlement over members of other sub-groups and they choose to act on that sense of entitlement. They argue that it is this sense of entitlement that results in coalition formation and conflict amongst sub-groups and provide empirical support for their arguments. Thus, the mere existence of differences (surface or deep-level) does not lead to categorisation and negative evaluations about others, nor does it necessarily activate divisions, as suggested by the social categorisation approach. Instead, the process of social categorisations where the context allows for intergroup bias and discrimination to manifest, becomes detrimental to diverse group functioning. A second assumption found in the literature lies with the information processing approach. Following the above argument that diversity in itself is not the cause of categorisation, when reviewing the information-processing perspective, one can argue that the mere existence of different viewpoints or diverse knowledge within a team is in itself insufficient to result in reaping the benefits of diversity. Thus, just like the mere presence of diversity does not lead to social categorisation, similarly, the mere presence of diverse knowledge does not lead to the process of information elaboration. Diverse teams need to actively engage in information elaboration to 81 mobilise the resources provided by their diverse information, perspectives and ideas (van Ginkel and van Knippenberg, 2008; van Knippenberg and van Ginkel, 2010; Bell et al., 2011). This requires effort by and between team members to elicit, consider and evaluate multiple perspectives through effective communication, interpersonal skills and integrative complexity (e.g. Bode, Knippenberg and Ginkel, 2008). Thus, team members must go through the process of information elaboration before they can decide on a course of action to achieve their collective goals; the absence of intergroup bias or conflict does not entail information elaboration (van Knippenberg, van Ginkel and Homan, 2013; Bell et al., 2011). This therefore, raises the question of ability and willingness of diverse members to participate in the information elaboration process (Crisp and Turner, 2011; Pieterse, Knippenberg and Dierendonck, 2013; Resick et al., 2014; van Knippenberg, De Dreu and Homan, 2004; Bell et al., 2011). A third assumption that is often found in the literature is that some level of taskrelated cognitive conflict arises from diversity (Paletz, Miron-Spektor and Lin, 2014; Pelled, Eisenhardt and Xin, 1999) and that this 'constructive' conflict is essential for generating novel or creative solutions, decision making and performance (Bradley, Klotz, Postlethwaite, & Brown, 2013; Leung et al., 2008; Pelled et al., 1999), thus resulting in a contingency approach to how and when task conflict facilitates team performance, especially in creative tasks (Bradley et al., 2013; Jehn, Northcraft and Neale, 1999; Paletz, Miron-Spektor and Lin, 2014; Shemla et al., 2016; Pelled, Eisenhardt and Xin, 1999). Essentially, the presence of conflict is largely taken as a proxy for the enactment of information elaboration processes that the deep-level and creative processing of diverse information and viewpoints require (van Knippenberg, De Dreu and Homan, 2004). This view is now questioned in the literature (e.g Kilduff, Angelmar and Mehra, 2000; van Knippenberg and Schippers, 2007; De Dreu and Weingart, 2003; de Wit, Jehn and Scheepers, 2013). Van Knippenberg and others (2007; De Dreu and Weingart, 2003; de Wit, Jehn and Scheepers, 2013) argue that task-conflict is not a 82 prerequisite for the elaboration of task relevant information. For teams in general, the management of task conflict (if any), including the recognition of conflict and providing a supportive team context, is more critical to team processes (Bradley et al., 2012, 2013; Behfar et al., 2008; Paletz, Miron-Spektor and Lin, 2014). For example, Bradley et al. (2012) find that task conflict has a more positive impact on team performance when team members experience high levels of psychological safety. Team psychological safety is a group level phenomena indicating a shared belief held by members of a team that the team is safe for interpersonal risk taking such that individuals will not be embarrassed, rejected or punished for speaking up (Edmondson, 1999; Edmondson and Lei, 2014). Paletz et al. (2014) suggest that conflict may be constructive. However, they provide a caveat, stating that team members will differ in their assessments as to which situations are identified as sources as conflict. Further, they state that evaluations of whether the source of conflict is a threat depends on the cultural background of team members. For example, in diverse teams, when team members choose to ignore conflict of opinion, rather than confront them, such as in a colour-blind approach, team members experience reduced motivation to engaging with diverse viewpoints (Todd and Galinsky, 2012; Wolsko et al., 2000). Surprisingly, in a recent study of diverse teams and psychological safety, the diversity-performance relationship was impacted positively when team psychological safety was low, and not when high (Martins et al., 2013). This is contrary to findings on teams where high positive psychological safety supports team processes (Edmondson and Lei, 2014). The authors suggest that often the assumption is that all members of a diverse group are equally capable of contributing to the team. Given that this assumption may not hold true for diverse team members, the effects of psychological safety in diverse teams may vary depending on which type of diversity is being studied (Martins et al., 2013; Edmondson and Roloff, 2008). This leads me to the discussion of issues related to the design of diversity studies. 83 In terms of conceptual clarity, there has been criticism regarding the inconsistency between conceptualisations, and between conceptualisations and measurements in the diversity literature (Harrison and Klein, 2007; Bell et al., 2011). This impacts our ability to generalise findings to better understand the effects of diversity and performance. Diversity has been often categorised by attributes such as age (demographic/objective attribute) and perspectives (non-demographic/subjective attribute). Harrison et al. (2007) suggest that inconsistencies in findings based on attributes can be ascribed to the type of diversity under study as opposed to the attribute of diversity. Types of diversity can be categorised into separation, variety and dispersion (Harrison and Klein, 2007). Separation refers to dissimilarity in position or opinion amongst team members. These dissimilarities reflect disagreement between; "a horizontal distance along a single continuum representing dissimilarity" in a particular attribute (Harrison and Klein, 2007, p.1200). An example of this type of diversity is a diversity of values, such as the importance of hierarchy versus egalitarianism amongst team members. Variety signifies differences in kind and categories, such as experiences, knowledge or expertise. An example of this type of diversity is a diversity in perspectives or nationalities. Lastly, dispersion refers to differences in the concentration of resources such as status and power; "vertical differences that, at their extreme, privilege a few over many" (Harrison and Klein, 2007, p.1200). As can be evidenced from this approach, both demographic and non-demographic or object and subject diversity attributes, highlight various aspects and impacts of diversity on team dynamics. For example, diversity in nationalities an objective demographic diversity attribute when studied as a measure of variety does not connote any form of categorisation, conflict or discrimination as is often conceptualised in diversity literature (Nielsen and Nielsen, 2013). However, if the same diversity attribute is conceptualised as dispersion, connotations of power imbalances and discrimination between team members arise. Thus, how team members evaluate the diversity attribute depends on the context in which the team operates and is an essential part of understanding the impact of the kind of diversity being studied on team dynamics (Harrison, Price and Bell, 1998; Harrison and Klein, 2007). Further, when a diversity attribute can be meaningfully conceptualised as 84 more than one type of diversity, specifying which diversity type is being studied becomes essential in order to foster our understanding of the diversity-performance link (Harrison and Klein, 2007; Bell et al., 2011). Lastly, as discussed in Section 3.3, concerns have also been raised regarding the alignment of conceptualisations of diversity with its operationalisation. Often readily visible demographic diversity attributes are used as a proxy for underlying differences in values, ideas, knowledge, perspectives etc. (Jackson, Joshi and Erhardt, 2003; Mello and Rentsch, 2015; Bell et al., 2011). For example, diversity represented as nationalities and functional roles (e.g. marketing, research and development, operations etc.) are often operationalised as a measure of cognitive diversity. However, Kilduff et al. (2000), when testing this exact assumption, found no significant relationships between these demographic diversity attributes and cognitive diversity, even when conceptualising both demographic and cognitive diversity as types of variety diversity. Given the equivocal results from assessing the direct effects of diversity on team performance and attention drawn to specifying diversity construct and its operationalisation in order to provide clarity to the diversity-performance relationship, it is not surprising that there has been calls for studying moderating effects of contextual variables across multiple levels of analysis on the diversityperformance link (e.g.s. Jackson, Joshi and Erhardt, 2003; Shore et al., 2009; Kozlowski and Bell, 2001; Joshi, Liao and Roh, 2011; Jonsen, Maznevski and Schneider, 2011). Meta-analytical work in this area has shown that when diversity is studied from a contextual perspective at multiple levels, the direct effects of diversity on performance doubled or tripled in size; however, when studied without taking into consideration the effects of context, the diversity-performance relationship is near zero and non-significant (Joshi and Roh, 2009). For example, when examining moderating effects at the level of industry type, in industries dominated by male or white employees, gender and ethnic diversity are more negatively related to performance (Joshi and Roh, 2009). Interestingly, team level moderators, which have had the most focus in the diversity literature, had weak effects in comparison to both 85 organisational and industry level moderators (Joshi and Roh, 2009). Thus, when considering contextual effects, contextual levels are a principal element to the study of the diversity-performance relationship, but often ignored in the literature. Another underlying issue in the study of moderating or mediating effects, is that both of the traditional approaches to the study of diversity take opposing views to the diversity-performance link. This fragmented practice diminishes the opportunity to have an integrated framework to identify key contextual moderators and mechanisms in the diversity-performance relationship may also explain why many predicted moderators in existing studies do not show expected results (Guillaume et al., 2013, 2017). Another aspect of the study of diversity and performance that has drawn academic attention is the temporal nature of teams (Mathieu et al., 2017). Considering that team processes unfold over time; the point of team maturation might explain the equivocal results of our studies in the diversity and team performance literature. In fact, work by Earley and Mosakowski and others (Harrison et al., 2002; Watson, Kumar and Michaelson, 2016; Earley and Mosakowski, 2000; Stahl et al., 2010) indicate that time spent together as a diverse team has varying impacts on team processes and outcomes, some of which are found to be counter-intuitive (Stahl et al., 2010). However, most studies in this field are cross-sectional in nature (e.g. Podsiadlowski et al., 2013; Pelled, Eisenhardt and Xin, 1999; Hentschel et al., 2013; Wang, Kim and Lee, 2016; Shin et al., 2012) and have not sufficiently taken into consideration the temporal nature of team dynamics (Jonsen, Maznevski and Schneider, 2011; Mathieu et al., 2014; Harrison et al., 2002; Horwitz and Horwitz, 2007). In this section I have provided a critical overview of the shortcomings of previous approaches to the understanding of the diversity-performance relationship and reasons for the lack of direct effects. These included aspects regarding both the 86 theoretical underpinnings of the diversity-performance literature as well as issues regarding the design and methodology of studies in this field. In the next section, Section 3.6, I describe the category-elaboration model (CEM), which provides a theoretical framework addressing some of the deficiencies related to the theoretical underpinnings of the diversity-performance literature. Following which, in Section 3.7, I build on the CEM model and describe how the diversity-performance relationship is studied in this thesis. 3.6 The Categorisation-Information Elaboration Model The previous section explored some of the shortcomings in the diversity literature diversity. On reviewing existing literature, its findings and critically analysing the implicit underlying assumptions outlined in the previous section, it becomes apparent that rather than focussing on specific diversity attributes and assumed interpersonal or task conflict, it might be more productive to explore how and when diversity can be better understood for team performance. Taking the view of diverse teams as groups working as information processors (Hinsz, Tindale and Vollrath, 1997), the categorisation-information elaboration model (CEM; van Knippenberg et al., 2004; van Knippenberg & van Ginkel, 2010) begins to address some of the shortcomings in existing approaches to diversity. In this section, I describe the CEM framework and findings from research using the CEM in the study of the diversity-performance relationship. The CEM reconceptualises and integrates both the social categorisation and the information-processing approaches and suggests that all dimensions of diversity can have both negative and positive impacts. Building on the information decision making perspective, the CEM framework argues that the performance benefits of diversity accrue to the extent that diversity allows for information elaboration to occur. Information elaboration refers to the team members' individual-level processing of information and perspectives, the process of feeding back and 87 exchanging results of individual-level processing to the group, and the discussion and integration of its implications and insights that are relevant to the team's tasks (van Knippenberg, De Dreu and Homan, 2004, p.1011). Elaboration of task-relevant information and perspectives, in turn, is proposed to be related to group performance such as those related to creativity, innovation and decision quality. In other words, the CEM proposes that group information elaboration is the key mediating process explaining the positive effects of diversity on performance. However, unlike the traditional information processing approach, it does not assume that the presence of diverse team members automatically leads to information elaboration; instead, the model contends that diversity in a group is most likely to lead to an elaboration of task-relevant information and perspectives: when the group task has strong information-processing components; when the group is highly motivated to process task-relevant information and perspectives; and, when group members are high in task ability (van Knippenberg, De Dreu and Homan, 2004). This shifts the focus of diversity research to include the motivation and ability of team members to extract, evaluate, communicate and integrate unique information that each member may hold. This process takes time and may be contingent on the time spent together and team maturity (Marks, Mathieu and Zaccaro, 2001). Simultaneously, accounting for the social categorisation approach, the CEM framework contends that intergroup biases may result from social categorisation and that threats and challenges to sub-group identity are the main factors driving intergroup biasnot the occurrence of social categorisation per se. The model differentiates between the 'perceptual grouping of individuals' into sub-groups (i.e. social categorisation) versus intergroup bias, which effectively discriminates between groups. The disruptive influence of intergroup biases on the information elaboration process is what negatively impacts diverse teams (van Knippenberg, De Dreu and Homan, 2004). 88 Additionally, according to the model, the propensity for team members to resort to social categorisation processes is contingent on three factors. The first factor, cognitive accessibility, refers to the ease with which social categorisation is implied by the differences amongst team members (e.g. skin colour black vs. white) that is cognitively retrieved and activated. The second factor, normative fit, is the extent to which the categorisation makes sense to the individuals in the group and lastly, comparative fit is the extent to which categorisation yields sub-groups with high intragroup similarity and high intergroup differences (van Knippenberg et al., 2004; van Knippenberg & van Ginkel, 2010). In this way, the CEM framework acknowledges that the presence of diverse individuals alone need not trigger social categorisation. For example, the presence of demographic diversity attributes, such as gender or age or nationality, does not necessarily mean that all members are automatically sub-grouped into these categories, nor does it result in stronger categorisation. The CEM approach contends that the propensity to categorise others is contingent on a team member's willingness to utilise categorisation, to the extent categorisation holds value to the individual and is meaningful to them and also the extent to which the categorisation results in "relatively homogeneous categories that are clearly different from each other" (van Knippenberg, De Dreu and Homan, 2004, p.1015). Critically, the CEM differentiates from previous approaches by taking a contingency approach to understanding under what conditions and how elaboration, categorisation and intergroup biases arise and impact diverse team dynamics, rather than working on the assumption that any specific diversity attribute leads to either elaboration or categorisation and that conflict is an integral part of diversity. By including and integrating both approaches, and shifting the focus away from diversity attributes alone, the CEM approach allows for the incorporation of mediator and moderator variables that can best explain the diversity-performance link. In this way, the CEM approach draws researchers' attention to both indirect and direct effects of diversity on performance. The CEM framework therefore, allows for a process-oriented 89 approach that accounts for temporal effects of team dynamics. The CEM model in full, as proposed by van Knippenberg et al. (2004), is provided in Figure 3.1 below. Figure 3.1: The Category – Elaboration Model (reproduced from van Knippenberg, De Dreu and Homan, 2004, p.1010) 3.6.1 The CEM Framework and Team Performance The mediating role of information elaboration in the diversity-performance relationship has now been supported by a series of studies in the laboratory as well as the field (Hoever et al., 2012; Homan et al., 2008, 2007b; a; Kearney, Gebert and Voelpel, 2009; Pieterse, Knippenberg and Dierendonck, 2013; Resick et al., 2014; Wang, 2015). Research using the CEM framework focuses on finding key variables that foster processing motivation and ability between the diversity-information elaboration relationship, and thus, between diversity and various team outcomes (van Knippenberg and van Ginkel, 2010; Guillaume et al., 2017). 90 For example, Kearney et al., (2009) found that information elaboration mediated the relationship between higher quality decision making outcomes and educationally and age-diverse work teams. They also found that high team need for cognition, namely, "the tendency to engage and enjoy effortful cognitive endeavours" (Kearney, Gebert and Voelpel, 2009, p.584), moderates the relationship between diversity and information elaboration. Need for cognition signals information processing motivation rather than cognitive ability. In their study, they showed that when team members demonstrated a greater desire and motivation for information processing, diverse teams compared with homogenous teams, enacted greater information elaboration behaviours, leading to better performance outcomes. Thus, results showed that the elaboration of task-relevant information mediated the moderating effect of need for cognition on the relationship of team performance for diverse teams. Resick and colleagues (2014) also highlighted the case for team members' willingness and ability for information elaboration. In their study of functionally diverse teams, they found that information elaboration became essential for team performance, especially under conditions where, because of a stressful or unpredictable situation, there was a significant requirement for coordination and communication amongst team members. Additionally, they found that when team members of these functionally diverse teams enacted behaviours of collective leadership, they were more comfortable with the distribution and sharing of knowledge with colleagues. In another study by Pieterse et al. (2013), information elaboration mediated the relationship between culturally diverse teams and team performance. Further, cultural diversity had a positive impact on team performance when team members' learning approach orientation (motivation to learn and improve) was high and performance avoidance orientation (motivation to avoid failure and negative evaluation) was low. 91 Wang (2015) found that information elaboration significantly predicted performance in the informationally diverse (but not homogeneous condition), when informationally diverse teams were tasked with a decision-making scenario that required elaboration for optimal decision making. In her study of emotional intelligence as an indicator of ability to engage with one another in information elaboration, Wang (2015) found that, for diverse teams, information elaboration also mediated the relationship between teams' emotional intelligence and performance. This was not the case for homogenous teams. In another study using a decision-making context, the interactive effects of diversity beliefs and informational diversity in a group was tested on team performance. Diversity beliefs are beliefs that "individuals hold about how group composition affects workgroup functioning, that is, the extent to which individuals perceive diversity to be beneficial for or detrimental to the group's functioning." (van Dick et al., 2008, p.1467). Results showed that informationally diverse groups elaborated more information compared to groups with homogeneous information with a significant main effect of informational diversity on information elaboration. Further, informationally diverse groups performed better when they elaborated more information whereas performance of informationally homogeneous groups was not affected by information elaboration (Homan et al., 2008). Additionally, team members' belief in the value of diversity positively impacted the performance of informationally diverse groups (Homan et al., 2008). In a study between diversity and information elaboration as a group outcome, Homan and colleagues (Homan et al., 2007a) found that team members report higher levels of satisfaction, increased information elaboration, reduced relationship and task conflict, and a better team climate for informationally heterogenous teams, when 'crossed' rather than 'converged' with the existing sub-group categorisation. In their 92 student sample, teams consisted of four members each. In informationally homogenous teams, each member received the same set of information. Informationally heterogenous teams were either 'converged' or 'crossed'. In informationally heterogenous converged teams, both men received the same information and both women received a second set of information. In the informationally heterogenous crossed teams, a pair of men and women received one set of information while the other pair received the second set. Scholten, van Knippenberg, Nijstad and De Dreu (2007) find positive moderating effects of group process accountability on the relationship between informational diversity and information elaboration. Process accountability indicates a necessity to justify the method in which a task is performed and this is recognised as an indicator of information processing motivation (van Knippenberg & van Ginkel 2010). Using informationally diverse three-member teams, Scholten et al. (2007) found that teams with greater process accountability repeated and shared information more often, sought more information from others and were often more successful in arriving at the correct decision. In this section, I provided an overview of the CEM framework in the study of the diversity-performance relationship. I explained how the CEM framework is a better approach to adopt and provided the rationale for its use in this study, as it addresses the shortcomings (Section 3.5) of the two traditional approaches. This section also establishes the existing research of information elaboration as a mediating mechanism in the diversity-performance relationship. Over the next few sections of this chapter, I build on the CEM framework by addressing factors that affect the motivation and ability of individuals, in a diverse team, to extract, share and integrate information. Additionally, I discuss the contingent effects of perceived discrimination as well as consider the impact of the organisational level context of an inclusive climate. I also address methodological issues highlighted in Section 3.5, namely, the over-reliance on cross-sectional studies by considering the temporal nature of teams 93 within the design of this study. I begin the discussion in Section 3.7 by addressing the relationship between information sharing and key team outcomes discussed in Section 3.4, namely cohesion, conflict and team member satisfaction. 3.7 Information Sharing, Cohesion, Conflict and Team Member Satisfaction In the previous section I described the CEM framework, which provides evidence that information elaboration is a mediating mechanism in the diversity-performance relationship. Building on the CEM framework and being cognisant of the shortcomings from earlier research (Section 3.5), from this section onwards, I develop key hypotheses and provide the model used in this thesis. In this section, I explore the relationship between information sharing and key team outcomes of cohesion, conflict (task, relationship and process) and team member satisfaction. To this effect, I develop hypotheses related to the mediating role of information elaboration in diverse teams, on cohesion, conflict and team member satisfaction. Following which, in Section 3.8, I introduce 'perspective taking' as a key mediating mechanism for diverse teams, in the information elaboration process. In Section 3.9, I hypothesise how an inclusive climate can moderate the relationship between perspective taking and information elaboration. In Section 3.10, I provide the full hypothesised model and a complete list of all study hypotheses. Section 3.11 concludes this chapter. Teams hold both shared and unshared information (Stasser and Titus, 1987). Shared information is commonly held and known to all members of the group while unshared information is uniquely-held by an individual member of the group. In cognitively diverse teams, a greater amount of information may be uniquely-held by team members (Dahlin, Weingart and Hinds, 2005). For information elaboration, teams need to be able to access, extract, discuss and integrate all information available amongst their team members to benefit from diverse knowledge, skills and 94 perspectives for optimal decision making and task accomplishment. In diverse teams, as individual members seek more information from one another (i.e. extract information) and work towards understanding one another (i.e. discuss and integrate), this process of information elaboration may enhance the quality of interpersonal relationships while at the same time, enhance the quality of communication between members. As members begin to enjoy good relationships, build trust and find value in each other's informational inputs, there may be greater clarity and less ambiguity in interpersonal dynamics. Further, greater consideration and understanding of unique informational inputs may result in more in-depth processing, further enhancing the quality of decision making in the team. Increased clarity and reduced ambiguity between members in terms of task-relevant information and social coordination would increase team cohesion and member satisfaction (see Webber & Donahue 2001 for an exception). The impact of time may be critical for understanding this relationship (Harrison et al., 2002). In a longitudinal study, surface-level (demographic) diversity was found to have weaker negative effects on group cohesion and performance as group longevity increased (Harrison et al., 2002). While Earley and Mosakowski (2000) found that over a longer time frame, highly diverse teams outperformed those that were moderately diverse. Additionally, compared to their counterparts in moderately diverse teams, members of highly diverse teams reported higher levels of member satisfaction. As diverse team members spend more time together and have greater interaction frequency, the process of information elaboration may reduce ambiguity and enhance cooperation between team members over time. Overtly sharing information with team members promotes positive climactic states (e.g. trust, cohesion), which is expected to improve team socioemotional outcomes (e.g. satisfaction) and, in turn, team performance (Beal et al., 2003). In their meta-analytical review of information sharing on team performance, information elaboration was found to positively predict cohesion such that the more task related information was shared, the greater the impact on cohesion (MesmerMagnus and Dechurch, 2009). The meta-analytical review also showed evidence that information sharing also predicts team member satisfaction (Mesmer-Magnus and Dechurch, 2009). 95 Given these findings, I hypothesise the following with respect to information elaboration in diverse teams, cohesion and team member satisfaction: Hypothesis 1: In diverse teams, as team members expend more effort in information elaboration, team cohesion will increase over time. Hypothesis 2: In diverse teams, as team members expend more effort in information elaboration, team member satisfaction will increase over time. Similar to the effect of information elaboration on cohesion and team member satisfaction, information elaboration has been found to reduce conflict. Moye and Langfred (2004) found that information elaboration reduced both task and relationship conflict. They also take a temporal view in that over time, and as group members better understand one another, information sharing is less characterised by differences in understanding or opinion and instead, information sharing is more characterised by coordination and task implementation. In this way, greater information elaboration is expected to decrease any potential misunderstandings or lack of clarity (Wallenburg and Schäffler, 2016) in both process and task conflict. Further, Moye and Langfred (2004) also take the view that as a result of greater coordination and better task outcomes on account of information sharing, individuals of a team will also feel like their opinions are valued and that their voice contributes to the team's performance outcomes. Along with greater clarity in communication and greater feelings of being valued, over time information elaboration can reduce relationship conflict. It is to be noted that relationship conflict can be as a result of many factors, however, greater information elaboration is expected to increase opportunities to resolve them. Moye and Langfred (2004) found strong empirical support for their arguments on the effect of information elaboration on reducing task, (process) and relationship conflict in their study of diverse student groups and course related group work (student teams were a mix of genders, nationality and undergraduate majors). Mohammed and Angell (2004) also find that processes related to communication and coordination (components of information elaboration) between diverse team members, help reduce relationship conflict. Thus, the process 96 of information elaboration will lead to fewer conflicts regarding tasks, processes and interpersonal relationships within diverse team dynamics. These findings reflect the earlier discussion (Section 3.4) regarding the misplaced assumption of conflict in previous diversity research (i.e. conflict as an integral or indeed necessary part of reaping the benefits of diversity). In addition, these findings are in line with the CEM framework that clarifies that intergroup bias and discrimination disrupts diverse team dynamics while information elaboration supports desired team processes and outcomes as a mediating mechanism. Therefore, I hypothesise the following: Hypothesis 3: Information elaboration will be negatively related to task conflict. Hypothesis 4: Information elaboration will be negatively related to process conflict. Hypothesis 5: Information elaboration will be negatively related to relationship conflict. In this section, I established hypotheses related to the impact of information elaboration on key outcome variables of cohesion, conflict and team member satisfaction. In the next section, I hypothesise how perspective taking could be a key factor in the process of fostering information elaboration. 3.8 Perspective Taking: Mediating the Diversity-Information Elaboration Relationship One of the key purported benefits of diverse teams is the access to an increased pool of unique sets of knowledge, skills and perspectives. The value of such diverse information to teams is useful to the extent that team members are able to exchange and synthesise this information for the benefit of task accomplishment (Hinsz, 97 Tindale and Vollrath, 1997). This highlights an important aspect of the potential benefits of diverse teams, namely the mere presence of diverse perspectives or information in itself does not result in the information elaboration process or impact team performance (van Knippenberg, De Dreu and Homan, 2004). To begin the process of information elaboration, team members first need to be aware that their colleagues may possess unique knowledge sets so as to take advantage of these and in order to expand the available pool of knowledge for processing and discussion as a means to enhance team performance (Mesmer-Magnus and Dechurch, 2009; Stasser and Titus, 1987). If team members are unaware of the extent of unique knowledge, skills or perspectives present amongst their team members and are unable to facilitate its understanding, the process of information elaboration is hindered (Resick et al., 2014; Dahlin, Weingart and Hinds, 2005). Thus, the second requirement for information elaboration to occur is that the additional information needs to be discussed and integrated (van Knippenberg, De Dreu and Homan, 2004). The CEM framework delineates that information elaboration occurs based on a willingness by, and ability of, team members. In other words, "when the group is highly motivated to process task-relevant information and perspectives, and when group members are high in task ability" (van Knippenberg, De Dreu and Homan, 2004, p.1010). Thus, in a given diverse context, for information elaboration to occur, key factors to consider are the abilities and willingness of team members to extract, discuss and integrate dispersed uniquely held sets of knowledge, skills and perspectives relevant to team task accomplishment. Both the awareness and synthesising of unique information can be brought about through a process of perspective taking. In this section I explain how the mechanism of perspective taking could be a key mediating mechanism for information elaboration in diverse teams. I develop hypotheses for the proposed relationships and in Section 3.9, I hypothesise how an inclusive climate can moderate the relationship between perspective taking and information elaboration. Perspective taking refers to the effortful and effective understanding of diverse viewpoints of others in a particular situation or context (Galinsky, Ku, & Wang, 98 2005; Parker, Atkins, & Axtell, 2008). Perspective taking, as a cognitive process, entails trying to understand or consider another person's viewpoint (Caruso, Epley and Bazerman, 2006; Parker, Atkins and Axtell, 2008) by deliberately adopting their perspective (Caruso, Epley and Bazerman, 2006; Ku, Wang and Galinsky, 2015; Parker, Atkins and Axtell, 2008; Hoever et al., 2012). In this way, the perspective taker tries to actively "understand, in a nonjudgmental way, the thoughts, motives, and/or feelings of a target, as well as why they think and/or feel the way they do" (Parker, Atkins and Axtell, 2008, p.151). Thus, the 'perspective' focused upon can vary between understanding feelings, beliefs, motives or thoughts of others (Parker, Atkins and Axtell, 2008). Whichever be the focal perspective that is being sought, perspective taking is an intentional activity with a goal of trying to better understand the viewpoint of another. Further, perspective taking is a pervasive social behaviour, common amongst many cultures (Wu et al., 2013) and acknowledged to be a critical factor in social functioning (Davis, 1983). In sum, perspective taking denotes an ability and willingness to seek information to better understand others. Therefore, perspective taking is a potential factor to consider in facilitating information elaboration amongst team members. It is to be noted that although emphasis is paid to perceived thoroughness or understanding of other viewpoints, the literature on perspective taking does not always emphasise the capacities involved in accurate perspective taking (Parker, Atkins and Axtell, 2008). In other words, although sincere efforts may be made in attempting to seek and understand others' perspectives, this process may not necessarily yield an accurate understanding of others' thoughts or viewpoints. 'Effective perspective taking' refers to how accurate and comprehensive one might understand another person's perspective (Parker, Atkins and Axtell, 2008). Effectiveness in perspective taking can be contingent on several factors including the individual's past experiences (e.g. Gehlbach, 2004; Parker, Atkins and Axtell, 2008), culture (e.g. Wu et al., 2013; Wu and Keysar, 2007) and the context (e.g. Todd et al., 2011a). This thesis does not focus on the accuracy of perspectives but rather on the 99 motivation and propensity of individuals to engage in perspective taking. I make this distinction because the propensity to perspective take (i.e. the willingness to actively seek others' viewpoints) would have greater impact in information elaboration (e.g. activities involved in seeking and discussing distributed information) compared to exploring effective perspective taking. Further ineffectiveness in perspective taking can potentially be mitigated through the information elaboration process of deliberation and communication, as discussed below. 3.8.1 Perspective Taking and Information Elaboration Perspective taking behaviour impacts team processes and outcomes. In their review of the perspective taking literature, Ku, Wang, & Galinsky (2015) show that perspective taking is found to impact both group processes, such as communication and information sharing, and group outcomes, such as creativity and cooperation. For example, Falk and Johnson (1977) found that 4-person teams (instructed to take the perspective of members) were characterised by greater cooperation, more effective communication (in terms of providing and understanding information), as well as greater trust, attraction and satisfaction compared to teams who received instructions to focus on an individual's egocentric preferences (cited from Ku et al., 2015). In another study, negotiating dyads who engaged in perspective taking, were found to facilitate greater sharing of key information resulting in greater value in negotiation outcomes (i.e. increasing 'the pie') and higher interaction satisfaction compared to negotiating dyads that did not engage in perspective taking (Galinsky, Maddux, Gilin, & White, 2008). Additionally, in group negotiations, teams that were instructed to perspective take significantly out-performed teams that were instructed, instead, to empathise with their negotiating partners in terms of joint as well as individual gains (Galinsky et al., 2008). Further, Galinsky, Magee, Rus, Rothman and Todd (2014) found that perspective takers in teams share more critical information with teammates allowing for teams to reach more accurate decisions.. In their experimental design, participants were required to share unique information to accurately solve a murder mystery. Dyads instructed to perspective take were more 100 likely to share more information and accurately solve the case (Galinsky et al., 2014). Hoever et al. (2012) find that diverse teams perform more creatively than their homogeneous counterparts when engaged in perspective taking. In their work, Hoever et al. (2012, p.985) argue that "perspective taking may elicit the full range of sub-processes that jointly define elaboration". Thus, perspective taking can facilitate diverse teams' information elaboration process. This leads to the following hypothesis: Hypothesis 6: Perspective taking will be positively related to information elaboration The moderating effect of inclusive climate Teams are embedded in organisational contexts and the conditions organisations create, such as its culture and climate, can impact their teams. Organisational culture refers to the deep-rooted structure of the values, beliefs and assumptions held by organizational members. In contrast, organisational climate, portrays the social environment which is relatively temporary, subject to direct control, and largely limited to those aspects that are consciously perceived by organizational members (Denison, 1996). An inclusive organisational climate is one in which employees feel safe in engaging their personal identity and included in critical organisational processes (Nishii, 2013). A climate for inclusion goes beyond the concept of psychological safety in that it includes the need for safety in interpersonal risk taking and also includes the openness with which employees can enact and engage core aspects of their personal identity as well as the extent to which diverse perspectives of employees are actively sought and integrated in decision making (Nishii, 2013) Information elaboration is the "exchange of information and perspectives, individuallevel processing of the information and perspectives, the process of feeding back the results of this individual-level processing into the group, and discussion and integration of its implications" (van Knippenberg, De Dreu and Homan, 2004, p.1011). Thus, critically, for perspective taking amongst team members in diverse 101 contexts leading to information elaboration, there needs to be an organisational climate that encourages and accommodates multiple views and supports individuals to constructively engage (Dwertmann, Nishii and van Knippenberg, 2016). Employees must perceive the organisational climate to be structured in a way that it is welcoming and accommodating of employees' diverse inputs, feedback and ideas, thus allowing for a culture of continuous learning (Groggins and Ryan, 2013). An organisational climate that discourages the consideration of different ways of working or suggestions in improving work flows will impede any efforts from employees to synergistically integrate their diverse perspectives to contribute to task accomplishment (Nishii, 2013; Dwertmann, Nishii and van Knippenberg, 2016). Thus, such inclusive climates encourage employees to contribute and integrate their diverse perspectives, even if ideas thus expressed are different from the status quo (Ely and Thomas, 2001). Lastly, although empirical research is limited in this area, using laboratory experiments, groups under the condition of a pro-diversity climate showed increased information exchange and processing, compared to teams under a pro-similarity climate (Homan et al., 2007b). Thus, I hypothesise that a climate for inclusion is an important moderating factor for perspective taking to result in information elaboration. Namely, Hypothesis 7: The relationship between perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive organizational climate. I revisit the importance of an organisational climate for inclusion and its influence on multicultural individuals and diversity later in this chapter, in Section 3.9. 3.8.2 Multicultural Individuals and Perspective Taking Although there are strong indications of how perspective taking can improve group processes and outcomes, further research is required to determine the impact of perspective taking in diverse groups consisting of individuals with differing abilities, 102 attitudes, history of working together et cetera, as most of the research in this area has been conducted within the confines of laboratory experiments (Ku, Wang and Galinsky, 2015). Thus, I now raise a question as to the circumstances under which team members of diverse teams would resort to perspective taking behaviours. As mentioned in Section 2.7 perspective taking often needs a galvanising propellant (Galinsky et al., 2014) and without agency, it can be ineffective for team information processing. Antecedents to perspective taking fall into the two categories: individual cognitive capacity and motivation levels (Ku, Wang and Galinsky, 2015). One of the antecedents to perspective taking identified as an individual level difference is integrative complexity (Ku et al., 2015). Defined as the willingness and capacity to acknowledge the legitimacy of competing perspectives on the same issue (differentiation) and integrate conceptual links among these perspectives (integration; Suedfeld & Bluck 1993), integrative complexity is a dimension of information processing and includes the ability to perspective take. One such source of integrative complexity, detailed in Section 2.7, is the depth of multicultural experiences found within multicultural individuals. Extant research has found that multicultural experience increases integrative complexity and in turn, the ability and propensity for perspective taking behaviours (Tadmor, Galinsky and Maddux, 2012; Tadmor, Tetlock and Peng, 2009; Benet-Martinez, Lee and Leu, 2006; Tadmor and Tetlock, 2006; Crisp and Turner, 2011). In addition, as outlined in Section 2.6, multicultural identity formation is a dynamic process and is conceptualised on a continuum. This implies that the degree of multicultural identity will influence integrative complexity and resultant perspective taking behaviours of a multicultural individual. Building on the detailed review of the literature on multicultural identity, integrative capacity and perspective taking in Section 2.6 and 2.7 and the literature on perspective taking on group processes and outcomes outlined here, in Section 3.8, I hypothesise the following: Hypothesis 8: Multicultural identity will be positively related to perspective taking. behaviour. 103 3.8.3 Perspective Taking, Intergroup Biases and Perceived Cognitive Diversity Other than the effect of team members' perspective taking behaviour on the process of information elaboration in diverse teams, perspective taking may also mitigate social biases or discrimination within diverse teams. According to the CEM framework, team members may resort to social categorisation processes based on the ease with which the social categorisation implied by the differences amongst team members (e.g. skin colour-coloured vs. white) is cognitively retrieved and activated (i.e. cognitive accessibility); the extent to which the categorisation makes sense to the individuals in the group (i.e. normative fit); and, the extent to which categorisation yields sub-groups with high intragroup similarity and high intergroup differences (i.e. comparative fit) (van Knippenberg, De Dreu and Homan, 2004; van Knippenberg and van Ginkel, 2010). However, as previously discussed in Section 3.6, the CEM framework also makes a clear distinction between intergroup biases and the social categorisation process and contends that intergroup biases, more than merely subgroup categorisation, hinder the information elaboration process. Intergroup bias refers to more favourable perceptions of, and attitudes and behaviour towards, ingroups than outgroups (Brewer, 1979). Thus, in-group favouritism may create feelings of low morale, discrimination, threats and challenges to value, or the distinctiveness of group identity for outgroups, in turn affecting team dynamics. Social categorisation is less likely to result in intergroup biases in the absence of such threats or challenges (van Knippenberg, De Dreu and Homan, 2004; van Knippenberg and van Ginkel, 2010). The emergence of feelings of threat to subgroup identity is a key factor driving intergroup bias – and not the occurrence of social categorisation per se. As perspective taking is geared towards a clearer understanding of others, it prevents the perspective taker from automatically judging others more stereotypically (Ku, Wang and Galinsky, 2010). With increased information about others' viewpoints, perspective takers begin to acknowledge commonalities and see more of themselves 104 in others and others in themselves (Galinsky, Ku and Wang, 2005; Ku, Wang and Galinsky, 2010; Davis et al., 1996), which makes perspective takers less judgmental of perceived differences (i.e. members of out-groups) (Todd and Burgmer, 2013). Over time, as individuals become more aware of diverse perspectives, they are better able to correct any initial misinterpretations (Epley, Morewedge and Keysar, 2004). In this way, perspective taking is found to reduce intergroup bias (Todd et al., 2011b; Todd and Burgmer, 2013), in-group favouritism (Galinsky and Moskowitz, 2000a), stereotyping (Todd, Galinsky and Bodenhausen, 2012; Galinsky and Moskowitz, 2000b), expressions of bias and racial discrimination (Todd et al., 2011b; Todd, Bodenhausen and Galinsky, 2012; Ku, Wang and Galinsky, 2010), increase more acknowledgment of intergroup discrimination (Todd, Bodenhausen and Galinsky, 2012) as well as increase willingness to engage in intergroup contact including negatively stereotyped targets (Wang et al., 2014). Perspective taking is also found to promote smoother interracial interactions (Todd et al., 2011b). On account of the self-other overlap – i.e. seeing oneself in others and others in oneself (Galinsky, Ku and Wang, 2005; Ku, Wang and Galinsky, 2010; Davis et al., 1996), perspective taking also enhances empathic concerns and is consistently found to increase liking (Galinsky, Ku and Wang, 2005), behavioural mimicry leading to more pleasant interactions (Ku, Wang and Galinsky, 2010; Galinsky et al., 2008; Chartrand and Bargh, 1999), and helping behaviour (Ku, Wang and Galinsky, 2015; cf. Epley, Caruso and Bazerman, 2006). In fact, perspective taking increases interaction satisfaction in negotiations with perspective taking partners (Galinsky, Maddux, Gilin, & White, 2008) and patients have reported higher satisfaction during interactions with perspective taking medical practitioners (Blatt et al., 2010). Perspective taking has also been studied as a strategy for fostering bonds and social coordination (Galinsky, Ku & Wang, 2005). In terms of team outcomes, previous research has found that perspective taking can reduce egocentric judgments of fairness amongst individuals, and in groups, actual egoistic behaviour through greater sharing of group resources (Drolet, Larrick and Morris, 1998; Galinsky et al., 2008; Caruso, Epley and Bazerman, 2006). 105 Given these findings, perspective taking has the dual function of supporting information elaboration via the consideration of others' perspectives in a nonjudgmental way and the sharing of unique information between team members. Perspective taking also has a dual function in terms of interpersonal relationships by mitigating discrimination and intergroup bias and fostering positive affective feelings towards others. Thus, I hypothesise that perspective taking will facilitate information elaboration and act as a process variable that mediates the relationship between diversity (of perspectives) and information elaboration. In turn, this mediated relationship will have positive impacts for team cohesion and team member satisfaction while diminishing negative outcomes, such as conflict. Thus, hypothesis 9 states: Hypothesis 9: Perceived cognitive diversity will be positively related to perspective taking 3.8.4 Perceived Discrimination and Perspective Taking An important argument of this thesis is the critical distinction of the negative impact of intergroup bias and discrimination versus social categorisation per se, in diverse contexts. As discussed in Section 3.6, much of the discussion related to the negative impacts of diversity, according to the CEM framework, is centred around the impact of intergroup bias and discrimination on the information elaboration process. As outlined in earlier in this section, perspective taking can mitigate individuals' recourse to discrimination and bias and support the information elaboration process. For example, laboratory studies find positive impacts of perspective taking on information elaboration in diverse teams (Hoever et al., 2012). Much of the research on perspective taking has been conducted in laboratory settings and is based on teams that are created within in the laboratory and where participants meet each other for the first time. However, in real world contexts, members of a diverse work environment may already have existing issues of intergroup bias and individuals from 106 minority groups or those with less power or status may already have experienced some level of perceived discrimination. Thus, I consider the inclusion of perceived discrimination as an important part of this study and account for pre-existing dynamics related to discrimination within a diverse work context (Avery, Mckay and Wilson, 2008; Ku, Wang and Galinsky, 2015). I include perceived discrimination for a second reason. Namely, research on diverse contexts indicate that perceived discrimination is more relevant to the lived experience of those with a minority status (Tropp, 2007); who have a stigmatised status in a given context (Phinney, Madden and Santos, 1998); who have less power compared to other sub-groups (Ward, 2006); or, who have migrant status (Rudmin, 2009). Efforts to suppress group identity have been found to be positively related to perceived discrimination (Madera, King and Hebl, 2012); thus, if members of any sub-group felt that their social identity was not welcomed, they would perceive greater levels of discrimination. Therefore, compared to homogenous work contexts, perceived discrimination is of greater importance in diverse work contexts as such contexts have multiple sub-group dynamics to consider (Avery, Mckay and Wilson, 2008; Sanchez and Brock, 1996). A third and final reason to include perceived discrimination is in its comparison to the occurrence of discrimination in an objective form i.e. when it is clearly established that actual discrimination has occurred. In real world scenarios it is difficult to objectively establish when discrimination takes place as the intentions to discriminate, along with discriminatory actions, must be clearly established (Phinney, Madden and Santos, 1998). Additionally, individuals vary in their appraisal of others' intentions (Folkman, 2013; Folkman et al., 1986b). Hence, discrimination can occur without it being perceived by the target recipient; it can be perceived, but intention may be difficult to prove, and it can also be perceived in cases where it did not in fact occur. The perception of discrimination is therefore subjective to one's interpretation of others' intentions and an individual's coping abilities (Phinney, Madden and 107 Santos, 1998; Folkman et al., 1986a). However, irrespective of the victim's identity group, perceptions of discrimination have severe negative consequences for an individual's mental and physical well-being, including greater stress levels, diagnosis of depression and increased negative behaviours such as substance abuse (Pascoe and Richman, 2009). Perceived discrimination also has organisational consequences including negative impacts on organisational commitment and job satisfaction (Sanchez and Brock, 1996). The stress and anxiety that results from perceived discrimination impacts diverse group dynamics including effective interpersonal communication (Stephan and Stephan, 1999; Gao and Gudykunst, 1990). Anxiousness has been found to diminish perspective taking behaviour as anxiety induces individuals to exert their energies on their own egocentric perspectives rather than considering others' perspectives (Todd et al., 2015). In a similar vein, through the process of 'othering' when individuals are made to feel different, (i.e. their outgroup identity is made salient and intergroup bias is enhanced), they are less likely to perspective take (Williams, Parker and Turner, 2007). Further, groups that are discriminated against sometimes choose to become entrenched in their social group as a response to discrimination and reject the norms and values of the majority sub-group responsible for discriminatory practices (Jetten et al., 2001). Thus, feelings of perceived discrimination and related anxiety negatively impact individuals' ability to communicate effectively and perspective take to the extent that those who feel discriminated against may even reject other's perspectives. However, over time, there are mixed results of the effect of perceived discrimination and attitudes towards others. In a longitudinal study of cross-ethnic friendships and perceived discrimination in college students, while African American and Latino American samples reported lower feelings of perceived discrimination with increased friendships with Caucasians, Asian Americans did not report any significant changes (Tropp et al., 2012). Aberson and Hagg (2007) found that with increased high quality 108 positive contact with others, over time perspective taking can mitigate feelings of anxiety and result in positive attitudes towards others from different social groups. In another longitudinal study over a five-year period with African American adolescents, perceived discrimination was found to predict increased problems related to social conduct; however, this relationship was mediated by nurturing parenting, prosocial friendships and academic achievement (Brody et al., 2006). Thus, with this sample, activities for mitigating perceived discrimination were supported by positive home environments, friends who encouraged prosocial behaviours and a sense of academic achievement In a study of Filipino Americans, greater ethnic pride, involvement in one's social identity community and cultural practices helped mitigate the effects of perceived discrimination experienced through a participant's lifetime on their mental health; however, the same mitigating effect was not seen in everyday experiences of discrimination (Mossakowski, 2003). Research has also shown that there are cultural differences in coping strategies within stressful intergroup contexts (Bardi and Guerra, 2010). Many non-Western based groups use religious beliefs and/or avoidance approaches, while individuals from more Western cultures often seek social support (Bardi and Guerra, 2010). In sum, more research is needed to understand the long-term impact of perceived discrimination on perspective taking behaviours while considering contextual factors. I contribute to the research in building an understanding of the long-term effect of perceived discrimination on perspective taking in a diverse context by integrating and developing the discussion on perspective taking, information elaboration and perceived discrimination over time. Firstly, the CEM framework and previous work on perspective taking indicates that perspective taking reduces the tendencies for discrimination and reduced discrimination increases information elaboration; the existing longitudinal research on perceived discrimination suggests that positive contact with members of other groups and the effects of coping over time can mitigate the effects of perceived discrimination. Building on these discussions, I hypothesise the following: 109 Hypothesis 10: Perceived discrimination will be negatively related to perspective taking. 3.9 The Context of an Organisational Climate for Inclusion Teams are embedded in organisational contexts and the conditions organisations create can impact their teams. This is especially true for multinational organisations operating in multicultural environments. Although there is growing interest in supportive diversity climates and how they might transform knowledge-related processes in multinational organisations, we currently have limited knowledge about diversity climates because research on diversity climates has been limited to gender or racial diversity and has focused primarily on domestic firms, often examining only a single organisation (e.g. Cox, 1991; Ely and Thomas, 2001; Nishii, 2013; Hajro, Gibson and Pudelko, 2015; cf. Earley and Mosakowski, 2000). Further, as discussed in Section 3.5, contextual influences, including the effect of the organisational context, on the diversity-performance relationship are critical to our understanding, but often ignored (Joshi and Roh, 2009). Organisational climate, an aspect of an organisation's culture, refers to employees' perceptions of the immediate social atmosphere borne out of the organisation's practices, procedures and reward systems (Schneider, Brief and Guzzo, 1996). A positive organisational diversity climate can be described as an environment where individuals actively work with a wide variety of individuals and value and respect the views of those who are different (Lauring and Selmer, 2011), thereby fostering the diversity-performance relationship in several ways. Ely and Thomas (2001) observed that when organisations emphasised cultural diversity as a valuable resource for the organisation, employees with diverse backgrounds experienced a greater sense of feeling valued and respected. An inclusive diversity climate is also found to be positively associated with organisational commitment, job satisfaction, satisfaction with managers and career satisfaction (Hicks-Clarke and Iles, 2000). 110 For multicultural individuals working in a diverse context, as discussed in Section 2.8, a climate for inclusiveness allows them to engage, without hesitation, in their multiple self-concepts in their daily interactions with others (Nishii, 2013). Additionally, multicultural individuals will need an inclusive climate in order to facilitate access to their multiple cognitive schemas (Fitzsimmons, 2013). There is some evidence to suggest that organisational climates that are supportive of diversity can moderate the relationship between perceived discrimination and commitment to continue in the organisation (Triana, Garcia and Colella, 2010) . In an online survey study by Triana et al. (2010), organisational support for diversity mitigated the negative impact of perceived discrimination on affective commitment to the organisation for the Hispanic sample, but not for the African American sample. The African-American sample had the reverse effect, i.e. efforts to promote a diversity climate aggravated the negative relationship between discrimination and commitment to continue The authors contend that this negative impact could be due to cynicism often faced by African-American employee groups in organisational contexts (Triana, Garcia and Colella, 2010). Thus, building on these findings and the discussions from preceding sections, I hypothesise the following: a) in relation to perceived cognitive diversity: Hypothesis 11a: There will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived cognitive diversity and cohesion, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be positively related to cohesion. Hypothesis 11b: There will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived cognitive diversity and satisfaction, where the mediating process of perspective 111 taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be positively related to satisfaction. Hypothesis 11c: There will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived cognitive diversity and task conflict, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be negatively related to task conflict. Hypothesis 11d: There will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived cognitive diversity and process conflict., where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be negatively related to process conflict. Hypothesis 11e: There will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived cognitive diversity and relationship conflict., where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be negatively related to relationship conflict. b) in relation to multicultural identity Hypothesis 12a: There will be a conditional indirect relationship between multicultural identity and cohesion, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be positively related to cohesion. Hypothesis 12b: There will be a conditional indirect relationship between multicultural identity and satisfaction, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be positively related to satisfaction. Hypothesis 12c: There will be a conditional indirect relationship between multicultural identity and task conflict, where the mediating process of perspective 112 taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be negatively related to task conflict. Hypothesis 12d: There will be a conditional indirect relationship between multicultural identity and process conflict., where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be negatively related to process conflict. Hypothesis 12e: There will be a conditional indirect relationship between multicultural identity and relationship conflict., where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be negatively related to relationship conflict. c) in relation to perceived discrimination Hypothesis 13a: There will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived discrimination and cohesion, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be positively related to cohesion. Hypothesis 13b: There will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived discrimination and satisfaction, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be positively related to satisfaction. Hypothesis 13c: There will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived discrimination and task conflict, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be negatively related to task conflict. Hypothesis 13d: There will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived discrimination and process conflict, where the mediating process of perspective 113 taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be negatively related to process conflict. Hypothesis 13e: There will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived discrimination and process conflict, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be negatively related to relationship conflict. At this juncture, I introduce a caveat to the use of the term 'diverse context'. As argued in the diversity literature (see Section 3.3 and 3.5), I distinguish between perceived cognitive diversity and the inherent nationality based cultural diversity present in culturally diverse work contexts when testing my hypotheses in this study. As discussed, cultural diversity the presence of individuals from different national cultures does not automatically equate to a diversity of perspectives or cognitions, although this is often confounded in diversity literature. In line with the use of the CEM framework which focuses on the mediating role of information elaboration, perceived cognitive diversity is related to perceptions that individuals have in terms of differences in knowledge, skills and perspectives. Thus, I specifically account for, and measure, perceived cognitive diversity within the multiculturally diverse work context when I test the hypotheses. This is in concurrence with calls to delineate theorising about diversity as variety, separation and dispersion (please see Section 3.5 for detailed discussion; Harrison and Klein, 2007). While perceived cognitive diversity is categorised as a 'variety' type of diversity, cultural diversity can be perceived by employees as a form of dispersion as employees may feel that in a multicultural context, certain nationalities are given preference. For example, employees may feel that their colleagues who belong to the same nationality as the top management team may receive special favours or are judged less harshly than others. Therefore, there is scope for perceived discrimination when assessing the effects of cultural diversity compared to perceived cognitive diversity. Thus, hypotheses regarding perceived discrimination are framed from this perspective, i.e. the nature of a culturally diverse work context can trigger perceptions of bias and 114 discrimination. Similarly, the impact of multicultural individuals is framed from the same perspective as multicultural individuals, within a culturally diverse context, which may be able to impact diverse teams through the cultural knowledge, behavioural flexibility and integrative complexity (see Section 2.7 for a detailed discussion). Lastly, perceived cognitive diversity, as a form of 'variety' diversity, is related to sets of knowledge, skills and perspectives from which, as hypothesised, perspective taking behaviours may elicit information elaboration. By developing the hypotheses in this manner in this study, I have also addressed a second concern often highlighted in diversity literature, namely, the temporal nature of team dynamics (see Section 3.5 for a detailed discussion). The effects of diversity may be critically different when accounting for temporal considerations (Harrison et al., 2002). The relationships hypothesised in this study consider changes in interpersonal dynamics and task work that can occur with time. For example, individuals need time to interact in diverse work contexts and it takes time for perspective taking and for information elaboration to occur; repeated interactions are necessary. In turn, it takes time to see the effects, if any, of information elaboration on team outcomes, such as process conflict or team member satisfaction. This concludes the hypothesis development section in this chapter. In this section, using the CEM framework and building on past research on diversity, perspective taking, multicultural identity, perceived discrimination and organisational inclusive climate, I propose a serial mediation model where perspective taking mediates the effects of the antecedents of multicultural identity, cognitive diversity and perceived discrimination on information elaboration. Further, I propose that the conditional effects of inclusive climate on this mediated relationship will affect the effects of the antecedents on key outcomes such as cohesion, team member satisfaction and conflict. In the next section, Section 3.10, I provide a complete list of hypotheses and the hypothesised moderated mediation model before providing a chapter summary in Section 3.11. 115 3.10 Table of Hypotheses and Hypothesised Moderated Mediation Model As the previous section provided a detailed discussion of the development of the hypotheses, this section briefly tables the hypotheses and the hypothesised model. The table is provided alongside the model for the reader to connect each hypothesis with the process model with ease. In the next section, I provide the chapter summary before concluding this chapter. Table 3.1: List of hypotheses addressed in this study Hypothesis No. Hypothesised Relationships Information elaboration to outcome variables 1 Information elaboration will be positively related to team cohesion. 2 Information elaboration will be positively related to team member satisfaction. 3 Information elaboration will be negatively related to task conflict. 4 Information elaboration will be negatively related to process conflict. 5 Information elaboration will be negatively related to relationship conflict. Perspective taking, information elaboration and inclusive climate 6 Perspective taking will be positively related to information elaboration 7 The relationship between perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive organizational climate. Multicultural identity, perceived cognitive diversity, perceived discrimination and perspective taking 8 Multicultural identity will be positively related to perspective taking. 9 Perceived cognitive diversity will be positively related to perspective taking 10 Perceived discrimination will be negatively related to perspective taking. 116 Moderated mediation hypotheses: perceived cognitive diversity 11a There will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived cognitive diversity and cohesion, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be positively related to cohesion. 11b There will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived cognitive diversity and satisfaction, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be positively related to satisfaction. 11c There will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived cognitive diversity and task conflict, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be negatively related to task conflict. 11d There will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived cognitive diversity and process conflict., where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be negatively related to process conflict. 11e There will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived cognitive diversity and relationship conflict., where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be negatively related to relationship conflict. Moderated mediation hypotheses: multicultural identity 12a There will be a conditional indirect relationship between multicultural identity and cohesion, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be positively related to cohesion. 12b There will be a conditional indirect relationship between multicultural identity and satisfaction, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be positively related to satisfaction. 12c There will be a conditional indirect relationship between multicultural identity and task conflict, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated 117 by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be negatively related to task conflict. 12d There will be a conditional indirect relationship between multicultural identity and process conflict., where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be negatively related to process conflict. 12e There will be a conditional indirect relationship between multicultural identity and relationship conflict., where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be negatively related to relationship conflict. Moderated mediation hypotheses perceived discrimination 13a There will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived discrimination and cohesion, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be positively related to cohesion. 13b There will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived discrimination and satisfaction, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be positively related to satisfaction. 13c There will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived discrimination and task conflict, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be negatively related to task conflict. 13d There will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived discrimination and process conflict, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be negatively related to process conflict. 13e There will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived discrimination and process conflict, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be negatively related to relationship conflict. 118 As can be seen from the moderated mediation model in Figure 3.2, the hypothesised relationships consider the temporal nature of team dynamics in that antecedent variables (at Time 1) in this mediation model are hypothesised to occur before the moderated mediating mechanisms (at Time 2). In turn, the key outcome variables of cohesion, satisfaction, task, process and relationship conflict are expected to follow as a result of the moderated mediation process at Time 3. Figure 3.2: Moderated Mediation Model 3.11 Chapter Summary In this chapter, I systematically reviewed the literature on diversity (Section 3.3) and the diversity-performance link (Section 3.4), critically evaluated the underlying assumptions that impede our understanding of the diversity-performance relationship (Section 3.5) and in Section 3.6, introduced the CEM framework as an improved theoretical framework for understanding the effects of diversity on key outcomes. In Section 3.7 to 3.9, I used the CEM framework to methodically build the final set of hypotheses using research in perspective taking, perceived discrimination and organisational inclusive climate. During this process, I took cognisance of the deficiencies for which diversity studies are often criticised; namely, I provided clarity 119 in the conceptualisations of diversity used in this thesis; I explored the overreliance on conflict in diversity studies that confuses the effects of discrimination as social categorisation and examined the need for accommodating a temporal nature of team dynamics. I address each of these issues in the development of the hypotheses of this study. I propose a model that suggests perspective taking as a key process variable in the links between diversity, information elaboration and team outcomes. Using the literature on multicultural individuals described in Chapter 2, I also propose that it is through the process of perspective taking that multicultural individuals can impact key team outcomes by supporting information elaboration in diverse contexts. I also differentiate social categorisation and perceived discrimination so as not to conflate the two in the development of these hypotheses. In Section 3.10, I provided the moderated mediation model and a full table of all hypotheses used in this study. This now sets the stage for describing the research design and methodology used to test these hypotheses in Chapter 4. 120 CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 121 Chapter 4: Research Design and Methodology 4.1 Chapter Overview This chapter introduces the overall research design including ontological, epistemological and methodological consideration. It describes the methodologies used and provides a brief overview of the two studies investigated in this thesis. This chapter is divided into five main sections. The first section, Section 4.3, addresses the ontological paradigm and corresponding epistemological assumptions which form the basis of the thesis. The second section, Section 4.4, addresses my position as a researcher, as well as my interests and motivations in conducting this research. The third section, Section 4.5, describes the research setting including the context of the country and the organisation. The fourth section, Section 4.6, provides a general overview of the quantitative study while the fifth section, Section 4.7, provides a general overview of the qualitative study and research methods for each study, before concluding the chapter with a summary in Section 4.8. I begin the discussion with outlining the aims of this chapter in the next section. 4.2 Aims of this Chapter This chapter aims to make several contributions to the thesis. First, it explains the use of critical realism as the research paradigm used in this thesis. Second, it locates my position in proximity to the research. Third, it explains the unique contribution of the field study conducted in a historically multicultural environment reflecting real-world dynamics and globalised work contexts. This is in contrast to research based on largely homogenous contexts (e.g. US-centric research) and those that use student samples or paid participants. Finally, the chapter aims to provide the reader with an overview of the structure of the mixed methods approach used in this thesis including the value of both the quantitative and qualitative approaches to investigating the phenomenon under study. 122 4.3 Ontological and Epistemological Approaches 4.3.1 The research paradigm A research paradigm is the basic belief system or worldview that guides a researcher on fundamental ontological, epistemological and methodological choices (Guba and Lincoln, 1994; Schwandt, 2007). These worldviews question the nature of reality whether one believes there is a single, variable reality or several socially constructed ones (i.e. ontology), and the relationship of the researcher and the unknown such as the relationship between what we know and what we see (i.e. epistemology) (Denzin and Lincoln, 2018; Guba and Lincoln, 1994). These worldviews often lead a researcher to embrace specific methodological approaches (Creswell, 2009; Patton, 1990). There is much debate about the lines that border these paradigms and how much researchers are married to any particular paradigm (Lincoln, Lynham and Guba, 2018; Denzin, 2010). Indeed, when Kuhn first coined the term 'paradigm' with respect to scientific inquiry, his treatise included the position that paradigms were subject to 'revolutions' which transform the way scientists work (Kuhn, 1970). He said, "Led by a new paradigm, scientists adopt new instruments and look in new places. Even more important, during revolutions scientists see new and different things when looking with familiar instruments in places they have looked before." (Kuhn, 1970, p.111) Thus, while paradigms denote structure and systems of inquiry, they also provide the required flexibility to allow for 'revolutions'. 123 4.3.2. Typology of Paradigms Based on questions of ontology, epistemology and methodology, Guba and Lincoln (1994) classified paradigms into four types, namely: positivism, postpositivism, critical theories and constructivism (p.112, Table 6.1). This was later revised to include a fifth paradigm, namely, the participatory/cooperative paradigm (Lincoln, Lynham and Guba, 2018, p.111, Table 5.3). The scope of this chapter does not permit me to elaborate on each of these paradigms in detail. However, from Lincoln, Lynham and Guba's (2018) chapter, I reproduce Table 5.3, in order to situate my choice of research paradigm amongst those described. The typologies are reproduced below in Table 4.1 and provide a brief overview of how each paradigm differs in its ontological, epistemological and methodological assumptions. In their typology, the category of 'critical theory et al', is used as a blanket term to refer to alternate paradigms such as Marxism, feminism, and materialism. 4.3.3 Critical Realism As can be seen in Table 4.1, moving across from left to right, the ontological assumptions range from a strong emphasis on verifiable knowledge and an objective reality to highly interpretative frameworks, which considers relativism with multiple actors as co-creators of reality. Critical realism, highlighted in yellow, is situated to the right of positivism. The introduction of critical realism in 1975 was as a critique of the positivist paradigm, which according to Bhaskar, suffered from 'epistemic fallacy' of confounding statements about our knowledge of the world (i.e. epistemology) with our view of the world (i.e. ontology) (Bhaskar, 2008, 2014). 124 Table 4.1: Basic Beliefs of Alternate Inquiry Paradigms (Lincoln, Lynham and Guba, 2018, p.111) Issue Positivism Postpositivism Critical theory et al Constructivism Participatory Ontology Naïve realism- "real" reality but apprehensible Critical realism- "real" reality but only imperfectly and probabilistically apprehensible Historical realismvirtual reality shaped by social, political, cultural, economic, ethnic and gender values; crystallized over time Relativismlocal and specific coconstructed realities Participatory realitysubjective -objective reality, co-created by mind and given cosmos Epistemology Dualist/ objectivist; findings true Modified dualist/ objectivist; critical tradition/ community; findings probably true Transactional/ subjectivist; valuemediated findings Transactional/ subjectivist; cocreated findings Critical subjectivity in participatory transaction with cosmos; extended epistemology of experiential propositional and practical knowing; co-created findings Methodology Experimental/ Manipulative; verification of hypotheses; chiefly quantitative methods Modified experimental/ manipulative; critical multiplism; falsification of hypotheses; may include qualitative methods Dialogical/ dialectical Hermeneutical/ dialectical Political participation in collaborative action inquiry; primacy of the practical; use of language grounded in shared experiential context 125 According to Bhaskar, reality encompassed three realms the domain of the real, the actual and the empirical (see Table 4.2). The domain of the real is the level at which events, mechanisms and experiences occur. The domain of the actual is where the events caused by the mechanisms in the domain of the real, are experienced by individuals. The final domain is the domain of the empirical. Bhaskar contends that it is in this domain that social scientists attempt to interpret the events experienced in the domain of the actual, using the knowledge of mechanisms and structures located in the domain of the real (Bhaskar, 2008). Table 4.2: The Domains of Critical Realism (Bhaskar, 2008) Domain of Real Domain of Actual Domain of Empirical Mechanisms Events Experiences Critical realism, therefore, posits that social science is socially situated and that there are levels of structure between society and human agency, which interact (see Figure 4.1). However, it maintains that objectivity is possible as reality is not socially determined (Houston, 2001) because the structure of social world is systematically and hierarchically layered (Reed and Harvey, 1992). Thus, for critical realists, both human agency and structures of society play key roles in the study of social sciences (Gorski, 2013). The ultimate purpose in critical realism, is to motivate social change and promote human freedoms (Bhaskar, 2008). I return to this point when I refer to my own motivations for this thesis in Section 4.4.2. 126 Figure 4.1: Bhaskar's model of the society/persona connection 4.3.4 Epistemological and methodological implications for the use of Critical Realism in this thesis The ontological assumptions of critical realisms in turn have their epistemological and methodological ramifications. These have important implications for the structure and methods used in this thesis and are outlined below. 1. Context is an integral part of social inquiry Critical realism acknowledges and emphasises the existence of surrounding social structures by stating that social phenomena are influenced by underlying systems and mechanism (see Figure 4.2; Reed and Harvey, 1992; Gorski, 2013). Unlike positivistic paradigms, which have historically often relied on the controlled environments of laboratories, critical realism requires the researcher to be cognizant of the influence of social structures and context while the social phenomenon is studied. This has several implications for this thesis. First, the study of multicultural individuals' influence on team dynamics is not studied in a vacuum. There is a conscious choice taken in studying this phenomenon in real-world contexts and using field data as opposed to utilising experimental designs or purely survey-based Society Individuals Socialisation Reproduction/ Transformation Individuals Society 127 studies. Second, the contextual nature of the environment, namely the culturally diverse work environment, that these individuals are situated in, is given importance. This is what led me to explore in detail in Chapter 3 the context of diverse teams and the vast literature on diversity-performance relationship. Additionally, critical realism has been used extensively in the context of healthcare (e.g. McEvoy and Richards, 2006; Pligrim and Bentall, 1999; Houston, 2001; Angus and Clark, 2012). 2. Individual agency and experience Just as structure is central to critical realism, critical realism also considers that individuals have agency in how they are socialised into social structures (Fleetwood, 2005; Bhaskar, 2014). Critical realists understand that individuals can transform social mechanisms and influence social structures, and thus, individuals have 'motivations', 'abilities' and their own 'perceptions' of what is and how things ought to be (Fleetwood, 2005). These perceptions of reality are in the domain of experience and are subject to interpretivism to the degree that they are rooted in the existing social structures from which they arise (McEvoy and Richards, 2006). Thus, attempting to understand what those underlying structures and mechanisms are, requires an open mind to making sense of individuals' experiences and agency (McEvoy and Richards, 2006). This emphasis on the interactions of structures and agency highlights two key implications for the studies in this thesis. First, the focus of this research is on individuals' perceptions of their reality, while simultaneously taking into consideration the influence of the context. Thus, this approach accepts that individuals' perceptions are a form of reality. Secondly, openness to understanding the underlying structures and mechanism allows for the process of theory building (McEvoy and Richards, 2006). Both of these aspects undergird the basis of Chapter 6 of this thesis. 128 3. Retroductive methodological approach Critical realists use the process of 'retroduction' which involves moving between levels of observation and lived experience to hypothesise about the underlying structures and mechanism that have led to these phenomenon and experiences (Houston, 2001; McEvoy and Richards, 2006). Their purpose is to explain, understand and interpret social phenomenon (Mingers, 2006). Because critical realism simultaneously considers structures, individual agency and their interactions, this paradigm provides the critical realist with the advantage of combining several methodological approaches when studying a single phenomenon including mixed methods and means of triangulation (Creswell, 2007; McEvoy and Richards, 2006). Creswell (2007) suggests that researchers will therefore, "believe in multiple perspectives from participants rather than a single reality" (2007, p.20). The interactions between domains also suggests that that there is a temporal nature to these interaction; that this is an ongoing cyclical process (Fleetwood, 2005). Importantly, the implication here is that this thesis takes a mixed methods approach that is focused on the underlying mechanisms by which multicultural individuals impact diverse team processes. While Chapter 5 focuses on a quantitative study to understand this phenomenon, Chapter 6 investigates it from a qualitative perspective. Using both methods adds further probabilistic support the validity of the overall findings. In addition, the research design in this thesis reflects a process model, which considers the temporal nature of interactions hypothesised in this study. I expand further on the mixed methods, triangulation and design of the studies in this thesis later in this Chapter in Section 4.6. 4. Conceptual mediation and the role of the researcher Critical realists acknowledge that information gleaned from social phenomena is mediated through the researcher's conceptual resources (Fleetwood, 2005). These conceptual resources include their theoretical resources, belief systems, worldviews, 129 cultural experiences and upbringing. Thus, interpretations of phenomenon are valueladen. This is an important feature of critical realism as it recognises and accommodates the role of the researcher in the research. Thus, reflexivity of the researcher is an important component of the critical realism paradigm. This leads me to the next section of this chapter which outlines my reflexivity as a critical realist researcher. 4.4 Reflective review as a critical realist researcher Reflexivity involves identifying researchers' biases, influences, personal background and other factors which may influence the interpretation of data (Creswell, 2009). The reflexive process also includes being explicit about gaining access to the research site and any ethical issues that may arise (Creswell, 2009). Further, as Caprar (2011) says, "The experience of the researcher and his or her ability to understand the phenomena studied can be an important advantage in capturing relevant data and making sense of it" (Caprar, 2011, p.612). I focus on three core areas for reflexive review in my role as a researcher. The first area concerns my personal identity, the second explains my personal motivations to undertake this research and the third is with regards to my professional experience. 4.4.1 Personal identity In terms of my personal identity, I am a multicultural individual. I am an Indian national born to South Indian parents from the state of Kerala. I was born in Dubai, UAE and lived in Saudi Arabia through most of my childhood. During my teens, I lived in Kerala. Thus, both the Middle East and South India are "home" and the cultures of both societies form part of my personal culture. I add that as a Muslim, the Middle East's Islamic cultural heritage is one I share as well. Both of my 130 brothers were born in the Middle East as well, my children too grew up in Kerala and the Middle East and we continue to have close family in both regions, who I visit regularly. Thus, I have maintained these cultural ties from childhood into adulthood. I am not conversant in Arabic (except for a few phrases) nor even very fluent in Malayalam (the local language of Kerala) but am familiar with the greetings, voice intonations, mannerisms, hand gestures, body language and tone of voice used in communication in both cultures. My first language is English, because I grew up in an international community in the Middle East and studied in an American school. In addition, having lived in the United Kingdom (UK) for the past six years, the UK, too, is "home". As a result of my multiple cultural affiliations, while growing up in the Middle East and South India, I have simultaneously been both a minority and majority member of the societies I have lived in. This lifelong experience has taught me to occupy the position of a cultural insider and outsider, allowing for a balance between tacit, indepth knowledge of social phenomenon as well as having to learn from my social experiences. Thus, my personal identity allows for unique insights and makes my role as a researcher in this study well informed. As a researcher, living in the UK has made me aware of the influence of context and of social structures on individual agency. Unlike the Middle East and India, which are extremely diverse in terms of cultures and people working together, the UK is comparatively homogenous. Discussions about structural constraints in the progress of black and ethnic minorities abound in popular discourse (e.g. Eddo-Lodge, 2017), policy debates (e.g. Saggar et al., 2016), political positioning (e.g. State multiculturalism has failed, says David Cameron BBC News, 2011) and academic discourse (e.g. Fielden and Davidson, 2012) in the UK. These discussions are less prominent in highly diverse contexts, such as some Middle Eastern states, where concepts of 'majority' and 'minority' are more difficult to define (Raheem, 2016). As the opening quote in this thesis from Amartya Sen suggests, my experience in living 131 in pluralistic environments entails less pressure to conform to a single identity compared to more homogenous contexts. 4.4.2 My personal motivations My personal motivations to undertake this research centres on my personal experiences of living in multiple cultures. These experiences inform my views about the value and purpose of my life. Essentially, I wish to contribute to the world in a way that promotes plurality. I hope to do this by creating spaces and structures that allow for hybridity of thoughts, identities and acceptance of others who are different from oneself. Living as an outside and insider of multiple social circles in an increasingly polarising world where boundaries are being constantly reinforced, creates a lot of personal angst. As Bhaskar (2008) contends, research can be used as a powerful tool for promoting human freedoms and change for more inclusive social structures. This is my personal motivation for undertaking this research. 4.4.3 Professional experience In a professional capacity, I have worked and led diverse teams in healthcare organisations in the Middle East. The research setting for this study is a healthcare organisation, referred to as XYZ Hospital, based in the Kingdom of Bahrain. I had previously worked for a Middle East based healthcare unit which is a sister enterprise of XYZ Hospital. Although I was a former employee at the sister concern, during my tenure, XYZ Hospital had not be established. However, I have previously met and worked with some of the members of the Management Group, before they became part of senior management (i.e. members of the Management Group) at the group headquarters. This Management Group has oversight over all healthcare units of this Healthcare Group in the Middle East. The Group does not directly manage the dayto-day operations of XYZ Hospital. 132 My familiarity with the corporate culture as both a former colleague and employee, added unique value to my role as a researcher. For example, I was aware of tacit institutional norms and leadership styles that were often used by senior management. This relationship also gave me trusted access to information regarding the overall health of XYZ Hospital. I expand upon these themes further in Chapter 6. Overall, my identity and professional expertise work together to support my role in the research process as means to access and uncover tacit and unique information. My role as a researcher therefore, is an opportunity to enhance the research process rather than an intrusion in research realm (Denzin and Lincoln, 2018). This is not to say that observations and interpretations are value free. On the contrary, with my choice of the critical realism paradigm, I argue that through this reflexivity, I take advantage of my previous experiences to add value to the research process. In addition, I use multiple methods to investigate the same phenomenon and thus triangulate the research. I also use multiple qualitative methods to ensure consistency and reliability. I discuss these in detail in Section 4.8, later in this chapter. In the next section of this chapter, I discuss the research setting including XYZ Hospital and the context of cultural norms of the Kingdom of Bahrain. 4.5 Research Setting The research setting for this study is a multinational hospital based in the Kingdom of Bahrain (henceforth referred to as Bahrain). In this section, I outline both the organisational and country contexts, which lend this research setting as an appropriate site for studying the impact of multicultural individuals in diverse work environments. A discussion of the importance of context (i.e. the research setting) in this study is warranted. I highlight four key aspects of the importance of context for this study. First, in line with the critical realism paradigm, this research setting is outside the realm of 133 a closed system of a laboratory setting and takes into consideration the context in which the phenomenon naturally occurs including societal structures that influence it (Bhaskar, 2008; Reed and Harvey, 1992). Second, there has been growing recognition in management literature of the importance of addressing the impact of contextual issues when studying organisational phenomena (Johns, 2006; Cappelli and Sherer, 1991; Bamberger, 2008) and specifically when addressing diversity studies (Joshi and Roh, 2009). Third, "unconventional contexts" contribute to scholarly community in reexamining our societal assumptions, which often constrain our inquiries, and enhancing our learning (Bamberger and Pratt, 2010). Finally, these contextual influences on individual behaviours and perceptions may arise from social norms on account of organisational and national cultures (e.g. Kirkman and Shapiro, 2001), the interplay of both organisational and national cultures (e.g. Gerhart and Fang, 2005) and well as external labour markets (e.g. Bacharach and Bamberger, 2004). With these contextual influences in mind, I next describe the context of the hospital and Bahrain. 4.5.1 XYZ Hospital In describing the hospital in this section, I highlight three key features of the organisation. First, I highlight the interdisciplinary nature of the hospital; second, the management's strategic focus on diversity and lastly, the organisational importance attributed to quality healthcare standards. XYZ Hospital has been operational since 2010 and began patient intake in 2011. It is multidisciplinary in nature and functions across 28 medical disciplines. The 65-bed multi-speciality hospital offers a range of services, including outpatient consultations, 24 hours emergency services, a sleep lab, a cosmetology clinic, physiotherapy, dental clinic, 24-hour laboratory and radiology units, an in-house pharmacy, and home medical services such as doctor and nurse visits, lab sample collection, delivery of medicine, care for the elderly and physiotherapy sessions. XYZ Hospital also operates a 24-hour operation theatre along with intensive care facilities such as neo134 natal intensive care units and isolation rooms for infection control cases. Together with scheduled surgical cases and cosmetology procedures, the Hospital also conducts day-care procedures which do not require hospital stay. To deliver high quality and safe care across these services, the patient care services staff of the hospital require open and well-coordinated interdisciplinary teamwork (Chief Medical Officer, 2015). A second feature of this Hospital is that although the ownership and management of the organisation is primarily Indian, the management takes pride in positioning the Hospital as a destination of choice for both medical practitioners and patients amongst the diverse population of Bahrain. The Hospital's marketing literature highlights the Hospital's "impressive roster of international medical professionals" (Senior Marketing Executive, personal communication, November 29, 2016) while the Group Marketing Head indicates that the hospital's strategy is positioned to cater to a diverse segment of "Bahrainis, Western Expats and (high net worth individual) Asians" (personnel communication, November 29, 2016). Thus, the organisation seeks a diverse client base by positioning its brand image as an organisation with a culturally diverse employee base. The organisation currently employs staff from nineteen different nationalities as full-time employees, while it also has a varying number of visiting consultants from different countries (detailed demographic information in Chapter 5). In other words, the organisation is a multicultural organisation that strategically uses its diverse work context in both its customer and recruitment outreach strategies. A third unique feature of this Hospital is its focus on ensuring international healthcare standards. The hospital is recognized as a Centre of Excellence for Metabolic and Bariatric surgery by the Surgical Review Corporation (SRC), USA, which is internationally recognized healthcare leader in assessing the safety, efficacy and efficiency of surgical care worldwide (SRC, n.d.). It is also accredited for international health standards by the Australian Council on Healthcare Standards 135 (ACHS) International, which is an internationally recognized assessment and accreditation organization in the healthcare industry (ACHSI, n.d.). The Hospital is also the first hospital to be the awarded the highest level of accreditation (Diamond Status) in the Bahrain National Health Regulatory Authority Accreditation (NHRA Accreditation, n.d.). XYZ Hospital is part of a larger healthcare group operating in India and the Middle East. The parent organization was founded in India and was the only healthcare provider in the country, at the time, to be both nationally and internationally accredited for their healthcare delivery standards. The Group's first healthcare unit in Bahrain, was the first medical clinic to receive international accreditation in the Gulf Cooperation Council countries (IMTJ, 2008). In keeping with its corporate focus on accreditation, the team at XYZ Hospital also prides itself in being internationally accredited by the ACHSI and SCS and nationally by the NHRA. It was the fastest accredited hospital in the Kingdom, when it received its accreditation in 2013. Accreditation is an important tool in signalling to both external and internal clients about the operational standards of healthcare delivery and patient safety (Schyve, 2000). This level of healthcare delivery is indicative of high levels of service delivery because of well-co-ordinated teamwork, professionalism and a culture of continuous improvement. In sum, XYZ Healthcare provides a suitable site for investigating how multicultural individuals impact diverse team processes in multiple ways for two reasons. First, the organisation's multidisciplinary nature and strategic focus on multicultural workforce requires a high degree of communication and coordination across functionally and culturally diverse employees in order to manage service delivery across its many services. Thus, the Hospital context is an appropriate setting to study work processes amongst a diverse workforce. Second, the focus on international standards of quality delivery and continuous improvement also necessitates the information elaboration 136 (as outlined in Chapter 3) amongst the diverse workforce in order to ensure smooth coordination of efforts, patient safety and high standards of service delivery. 4.5.2 The Kingdom of Bahrain Bahrain is an island nation in the Persian Gulf, in the Middle East. It is a member of the six-member Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries which share similar historical, cultural and geographical links (Secretariat of the Gulf Cooperation Council, 2013). Figure 4.2 shows a map of Bahrain in context to the GCC. These countries are classified as resource-rich and labour-poor as they are endowed with natural oil wealth but suffer from human resource development and shortage of skilled labour (The World Bank, 2008). Figure 4.2 Map of Bahrain and the GCC (Source: www.gcccountries-business.com) Successive generations of governments, from the first discovery of oil in Bahrain in 1932, have encouraged foreign nationals, as temporary "guest workers" to take up employment in the GCC to address these skill gap issues (Al-Dosary and Rahman, 2005; Baldwin-Edwards, 2011; Kapiszewski, 2006). This historical dependence of foreign talent at all levels has resulted in the predominance of the expatriate labour force such that they now constitute between 50 and 94 per cent of the labour force in the GCC (Kapiszewski, 2006; Baldwin-Edwards, 2011). Table 4.3 provides the 137 break-down of national and expatriate labour participation in the workforce in Bahrain from 1975 to now, as provided by the Labour Market Authority of Bahrain. Table 4.3: Bahraini and Non-Bahrain workforce participation (Figures from 1975-1999 are from (Baldwin-Edwards, 2011); Figures for 2010 are from 2010 Bahrain Census data (Bel-Air, 2015) and Figure for 2017 is Quarter 2 data provided by (Bahrain Labour Market Indicators, 2017) Table 4.4: Bahraini and Non-Bahrain population Data source: Central Informatics Organisation (Central Organisation Informatics, 2017) Non-Bahrainis are predominantly employed in the private sector (Bahrain in Figures, 2017). This shift in the labour force towards expatriates is also represented in the population demographics. Non-Bahrainis make up 53% of the population of Bahrain (Bahrain in Figures, 2017) as can be seen from Table 4.4. Bahrainis are therefore, a minority in their country as well as in private sector employment. Even predating the discovery of oil, Bahrain was an important trading port and the centre of the ancient civilisation of Dilmun. As an important trading port, in its history, it has been ruled by the Babylonians, Persians, Portuguese, Omanis and the British, to name a few. Although relatively peaceful, it has not, however, escaped the political spill-overs of the region and it did have unprecedented protests from the 138 Shia community between 2011 and 2013 during the Arab Uprising. However, it has been relatively calm since. Thus, historically Bahrain has extremely multicultural roots and continues to support an extremely multicultural society. The research setting in this thesis provides a unique opportunity to study diversity and the impact of multicultural individuals, where diversity is ubiquitous and considered the norm. Much of the previous diversity research often use samples of internationally diverse groups, in largely monocultural organisational cultures, such as student samples in an MBA program in a Dutch business school (e.g. Pieterse, Knippenberg and Dierendonck, 2013) or from domestic organisations, which operate under a single homogenous national culture (e.g Ely and Thomas, 2001). In these contexts, under a single national culture, homogeneity is often the norm, even if not explicitly stated. The kind of context which Bahrain offers, is what is referred to as "superdiversity" (Vertovec, 2007), where several nationalities, ethnicities, languages and religions co-exist and sometimes, converge (Yampolsky, Amiot and de la Sablonnière, 2013). Such contexts are important, as with time, contact between these diverse communities blur the traditional boundaries of group affiliation and identity (Pieterse, 2001; van de Vijver et al., 2015). Blurring such group identity boundaries allows for dynamism in identity formation, such as the development of a multicultural identity (Pieterse, 2001; van de Vijver et al., 2015). Thus, given the historical superdiversity of Bahrain, this environment lends itself to opportunities for multicultural identity formation, and is an appropriate setting for this study. In sum, the multicultural work context and multidisciplinary work dynamics of XYZ Hospital combined with the historical superdiversity of the Kingdom of Bahrain, makes this choice of research setting a fertile ground for the investigation of multicultural individuals' impact on diverse work processes and outcomes. With increasing diversity in work contexts around the world, the research setting also increases the potential generalisability of findings to other real-world work contexts, 139 compared to laboratory studies in primarily homogenous country cultural contexts. In the next section of this chapter, I discuss the overall research design employed in this study. 4.6 Overall research resign In this section, I provide an overview of the research design and the use of mixed methods and triangulation techniques. I also provide the timeline of the research process. This thesis uses a mixed methods approach and consists of two studies a quantitative study and a qualitative one. Both studies use field data as the primary data source. Both studies seek to answer the same research question: how do multicultural individuals impact diverse team processes and outcomes? As a critical realist, I investigate this question using two different but complimentary approaches. In the quantitative study, in Chapter 5, I use a hypo-deductive approach while in the qualitative study, in Chapter 6, I use a grounded theory approach. Table 4.5 provides an overview of the research methodology and analytical methods used in both studies. Further details of both studies are provided in Sections 4.7 and 4.8. 4.6.1 Using a mixed methods approach Mixed methods research uses both qualitative and quantitative data collection and data analysis techniques either sequentially or in parallel in a single study (Tashakorri and Teddlie, 2003). Mixed methods research provides advantages in social inquiry by utilizing the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative methods, thus resulting in greater insights and better understanding of social phenomenon (Ritchie and Lewis, 2003; Tashakorri and Teddlie, 2003; Creswell, 2009). For example, "it allows researchers to test theoretical models and to modify them based on participant feedback" (Hanson et al., 2005, p.224). 140 Table 4.5 Summary of studies: research aims, methods and analytical techniques Study Research Aims Methods Analytical techniques Chapter Study 1 To investigate the process by which multicultural individuals impact team processes and outcomes in diverse teams. ▪ Quantitative: hypothetico-deductive ▪ Fieldwork ▪ Longitudinal ▪ Paper and pen surveys Conditional Process Analysis Chapter 5 Study 2 To investigate multicultural individuals lived experience while negotiating team dynamics in diverse teams. ▪ Qualitative: inductive ▪ Fieldwork ▪ Semi-structured in-depth interviews ▪ Participant observations ▪ Informant interviews ▪ Company documents and literature Grounded Theory Thematic Analysis Chapter 6 141 4.6.2 Triangulation The use of mixed methods to "uncover some unique variance which otherwise may have been neglected by a single method" (Jick, 1979, p.603) is known as triangulation. Thus, the inherent purpose of triangulation is to offset the biases that stem from using only a single method when studying the a phenomenon (Greene, Caracelli and Graham, 1989). Creswell and colleagues (Creswell et al., 2003) provide a more advanced typology of mixed methods research where the role of triangulation is clarified. Using their typology for classification, this research uses a concurrent triangulation mixed methods research design (Creswell et al., 2003). Figure 4.3 provides a visual demonstration of the use of quantitative and qualitative methods used in this research design. Figure 4.3. A visual representation of a concurrent triangulation methods used in this research design (adapted from Creswell et al., 2003) Quantitative and qualitative data are collected and analysed at the same time in concurrent triangulation designs where both types of data are given equal priority Results Quantitative Data Collection Qualitative Data Collection Qualitative Data Analysis Quantitative Data Analysis Combined Data Interpretation Qualitative Study Quantitative Study 142 (Creswell et al., 2003; Hanson et al., 2005). Data in both studies are analysed separately and integrated and the interpretation stage (Hanson et al., 2005). Interpretation includes a discussion on the extent to which the data triangulate or converge (Hanson et al., 2005). This form of mixed methods designs is useful to cross-validate and corroborate findings from a single study (Creswell et al., 2003; Hanson et al., 2005) but largely it informs to enrich one's understanding of the social phenomenon. This study also uses a second form of triangulation, namely betweenmethod triangulation (Denzin, 2012). In the qualitative study described in Chapter 6, I use a combination of methods (i.e. in-depth interviews, participant observation, field notes and organisational documents) to collect data surrounding interpersonal dynamics, work flows and operational issues. The uses of triangulation in this way between two methodologies (quantitative and qualitative) and between several methods (in-depth interviews, participant observation etc.)provide strong sources of extra knowledge for understanding the phenomenon under investigation (Flick, 2018) and is not an exercise in convergence (Flick, 2018; Mathison, 1988). 4.6.3 Timeline of the research process during fieldwork Figure 4.4 provides a visual representation of the timeline of key events during fieldwork. As can be seen from the timeline, given the mixed methods approach, both the quantitative and qualitative studies were conducted concurrently, and equal importance was given to both approaches. The total time spent in the field was fortythree days. Preliminary discussions with the organisation began in November 2015 when permission was granted in principle. Participant observation at this early stage included observing patient flows, including registering as a patient and taking a medical consultation, and an orientation of the departments and buildings, which formed part of the hospital premises. During this time, written material on the organisation, including marketing material, reports on key performance indicators 143 and demographic data was collected. In order to better understand work flows in specific areas of the hospital, I was informally introduced by the Human Resources Manager to eight team leaders, all of whom agreed to be interviewed. The Human Resources Manager also agreed to be interviewed resulting in a total of nine interviews. These informant interviews were semi-structured and follow up interview questions were adapted to understand specific functional areas. The interview protocol is provided in Appendix 1. These interviews were, with permission recorded, and transcribed. The functional areas which these leaders headed included the laboratory, reception, insurance, human resources, nursing, guest and patient relations, marketing and the pharmacy. A tenth interview was conducted with the Chief Medical Officer (CMO). The purpose of the speaking to the CMO was to understand the overall approach to medical care and coordination in medical services. These initial interviews and observations at the hospital are an important part of the research process as they were used to inform, plan and refine the data collection process and data collection instruments for both the quantitative and qualitative studies. For example, in the quantitative study outlined in Chapter 5, I describe how initial discussions raised the issue of variations in English proficiency amongst employees. This led to a pilot study of the survey instrument amongst two different samples. The first sample consisted of professionals, for whom English was a second language, working in multinational work contexts in different parts of the Middle East. The second sample included professionals from fourteen different nationalities. Further details of the pilot study are provided in Chapter 5. A second example of how the research process benefitted from these preliminary discussions was in decisions regarding the data collection periods. XYZ Hospital is the first private hospital in Bahrain to be awarded Australian Council on Healthcare Standards International (ACHSI) accreditation. The ACHSI accreditation for the hospital is a major point of the hospital's service offering as well as an important indicator of its differentiation in the market. XYZ Hospital was scheduled for review 144 and reaccreditation inspection in November 2016. Hence, November was a critical month as it marked a period of added pressure for employees at XYZ Hospital. This provided a rare opportunity to study the dynamics of interpersonal interactions leading up to this important point in the organisation's history. Thus, data collection for the surveys mirrored the activity levels in the Hospital, and qualitative data collection was increased just prior to the reaccreditation inspection in order to explore, as much as possible, the full gamut of interpersonal dynamics and activity in the Hospital. Additionally, the Management was clear that all data collection during November would be authorized only after the accreditation inspection was over. Further details of the data collection process are provided in Chapters 5 and 6 for the quantitative and qualitative studies, respectively. 145 Figure 4.4: Timeline of key events during fieldwork *ACHSI= Australian Council on Healthcare Standards International A p r i l July September October November 2015 2016 2016 • Preliminary discussions with senior management and agreement on principle • Initial observations of work flows and hospital outlay • Received documents on employee demographics • Received reports on operational key performance indicators • Interview with Chief Medical Officer • Preliminary interviews with 9 team leaders ✓ 5 Days on site May June • Formal permission received and data collection schedule agreed • Pilot study of survey instrument • Survey development • Survey at Time 1 • Participant observation • Extensive time spent with different work teams & building relationships • Collected updated documents on employee demographics ✓ 9 Days on site • Survey at Time 2 • Participant observation • In-depth interviews (Phase 1) • Informal discussions with employees • Informal discussions with employees • Interview with senior management • Collected updated documents on employee demographics ✓ 17 Days on site • Survey at Time 3 • Participant observation • In-depth interviews (Phase 2) • Informal discussions with employees and senior management • Collected updated documents on employee demographics ✓ 12 Days on site • ACHSI Inspection November April * 146 As outlined in Figure 4.4, the primary data collection period lasted four months from July to November 2016, with data collection at Time 1 in July, Time 2 in September/October and Time 3 in November. This equated to a total data collection period of almost forty days across all three data collection periods. However, for the qualitative part of the study, no data was collected at Time 1 (i.e. July). Interviews for this study were conducted at Time 2 and 3. This was done intentionally. In order to prepare for interviews, the time spent in the organisation at Time 1, was strategically used to establish relationships with employees at various levels of the organisation, to observe workflows and to understand task requirements of different teams. This is discussed in detail in Chapter 6, when detailing the qualitative study. The longitudinal design in data collection provides several benefits and is aligned with the theorising already discussed in Chapter 3. The research question focuses on interactions by which multicultural individuals influence diverse team processes. A sequential mediation model is hypothesised in Chapter 3. The study of mediation necessitates a longitudinal research design (Pettigrew, 1990; Selig and Preacher, 2009; Glick et al., 1990; Edmondson and McManus, 2007). Further, a longitudinal research design allows for inclusion of the temporal nature of teamwork (Horwitz and Horwitz, 2007; Mathieu et al., 2014; Jonsen, Maznevski and Schneider, 2011). And lastly, in line with the critical realism paradigm, it allows for a better understanding of underlying mechanisms as there may be a temporal difference between the cause and effect of mechanisms (Bhaskar, 2008). Thus, there are four key aims in developing this research design. First, the research is designed to uncover aspects of the phenomenon under study which may be missed by using a single method. Second, it aims to overcome any biases as a result of using a single method. Third, it aims to enrich findings from across both studies to understand the phenomenon under study in a more holistic manner. And fourth, it considers the temporal nature of the phenomenon under investigation. 147 In the next section, Section 4.7, I provide an overview of the quantitative study described in Chapter 5. In Section 4.8, I provide an overview of the qualitative study described in Chapter 6. 4.7 Overview of quantitative study As discussed earlier, Chapter 5 details the quantitative study as part of the mixed methods approach taken in this thesis. In this section, I discuss the rationale for using the hypothetico-deductive approach and a brief note on the data collection process and efforts taken to ensure research quality. 4.7.1 Rationale for the hypothetico-deductive approach The purpose of the quantitative study is to test whether multicultural individuals impact diverse team outcomes through the processes of perspective taking and information elaboration. A further goal is, to test how perceived inclusive climate affects this mediated process, on specific outcomes of cohesion, satisfaction and conflict. Studies that investigate processes of how events unfold over time where X causes an effect on Y through M, leads to hypothesising and developing a narrative for the sequential process of how one affects Y (Selig and Preacher, 2009; Van de Ven and Huber, 1990). The rationale for a hypothetico-deductive approach of investigation is that it is based on testing theorised causal relationships arrived at from the review of previous research (Tashakorri and Teddlie, 2003) on multicultural individuals, the diversity-performance relationship and the category-elaboration model (van Knippenberg, De Dreu and Homan, 2004). The theorised serial process model is outlined in Chapter 3. The quantitative study complements the qualitative approach by testing specific mechanisms that are suggested in the literature but never tested in the field using real world data and in an actual multicultural organisational work context. 148 4.7.2 Data collection process The data for this study was collected over a period of approximately forty days. The primary data collection instrument was pen-and-paper surveys with repeated measures taken at three points in time. Except for the measure on multicultural identity, all other measures used in this study were drawn from existing scales in the literature. As discussed in Chapter 2, there are multiple ways by which researchers have operationalised the construct of multicultural individuals. Bearing this in mind, I reached out to several scholars in the field, including André Pekerti, Stacey Fitzsimmons, Lakshman C. and Davina Vora, either via email or in person at conferences, to seek out their perspectives and experience in addressing this issue. As a result of these discussions and further reading, I developed the Multicultural Identity Index (MII), as an inclusive yet parsimonious measure for operationalising the concept of multicultural individuals as defined in this thesis (in Chapter 2). Further details of the MII and the data collection process are outlined in Chapter 5. 4.7.3 Ensuring quality of quantitative research: validity and reliability Quality in quantitative research is concerned with validity and reliability (Creswell, 2009). Validity is concerned with the integrity of the conclusions generated from research and reliability refers to the extent that the results of the study are repeatable (Maxwell and Loomis, 2003; Bryman, 2016). As is described in Chapter 5, several steps were taken to ensure quality of the research. These included steps taken during the design of the study, the development of the survey instrument as well as during data collection and analysis. For example, common method variance was controlled for by the temporal nature of research design where predictor variables were measured at Time 1, process variables were measured at Time 2 and outcome variables were measured at Time 3 (Podsakoff et al., 2003). During the survey development stage, the survey instrument was refined to remove ambiguous terms and better fit a multicultural participant base through the process of pilot testing (Bryman, 2016). During data collection, efforts were taken to mitigate social desirability 149 biases by reinforcing the anonymity and confidentiality of the study, as well as developing rapport and a relationship of trust with participants (Nederhof, 1985). In terms of data analysis, scale reliabilities are reported and statistical significance tests, such as the index of moderated mediation, are used to ensure validity and reliability of the study. These are further detailed in Chapter 5. 4.8. Overview of qualitative study Chapter 6 details the qualitative study as part of the mixed methods approach taken in this thesis. In this section, as part of the overview of the qualitative study, I discuss the rationale for using an inductive, grounded theory approach and a brief note on the data collection process and efforts taken to ensure research quality such as triangulation. Further details of the qualitative study are provided in Chapter 6. 4.8.1 Rationale for an inductive approach The purpose of the qualitative study is to provide an in-depth understanding of the everyday team dynamics experienced and enacted by multicultural individuals in a diverse context and how this may influence team processes and outcomes. Although a significant body of work has studied multicultural individuals, empirical studies have primarily addressed issues related to multicultural identity (e.g. Phinney and Devich-Navarro, 1997; Haritatos and Benet-Martínez, 2002), well-being (e.g Yampolsky, Amiot and de la Sablonnière, 2013) and stress (e.g. Romero and Roberts, 2003), cultural frame switching (e.g. Ringberg et al., 2010) and research comparing multicultural and monocultural samples (e.g. Fitzsimmons, Liao and Thomas, 2017). Few empirical studies have been done in the management field (see Gillespie, McBride and Riddle, 2010 for an exception). Hence, there is a paucity of research with regards to multicultural individuals in organisational contexts, and specifically with respect to diverse organisational contexts. Given this paucity, a qualitative inductive approach is warranted. The qualitative study in this thesis therefore complements the quantitative study, by using an inductive approach to discover aspects of how multicultural individuals impact diverse team processes, which are difficult to unearth through the deductive approach used in the quantitative study (Gephart, 2004; Flick, 2018). 150 The qualitative study uses grounded theory (Glaser and Strauss, 1967). Grounded theory is an exploratory, reflective approach which allows for theory development and elaboration (Gligor, Esmark and Gölgeci, 2016). It is often advocated by critical realists (e.g.s Oliver, 2012; Kempster and Parry, 2011). The theory development and elaboration method is firmly grounded to the data collected and analysed through an iterative process of data collection and analysis (Denzin and Lincoln, 2018). Grounded theory is particularly suited for understanding social processes which are meaningful to individuals and management practices within organisational context and to advance our understanding of organisational phenomena (Gephart, 2004; Suddaby, 2006). The need for context informed theories has been stressed, especially in the international business management field (Gligor, Esmark and Gölgeci, 2016). In the context of this study, grounded theory allows me to understand the underlying mechanisms, which influence how multicultural individuals construct and interpret their social settings and team dynamics and in turn, how they influence their social settings. 4.8.2 Data collection process The data collection process is detailed in Chapter 6. However, I provide an overview in this section. This study uses multiple data collection instruments including in-depth, semi-structured interviews of multicultural individuals, participant observations, informal discussions and documents including official reports and marketing literature. The primary data source is the in-depth interviews. Interview protocols are provided in Appendix 1. Data was initially collected during the preliminary stages in November 2015. At this time, data collection activities included collecting and analysing documents, participant observations and informant interviews with team leaders, to understand and apprise the study in general (please see Figure 4.4 for timeline of fieldwork). Indepth interviews were conducted during Time 2 and 3, i.e. September/October and November 2016. Multiple data collection tools are used in this study, for triangulation to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon under study (Flick, 2018). 151 The grounded theory approach informs data collection through processes of constant comparison and theoretical sampling (Suddaby, 2006). In this way, the respondents' answers and the emerging patterns and theory shape the interviewer's subsequent questions and direct the research to the next participant (Gligor, Esmark and Gölgeci, 2016). One of the ways this protocol was implemented in this study was with the use of the Multicultural Identity Index (MII) employed during data collection in the quantitative study. The MII was used to identify the multicultural individuals for the sample in this study. Further, the grounded theory approach was also used in determining the final sample of interviewees. The final selection of interviews was informed by demographic data, conversations with multicultural individuals and by ensuring the inclusion of diverse work roles and types of team work. These and other aspects of the interview process and data analysis are detailed in Chapter 6. 4.8.3 Quality in qualitative research Quality in qualitative research centres on credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability (Lincoln, Lynham and Guba, 2018; Patton, 1999). These concepts reflect validity and reliability quality indicators used in quantitative research (Creswell, 2009; Lincoln, Lynham and Guba, 2018). In essence, quality in qualitative research seeks to ensure accuracy in findings are consistent and reliable (Creswell, 2009). Chapter 6 describes in detail the several steps taken to ensure quality of the research. A few are outlined here. Credibility A primary means to ensure credibility was the use of multi-source data (Patton, 1999). For example, when interviewees mentioned management responses to critical incidents, these were further investigated through conversations with the human resource manager, quality control manager, other staff members involved in the incident and through any documentation. I describe in detail in Chapter 6, how during the study, this led to the discovery of the fact that the management obfuscated information I had sought regarding one of their employees. This later triangulated with references to perceptions of managements' attitude to differential treatment of employees. References in interviews to culturally varied reactions from team members were for example, further informed by observing 152 team meetings and participating in mock accreditation inspections as well as through conversations with other members of the same team. The use of the these multi-source data and "thick descriptions" (Guba and Lincoln, 1982, p.241), as well as other techniques employed suggested by Guba and Lincoln (1982), including prolonged engagement on site and persistent observation, lend credibility to the findings of this study. Dependability Dependability is the equivalent of reliability in quantitative research (Bryman, 2016). While triangulation adds to dependability, Guba and Lincoln (1982) also suggest a "dependability audit" (1982, p.248) which reflect on all methodological steps and decision points and access to data. The methodological steps and rationale and context for related decisions are discussed extensively in Chapter 6. Additionally, earlier in this chapter, I reflexively discuss my proximity to the research as well as my relation to the organisation and access to data. Building on the practice of reflexivity, I also describe, in Chapter 6, how my role as a cultural insider and outside reflected on data quality. Transferability Transferability in qualitative research mirrors external validity and generalisability in quantitative research (Bryman, 2016). However, unlike quantitative research, there is greater in-depth focus on the phenomenon under inquiry in qualitative research (Bryman, 2016) where generalisability is not the main focus (Guba and Lincoln, 1982). None-the-less, through the process of "thick description" and the process of data analysis using a systematic and transparent coding scheme, as detailed in Chapter 6, the transferability of findings is enhanced (Guba and Lincoln, 1982). Further, the use of grounded theory in this study, to develop and elaborate theory regarding the phenomenon under study to inform scholarship adds to the transferability of the findings (Suddaby, 2006). Lastly, a critical realist paradigm values research for its ability to inform human freedoms and society (Bhaskar, 2008) and hence, the research motivation from this necessarily includes developing findings that are transferable. 153 Confirmability Confirmability in qualitative research parallels objectivity in quantitative research (Bryman, 2016). Guba and Lincoln (1982) clarify that in qualitative research, confirmability refers to the objectivity of the data and not the researcher. In order to avoid reputation, I highlight two of the steps taken to ensure confirmability, while more details of steps taken are found in Chapter 6. One of these steps includes the iterative process used in the grounded theory approach, which necessitates re-examining the data several times. A second means of ensuring confirmability, as recommended by Guba and Lincoln (1982) was through peer review and debriefing of the findings with colleagues and supervisors. 4.9 Chapter Summary The purpose of this chapter was to provide an overview of the overall research design. To this effect, this chapter has discussed several aspects of the research design. First, in Section 4.3, the ontological, epistemological and methodological considerations of this thesis are discussed resulting in the rationale for the use of critical realism in this thesis. Secondly, in Section 4.4, I addressed my position as a researcher, my interests and motivations in conducting this research. Section 4.5 describes the research setting including the context of the country and the organisation and the rationale for the choices to conduct field research in this setting. Fourth, in Section 4.6, I discuss the mixed methods approach taken in this thesis and provide the timeline which highlights the research process during fieldwork. In Sections 4.7 and 4.8, I provide general overviews and the rational of the quantitative study and qualitative study, respectively. In both of these sections, I discussed some of the steps taken to ensure research quality while further details of these studies are found in Chapters 5 and 6. This concludes the discussions in this chapter and paves the way for Chapter 5, where the details of quantitative study are provided and findings are discussed. 154 CHAPTER 5: A LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF MULTICULTURAL INDIVIDUALS AND DIVERSE TEAM PROCESSES AND OUTCOMES 155 Chapter 5: A Longitudinal Study of Multicultural Individuals and Diverse Team Processes and Outcomes 5.1 Chapter Overview The quantitative study outlined in this chapter forms the first part of the mixed methods research design of this thesis which investigates how multicultural individuals impact team performance. In Chapter 3, I discussed the theoretical underpinnings, proposed a moderated mediation model and developed key hypotheses to investigate perspective taking and information elaboration behaviours, and the role of multicultural individuals' impact on these processes and resultant outcomes. This chapter presents the quantitative study that tests the hypotheses outlined in Chapter 3, describes the details of methods and measures used and reports the findings. I begin by outlining the aims of this chapter in Section 5.2. In Section 5.3, I describe the methods used in the research design and data collection procedures, including details of the pilot study and the measures used. In Section 5.4 and 5.5, I present the results from the tests of hypotheses. I discuss the findings and key contribution of this study in Section 5.6 and conclude with the chapter summary is presented in Section 5.7. 5.2 Aims of this Chapter The primary aim of this chapter is to present the findings from the tests of the hypotheses presented in Chapter 3. As the quantitative study from a mixed methods approach, this study investigates the underlying mechanism of how multicultural individuals impact diverse teams. As discussed in Chapter 3, this investigation is juxtaposed with the impact of perceived cognitive diversity and perceptions of discrimination given a culturally diverse work environment. Thus, allowing for a more holistic understanding of the diversity-performance relationship and the role of multicultural individuals in this context. The moderating influence of an inclusive climate is also investigated in this study. 156 As a secondary aim of this chapter, I introduce the Multicultural Identity Index as an inclusive yet parsimonious operationalisation of a multicultural identity. As discussed in Chapter 2, often demographic proxies such as hyphenated identities (e.g. ChineseAmerican) or immigrant status (e.g. second-generation Mexican Americans) are used by researchers to operationalise multicultural identity, under the implicit assumption that all individuals who fall under these categories are multicultural. Similarly, methods of operationalisation ignore individuals' agency in their identity construction. The MII is developed to provide a more rigorous criterion by balancing researcher-imposed labels while at the same time allowing for individual agency in identity development. The MII is further explained in Section 5.3.4. 5.3 Methods As outlined in Chapter 4, this study used a longitudinal research design with data collected from employees of the hospital at three points in time, to understand the hypothesised relationships via the sequential process of perspective taking and information elaboration behaviour. As clarified in Chapter 1, the purpose of the longitudinal design is not to measure changes over time but to incorporate the temporal nature of teamwork (Harrison et al., 2002) and to mitigate common method variance (Podsakoff et al., 2003). In this section, I provide details of the participants, data collection procedure and measures used in this study. As the hypothesised process model includes moderating effects, I use conditional process analysis techniques to test the hypothesised relationships (Preacher, Rucker and Hayes, 2007; Hayes, 2018). I describe the analytical approach used and report the results in Section 5.4. 5.3.1 Design and Procedure As briefly outlined in Chapter 4, preliminary discussions with the management (including the Chief Medical Officer) took place on site near the end of 2015 and in 157 the early part of 2016. These discussions were held to define and agree upon the scope of the study and its execution as well as to understand patient workflows and operational aspects of the organisation. It was decided that due to operational issues (e.g. work schedules over three different shifts, nature of patient demands at different times of the day) and technical issues (e.g. limited access to computers, prohibited use of handheld devices in certain areas of the hospital) it would preferable for employees to use traditional pen and paper surveys to participate in the study, rather than electronic surveys. Previous research has found that the use of pen and paper surveys along with personalised approaches enhance survey response rates (Anseel et al., 2010; Nulty, 2008; Baruch and Holtom, 2008). Further, it was recommended that coordination with team leaders would help ensure proper dissemination of the surveys given the work schedules of employees over several shifts. The data collection period was also discussed. (The timeline of this study is provided in Figure 5.1). The purpose of the study involved understanding the underlying mechanisms of perspective taking and information elaboration of employees. This meant that to understand the sequential nature of the model, it needed to be tested longitudinally over points in time that reflect the phenomenon under investigation (Ployhart and Vandenberg, 2010). Discussions with management indicated that annual patient flows and levels of activity were minimal during the summer months and steadily increased over the months of October and peaked in November. The holy month of fasting, Ramadan, was expected between early June and July, which meant that employees, as per laws of the country, would have different work timings and there would be limited staff on duty. Ramadan and the summer months indicated a period of low activity where the population of Bahrain is generally away for vacation and patient numbers are lower. However, traditionally, with the onset of fall and cooler temperatures and with the re-opening of schools in Bahrain, patient numbers begin to rapidly increase in healthcare facilities around Bahrain, this was also true at XYZ Hospital. Table 5.1 represents patient visits to the hospital in both their Inpatient (IP) and Outpatient (OP) services over the years of 2015 and 2016. 158 Yellow highlights indicate lowest, to increasingly busy to greatest periods of activity in the hospital, with regards to patient numbers. For the figures of 2016, these also indicate the patient numbers during the period of this study. Table 5.1: In-patient and Out-patient visitors per month (2015 and 2016). In patient 2015 In patient 2016 Out Patient 2015 Out Patient 2016 January 423 440 8230 9712 February 409 442 8129 9750 March 423 394 9290 10091 April 413 455 8903 9931 May 412 470 9271 10812 June 408 386 8626 9187 July 337 284 7562 7907 August 410 336 8707 8428 September 380 336 8288 8128 October 438 350 9301 9690 November 463 385 10209 9776 December 434 345 8913 8728 Meanwhile, as described in Chapter 4, November 2016 marked a significant period in the organisation's history where their quality accreditation status was due for review and reaccreditation inspection. The Australian Council on Healthcare Standards International (ACHSI) accreditation for the hospital is a major point of the hospital's service offering as well as important indicator of its differentiation in the market. Hence, November was a critical month which marked a period of added pressure for staff at XYZ Hospital. The Management was clear that all data collection during the month of November would be authorized only after the accreditation inspection was over. Taking these factors into consideration, the periods of time in late July, late September to early October and post-accreditation weeks in November were selected for data collection in this longitudinal study. 159 Figure 5.1: Timeline of quantitative study Items included in italics refer to events on site when data collection was avoided/not conducive ACHSI refers to the Australian Council on Healthcare Standards International A p r i l July September October November 2015 2016 May June November Preliminary discussions Formal permission received and data collection schedule agreed Pilot study of survey instrument Survey development Survey at Time 1 Ramadan ACHSI Inspection Survey at Time 2 Survey at Time 3 160 These points in time indicated the gradual increase in work pressures from periods of lower activity to heighted work pressures. Data collection during late July (Time 1), allowed for the collection of team members' views when there was a relatively calm and stress-free period in team activities. Increases in work pressures would warrant the need for greater degree of coordination reflecting the need for greater perspective taking and information elaboration processes leading through to the month of September-October (Time 2). The need for greater levels of coordination was expected to peak with the once-in-five-year pressures of reaccreditation in November, and data collected right after re-accreditation inspections (Time 3) was expected to capture employees' views of their team's efforts, such as cohesion and conflict, affected by the preceding level of work pressures. Thus, data was collected using over three periods in time during the summer and fall of the months of July, September-October and November 2016, to reflect work pressures at the hospital. Each data collection period was approximately two weeks with a total of approximately forty days in the field. A third area of discussion during preliminary meetings which informed the research design and procedure was in relation to differences in proficiency in English amongst the employees. English is the lingua franca for work spaces in the Middle East. However, English is the second language for most of those working in the region. As measures used in the survey were primarily developed for participants in US based institutions who are native English speakers, a pilot study was conducted to ensure that survey items were unambiguous for those to whom English is a second language. I describe the pilot study in detail in Section 5.3.3. At Time 1, a formal introduction and description of the research was sent out via email to all employees at the hospital, inviting them to participate in the study. This introductory email was sent out by the Human Resources manager and was signed by the Executive Director. A copy of the email is provided in Appendix 2. After this introductory email was sent, I first visited each work group at their area of work 161 within the hospital, to personally introduce myself to them and for ensuring my visibility and approachability as a researcher. During these initial interactions, I reiterated the scope of the study and made myself available for any queries and clarifications. I introduced myself to team leaders and repeated this process. I also asked for appointments or time during meetings to meet employees to hand out the surveys. Several team leaders provided time during meetings and/or scheduled meeting rooms where I introduced the study to the employees. When addressing employees, time was taken to explain to all employees about the purpose, nature and confidentiality of the study. I also briefly went through the survey to explain the survey question formats as well as to answer any questions related to the study or specific to the survey instrument. At these sessions, surveys were distributed and time was given for employees to fill out the surveys. During these sessions, employees were again, given the confidentiality and space to ask any questions they had with respect to the study or any of the survey questions. My local phone number and official email address was also provided, if employees wished to contact me privately with any concerns regarding the survey. Team leaders did not participate in addressing their team members during these meetings, other than to introduce me as the speaker for the meeting. Except for one meeting I attended, all other meetings were convened expressly to provide a platform for me to address the teams. This single other meeting included a point of communication that had to be passed on to staff by the team lead. These meetings mostly took place at different work stations/meeting areas around the hospital such as the laboratory, nursing stations or staff rooms. For more senior staff, such as the consultants, appointments were made in their offices or consulting rooms on an individual basis. Here again, the survey and study were explained in detail and questions answered. Through this extensive process, almost each employee was met, either individually, or as a team, during this phase of the study. 162 Surveys were provided in unmarked brown envelopes, which could be sealed once completed to ensure anonymity and confidentiality. Surveys could be dropped off at a central location on completion. If they were completed during the scheduled sessions, they were collected on the spot. Only one individual indicated that they did not wish to participate. 5.3.2 Participants The focus of the study was on perspective taking behaviours and sharing of information between employees through their daily interactions for coordination and team performance. In the context of the hospital, performance was centred on the delivery of patient care and services such as medical treatment and timely completion of laboratory tests required for treatment plans. Participants were employees of the hospital who were involved in patient care and the delivery of services. To this effect, employees who were not directly involved with patient care, such as the IT team or biomedical team (which oversees medical equipment servicing and maintenance) or those which were outsourced such as housekeeping, the security staff or drivers, were not part of the study. The overall sample, then consisted of employees from teams that worked in all other areas of the hospital including administration, front office, nursing, outpatient services, inpatient services, laboratory, pharmacy, call centre, insurance, radiology etc. (a complete list of teams is provided in Appendix 3). Details of the final sample are provided in Section 5.3.5. 5.3.3 Pilot survey Often, survey items are primarily developed for participants in United States-based institutions who are native English speakers. The current study was conducted in a multicultural work environment where English was the second language for almost all participants. In order to mitigate any issues of comprehension and response bias, a pilot study was conducted to ensure that survey items were unambiguous for a 163 multicultural sample for whom English would be a second language. Participants for the pilot survey were asked to review the survey and highlight words, phrases or questions that were not clear or had the potential to create ambiguity by speakers of their native tongue and to ensure that the survey questions were clear and easily understood. The surveys were pilot tested with a separate sample consisting of thirteen individuals working in multicultural work environments in the Middle East. In their various professional roles (including some senior leadership roles), these individuals represent approximately two decades of work experience in the Middle East, making them an appropriate sample for testing the efficacy of the survey items for this work context. Table 5.2 provides an overview of these individuals' current designation, the type of organisation they work in, the total number of years they have worked in the Middle East and which country they are based in. An additional sample of doctoral candidates who represented ten different nationalities, were also given the survey. Lastly, the survey was referred to two international business scholars who conduct research in the field of multicultural individuals for their insights on how the survey could be improved. They provided advice in using and developing surveys in intercultural contexts. For example, feedback included clarifying between nationality held as per passport and country of birth and country of origin, in order to remove any ambiguity if individuals held multiple identities with respect to their birth, cultural origins and on account of regulatory issues such as laws related to residency in different country contexts. Feedback from the pilot was incorporated into the final survey instrument. Much of feedback was positive and only a few minor changes were recommended. Most of the common recommendations were in reference to colloquial English phrases that had the potential to create ambiguity for non-native English speakers. For example, one of the items of the pilot survey read as, "When I'm upset with a team member, I usually try to "put myself in their shoes" for a while". Feedback from pilot study 164 Table 5.2: Summary of details of pilot survey sample of professionals based in the Middle East No. Organisational role title Type of Organisation Total number of years worked in the Middle East Location of work 1. Credit Control Specialist MNC 17 years Dubai, UAE 2. Director National Bank 17 years Abu Dhabi, UAE 3. Regional Pricing Manager State airline company 16 years Abu Dhabi, UAE 4. Managing Director Private dental practice 16 years Muscat, Oman 5. Software Engineering Manager State airline company 15 years Dubai, UAE 6. Senior Specialist & Head Streamlining and Transformation National petrochemical company 11 years Jubail, Saudi Arabia 7. Key Account Manager South Korean owned electronics company 11 years Dubai, UAE 8. General Practioner Healthcare insurance 8 years Dubai, UAE 9. Corporate Sales State airline catering company 8 years Dubai, UAE 10. Marketing Event management 6 years Muscat, Oman 11. Assistant Professor Tertiary healthcare private medical university 5 years Jeddah, Saudi Arabia 12. Claims Officer Healthcare insurance 5 years Sharjah, UAE 13. Accountant Danishowned pharmaceutical 5 years Riyadh, Saudi Arabia participants indicated that the phrase "put myself in their shoes" may create ambiguity and after iterations with participants, this was adapted to "When I'm upset with a team member, I usually try to put myself in their situation for a while.". Changes in wording that were more culturally sensitive was also recommended. The item "Before criticizing a team member, I try to imagine how I would feel if I were in their place" was changed to "Before disagreeing with a team member, I try to imagine how I would feel if I were in their place", as participants indicated that 165 'criticising' a colleague in some cultures, would be considered inappropriate behaviour especially in the context of cultures which use indirect communication. Another example of change which was suggested was to simplify the language and remove any confusion over meaning of homophonic words such as 'complement'. The pilot survey item was, "The members of this team complement each other by openly sharing their knowledge". This was changed to, "The members of my team support each other's work by openly sharing their knowledge". The remaining changes are presented in Table 5.3 below. The final survey instruments across all three data collection points are included in Appendix 4. Table 5.3: Changes made to survey items after feedback from pilot study Pilot survey item Final Survey item When I'm upset with a team member, I usually try to "put myself in their shoes When I'm upset with a team member, I usually try to put myself in their situation for a while." The members of this team complement each other by openly sharing their knowledge The members of my team support each other's work by openly sharing their knowledge In my team, my team members make jokes or negative commentaries about my nationality and culture, which upsets me. My team members make negative jokes or comments about my nationality and culture, which are upsetting In my team, I do not get enough recognition because I am different In my team, I do not get enough recognition because I am from a different nationality Before criticizing a team member, I try to imagine how I would feel if I were in their place Before disagreeing with a team member, I try to imagine how I would feel if I were in their place 5.3.4 Measures Used Most of the measures used in the study were adopted from well-established pervious measures. However, there are no agreed upon measurement tools for operationalising the construct of multicultural identity (Vora et al., 2017a). Thus, the Multicultural Identity Index (MII) was developed for this study. I detail its conceptualisation and 166 Table 5.4 (Part 1): Summary of measures used in this study (antecedents, mediators and moderator) Measured at Construct Measure sourced from Sample Item T im e 1 A n te ce d en ts Multicultural Identity Multicultural Identity Index developed for this study The participant identifies strongly with cultures other than the culture of their country of origin. Perceived cognitive diversity Van der Vegt's and Janssen's (2003) 4-item measure My team members differ amongst each other in our knowledge and skills Perceived discrimination Perceived Discrimination Scale (Sanchez & Brock, 1996) -10 item In my team, people look down upon me if I practice customs of my culture. T im e 2 M ed ia to rs Perspectivetaking Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) (Davies 1980) 7 -item sub scale for perspective taking I believe that there are two sides to every question and try to look at them both Elaboration of information Kearney et al. (2009), 4-item The members of my team support each other's work by openly sharing their knowledge M o d er at o r Inclusive Climate Nishi (2013); Dimension 2: Integration of differences; 7 item Dimension 3: Inclusion in decision making; 4 item; Total of 11 items Dimension 2: XYZ has a culture in which employees appreciate the differences that people bring to the workplace. Dimension 3: In this hospital, employee input is actively sought. 167 Table 5.4 (Part 2): Summary of measures used in this study (outcome variables) Measured at Construct Measure sourced from Sample Item T im e 3 O u tc o m es Conflict Intragroup conflict scale Jehn (1995) for 4 -item for relationship conflict & 3 -item task conflict; Shah and Jehn (1993) for 3 -item process conflict scale Total of 10 items Task conflict: How much conflict of ideas is there in your work group? Process conflict: How often are there disagreements about who should do what in your work group? Relationship conflict: How much emotional conflict is there in your work group? Cohesion Social cohesion from Seashore (1954) 3item scale Task cohesion Widmeyer, Brawley and Carrron (1995) 3item scale Total of 6 -items Social cohesion: "The members of my team support and help each other." Task cohesion: The members of my team help each other when working on our project. Satisfaction Hackman (1988): 2 items and Tekleab, Villanova, & Tesluk, (2009) 2 item Total of 4 -items I am satisfied with my present team members. 168 development first, following which, I provide details of the other measures used in this study. A summary of the full set of measures used in this study is provided in Table 5.4 (Parts 1 and 2). Antecedent variables The Multicultural Identity Index (MII) As mentioned in Chapter 4 (Section 4.8.2) on data collection, the primary purpose of developing the MII was to identify multicultural individuals from monocultural individuals within the sample of the study. To clarify, the purpose of the index is not to measure the 'level of multiculturalism' or how multicultural an individual is. Additionally, given the extensive discussion in Chapter 2, on multiple ways an individual can become multicultural, the index did seek to accommodate this individual-level of agency in identity formation whilst also balancing a researcherdefined rigorous approach to measurement as both are valid and necessary means of understanding who is multicultural from a mixed sample. Individual level-multiculturalism is degree to which someone has knowledge of, identification with, and internalization of more than one societal culture (Vora et al., 2017b) Thus, multicultural individuals, i) have knowledge of more than one culture, ii) identify with those cultures, and iii) have internalized the values and schemas associated with those cultures. There have been calls for better alignment between the conceptualisation of individual level multiculturalism and its operationalisation in the literature (Vora et al., 2017c). As described in Chapter 4, the importance of the research site of this study is the uniqueness of historical "superdiversity" (van de Vijver et al., 2015) where there exists the potential of various combinations in one's individual identity development. Heeding these calls and taking into consideration the uniqueness of the site of the study, I have operationalised individual level multiculturalism in similar 169 lines to the multicultural experience survey (MES; Leung and Chiu, 2010) in that the measure is an index which takes an additive approach to the development of a multicultural identity. While the MES was created for specific study involving a European American sample, the MII developed here can be used for a generic sample. Although it builds on previous research, which is detailed in Chapter 2, on the operationalisation of multicultural individuals, the index is based on the following principles. As conceptualised, individual level multiculturalism is the degree to which someone has knowledge of, identifies and internalises more than one culture. This implies that individual level multiculturalism works on a continuum. In other words, there may be varying degrees to which multicultural individuals have knowledge of the multiple cultures to which they associate. For example, an individual whose parents are from the Palestine, may have been born in neighbouring Jordan due to migration. This individual will grow up with both Palestinian and Jordanian cultural influences but her knowledge of Palestinian culture may only be second-hand knowledge as taught to her by her parents, if she has no or limited opportunity to experience Palestine as a first-hand national. Similarly, individuals who have acquired citizenship through naturalisation or as a second-generation immigrant or those with multiple ancestry, may identify, in varying degrees, with their country of origin and/or country (countries) of their ancestors. Some identities may be more salient than others at different points in their lifetime or based on a given context. With regards to the third component of the conceptualisation, i.e. the internalisation of cultural schemas, there is sufficient evident to indicate that individuals sometimes form hybrid cultures reflecting specific elements combined from more than one culture (Leung and Chiu, 2010). I have not taken into consideration the number of identities and individual may have knowledge of, identified with or internalised. Instead in this operationalisation, I focused on the decisions taken which would indicate a second culture exposure beyond those provided by birth or by parents' life decisions on where they (the 170 parents) want to work or settle. These indicators include decisions related learning additional languages or choosing a different nationality from the one of their parents or choosing to live in another country. Such decisions indicate a propensity to being malleable or flexible towards second/third culture acquisition and are reflective of cognitive flexibility. Examples from this study included, participant #794, who was an AmericanPalestinian who lived in India for over 10 years; and participant #353, who chose Bahraini citizenship although they were born and lived in Pakistan until the age of five. Additionally, this individual's parents from Pakistan and have lived in Bahrain long enough for citizenship but chose not to change their nationality. (Bahraini citizenship interviews are conducted in Arabic, eligibility requires that an individual must be resident for a continuous period of twenty-five years in order to be eligible, although exceptions may be made by the Emir (Ruler) of the Kingdom (Bahraini Citizenship Act 1963). The MII items are listed below as well as in Table 5.5, to indicate how each part of the index is operationalised to align with the conceptualisation. Items of the MII fall into two components. Part A contain items related to the participant's heritage and parental influences, such as whether parents have lived outside of their home country or whether parents hold a citizenship different from participants. These items build on research from previous multiculturalism studies, as discussed in Chapter 2, especially from the field of acculturation studies, where heritage cultures and early cultural mixing as a result of parental influences haven been found to impact multicultural identity formation (e.g. Schwartz et al., 2015; Martin and Shao, 2016) which use measures that are researcher-defined The second component of the MII, Part B, contains items that indicate individual's decisions towards second culture acquisition. These are indicative of individuals motivations to adopt multiple cultural schemas as part of one's self identity and in this way, these items reflect individual agency in identity formation. The items in this part of the MII draw on research that studies multicultural individuals from an identity perspective (e.g. Fitzsimmons, Liao and Thomas, 2017) as well as bilingualism (e.g.s Ringberg et al., 2010; Chen, BenetMartínez and Bond, 2008) multicultural experiences (e.g Leung and Chiu, 2010) and 171 behavioural flexibility (e.g. Nguyen and Benet-Martinez, 2013) as evidenced in the ability to develop close relationships with those from other cultures. As discussed in Chapter 2, this category of items is indicative of informant-defined measures of this index. They demonstrate the acquisition of a multicultural identity through choice and individual agency. Using these sets of measures allows the participants of the research to voice their own views on how they view their identity. Additionally, based on previous research, the items related to language acquisition and choice of trusted friends, use rigorous researcher -defined approaches to measure both knowledge and internalisation of multiple cultural schema. MII Items Part A. Heritage and Parental Influences 1. The participants parents are born or hold nationality of another country than the participant's country of origin (i.e. heritage or home country) 2. The participants parents have lived abroad (i.e. outside of country of origin) for more than five years. 3. The participant is born and/or has had early exposure to a culture outside of the country of origin (early exposure is from birth to nineteen years of age, with a minimum of two years abroad during this time span). Part B. Participant's Exposure to additional Cultural influence(s) 1. The participant has acquired a nationality other than their country of origin or is a dual citizen. 2. The participant identifies strongly with cultures other than the culture of their country of origin. 3. The participant has chosen to live abroad as an adult (i.e. above 18 years of age) with a minimum of five years abroad. 4. S/he speaks more than two languages fluently (i.e. beyond English and their mother tongue) 172 5. The participant has trusted friends from cultures other than their own ("Close friends" was defined as individuals whom participants trust, go to in times of need and they are in contact with at least 2-3 times a month.") Table 5.5: Multicultural Identity Index items MII Items Alignment with Conceptualisation 1. The participants parents are born or hold nationality of another country than the participant's country of origin (i.e. heritage or home country) Knowledge, internalisation 2. The participants parents have lived abroad (i.e. outside of country of origin) for more than five years. Knowledge, identity (development), internalisation 3. The participant is born and/or has had early exposure to a culture outside of the country of origin (early exposure is from birth to nineteen years of age, with a minimum of two years abroad during this time span). Knowledge, internalisation, identity 4. The participant has acquired a nationality other than their country of origin. or is a dual citizen. Identity, internalisation, knowledge 5. The participant has acquired dual citizenship Identity, internalisation, knowledge 6. The participant identifies strongly with cultures other than the culture of their country of origin. Identity (including regional, religious, ethnic etc) 7. The participant has chosen to live abroad as an adult (i.e. above 18 years of age) with a minimum of five years abroad. Knowledge 8. S/he speaks more than two languages fluently (i.e. beyond English and their mother tongue) Knowledge 9. The participant has trusted friends from cultures other than their own ("Close friends" was defined as individuals whom participants trust, go to in times of need and they are in contact with at least 2-3 times a month.") Internalisation The Multicultural Identity Index is, as its name suggests, an index and not a scale. The operationalisation of the construct using an index provides two distinct advantages. The first is that due to the additive nature of an index (Crossman, 2017), it allows for the alignment of the measurement and conceptualisations of 173 multicultural identify formation as being on a continuum. The second advantage in using an index is that it allows for the development of a composite measure that incorporates multiple statements about the construct under study (Crossman, 2017). Thus, the development of index for multicultural identify allows for an inclusive approach which helps incorporate multiple ways an individual may become multicultural. In the survey, a variety of question formats were used to gather information needed to construct the MII (please see survey at Time 1 in Appendix 4). Scores for the MII items were coded '1' if information from participants validated support for each of the statements, and coded '0' if no validation was obtained. For example, if a participant held dual citizenship, s/he would score '1' for this item. Similarly, if either of the participant's parents had lived abroad for at least five years, the individual would score '1' for this statement. Lastly, if the participant's information indicated that the remaining statements were irrelevant (e.g. they spoke only two languages or did not have any close friends from other cultures), they scored a '0' for the remaining statements. Participants could score a maximum of 9 on the MII. In this example, the participant would have a final MII score of 2. Perceived cognitive diversity Perceived cognitive diversity was a subjective measured as participants' perceptions of the extent to which the members of their team differed in a) their way of thinking, b) in their knowledge and skills, c) in how they see the world, and d) in their beliefs about what is right or wrong. Perceived cognitive diversity was measured using Van der Vegt and Janssen's (2003) four-item measure using a 7point item response scale (1 = "to a very small extent"; 7 = "to a very large extent"). A sample item was "My team members differ amongst each other in our beliefs about what is right or wrong." Perceived discrimination Perceived Discrimination was assessed at Time 1. A 10 item measure developed by Sanchez & Brock (1996) was used. The sample was diverse in many ways, however, 174 as the work context is a multicultural environment where differences in nationality are prominent (more than other diversity attributes), 'nationality' and 'national culture' was referred to as a potential source of intergroup divisions and bias (see Chapter 3 for a discussion). Participants were asked to rate whether they perceived any discrimination on the lines of their 'nationality/national culture'. The scale uses a Likert 5-point scale ('1= Strongly Disagree' to '5= Strongly Agree'). Sample items included: "In my team, the opinions of people from my nationality are treated as less important than those of other nationalities." Mediator variables Perspective taking Perspective taking was measured at Time 2. Perspective-taking is typically measured using the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI; Davis, 1980b). The IRI consists of four sub-scales with the perspective taking component consisting of seven items and uses a 5-point Likert scale ranging from '1= Strongly Disagree' to '5= Strongly Agree'. Sample items used in this study include: "I sometimes try to understand my team members better by imagining how things look from their perspective." Elaboration of task-relevant information (Information elaboration) Information elaboration was measured at Time 2. The scale is a four item measure developed by Kearney et al. (2009) and uses a 5 point Likert scale ('1= Strongly Disagree' to '5= Strongly Agree'). Sample items include: "The members of my team carefully consider the unique information provided by each individual team member." Moderator variable: Inclusive climate Inclusive climate was assessed at Time 2. Inclusive climate was assessed through a 11 item scale developed by Nishi (2013). The original scale had 15 items covering three dimensions of inclusive climate, namely, Dimension 1: Foundation of equitable employment practices, Dimension 2: Integration of differences and Dimension 3: 175 Inclusion in decision making. As Dimension 1 was not relevant to the current study as employment practices in the region are not wholly determined by the organisation but instead strongly mandated by labour laws of the region (Raheem, 2016). Thus, aspects of this dimension were neither hypothesised nor measured in this study. Seven items from a total of eleven items in Dimension 2 and all four items of Dimension 3 were used as these were relevant to the current research setting and hypothesised model. The full scale is provided in Appendix 5). Following Nishi's (2013) procedure, scores for Dimension 2 and 3 were average for each individual and a total climate for inclusion score was used. The scale uses a 5-point Likert scale ('1= Strongly Disagree' to '5= Strongly Agree'). Sample items from this scale include, "In XYZ, employees are comfortable being themselves." (Dimension 2) and "In XYZ, everyone's ideas for how to do things better are given serious consideration." (Dimension 3). Outcome variables Conflict All three types of conflict namely, task, process and relationship conflict, were measured at Time 3. The Intragroup conflict scale developed by Jehn (1995) was used to measure the amount and type of perceived relationship and task conflict and the scale developed by Shah and Jehn (1993) was used to measure process conflict. This provided ten items for the combined scale; four for relationship conflict, and three each for process and task conflict. A 5-point Likert scale was used ranging from "1= None/Never" to "5=A lot/ Always". Sample items are: for relationship conflict, "How much relationship tension is there in your work group?"; for task conflict, "How often do members of your team disagree about who should do what?" and an example of process conflict item is, "How often do people in your team disagree about opinions regarding the work being done?". 176 Cohesion Cohesion was measured at Time 3. Following the example of Quigley et al. (2007), a 6-item measure for cohesion was arrived by drawing on a 3item scale for social cohesion used by Seashore (1954) and 3item scale Widmeyer, Brawley and Carrron (1985) for task cohesion. The scale was scored on a 7-point Likert Scale ranging from "1= to a very small extent to 7= to a very large extent". A sample item is, "The members of my team get along well together." A sample item for task cohesion is, "Our team members communicate freely about each of our personal responsibilities in getting our work done." Satisfaction Satisfaction was measured at Time 3. Two items, taken from a five item scale developed by Tekleab, Villanova, & Tesluk, (2009) were used along with two items from Hackman's (1988) three item scale, to measure satisfaction on a final 4-item scale. As Tekleab and colleagues (2009) had based their measure on Hackman's (1988) scale, most items were similar on both scales. The scale was scored on a 7point Likert Scale a ranging from "1= to a very small extent to 7= to a very large extent". Sample items included: "I am pleased with the way my team members and I work together." 5.4 Results 5.4.1. Sample Survey data was collected from the same set of employees at each of the three data collection time points, thus creating person-specific panel data for analysis. Of the 281 employees on the payroll at XYZ Healthcare eligible for this study, during July 2016, 260 employees participated in the study. After omitting survey responses which were incomplete, 205 were included in Time 1 results, indicating a response rate of 73%. Similar figures at Time 2, were 284 employees, with 267 completed 177 surveys of which 218 were usable, indicating a response rate of 77%. For Time 3, there were 289 employees of which 265 participated in the survey and 220 surveys were usable, indicating a response rate of 76%. Higher response rates in Time 2 and Time 3 were indicative of more employees on duty after summer vacation and yearly leave. However, for analytical rigour, a balanced panel was used for studying the process model. To construct a balanced panel for testing the hypotheses, only participants who had completed the surveys at all three points in time were included in the final sample. Thus, the final study sample was dependent on respondent's participation at Time 1. The final sample for the study was 136 respondents. Women represented 59% of the sample. The mean tenure was 3.2 years (standard deviation of 1.9 years). Mean number of years lived outside of home country was 8 years (standard deviation of 7 years) while 20% of the sample had lived abroad for ten years or more. Forty-five percent of the sample was in the age group of 30-39 years. As is consistent with multi-speciality hospitals, nursing staff represented the single largest occupational group at the hospital at 34% of the total staff while doctors (e.g. residents, consultants and general practitioners) represented 19% of the staff. Administrative staff were approximately 15% of the total staff. The remaining staff members held technical staff, receptionist, therapist or trainee roles. As described in Chapter 4, the hospital was primarily Indian-owned and managed. This was reflected in the nationalities represented amongst the staff with 67% of the staff being Indian passport holders. This is also reflective of the demographic trends of the country in terms of non-Bahraini staff employed in the private section (Central Organisation Informatics, 2017; Bel-Air, 2015). However, this figure needs to be interpreted with a caveat regarding naturalisation in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). Many of the members in this sample had lived in GCC countries for several years, including some having been born this region. The region does not provide citizenship irrespective of birth or length of stay. Further, some of the countries represented in the sample do not provide dual citizenship. This includes, for example, 178 Pakistan, the Philippines and India. Individuals in this sample, therefore, have lived outside of the countries of origin for several years, although they continue to hold the nationality of their home countries. The national diversity represented in this sample therefore, primarily signifies individuals' country of origin and is indicative of visible diversity, which may trigger stereotyping or social categorization into subgroups as discussed in Chapter 3. 5.4.2. Descriptive statistics, correlations and scale reliabilities Table 5.6 contains the descriptive statistics, correlations and Cronbach alpha values for the scales sued in the study. The coefficient alpha values are provided in parentheses at the end of each variable row, along the diagonal. Intercorrelations 179 Table 5.6: Descriptives, correlations and scale reliabilities N= 136, T1= Time 1, T2= Time 2, T3= Time 3 Alpha coefficients for each scale are provided in the parenthesis. ** p< 0.01 level and * p< 0.05 level Variable Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 Multicultural identity index T1 1.83 1.12 2 Perceived cognitive diversity T1 4.08 1.38 -.04 (0.81) 3 Perceived discrimination T1 1.69 0.75 .00 .04 (0.90) 4 Perspective taking T2 3.93 0.45 .02 -.14 -.23** (0.71) 5 Information elaboration T2 3.89 0.71 -.04 -.16 -.23** .36** (0.89) 6 Inclusive climate T2 7.80 1.43 .03 -.12 -.28** .37** .47** (0.88) 7 Task conflict T3 2.78 0.73 -.07 .27** .42** -0.13 -.23** -.22* (0.84) 8 Process conflict T3 2.48 0.79 .04 .07 .44** -0.08 -.29** -.25** .58** (0.87) 9 Relationship conflict T3 2.53 0.88 .00 .11 .41** -0.12 -.28** -.30** .63** .77** (0.89) 10 Cohesion T3 5.24 1.30 -.06 -.05 -.44** .23** .45** .29** -.49** -.53** -.49** (0.95) 11 Satisfaction T3 5.26 1.45 .04 -.03 -.38** .24** .49** .37** -.51** -.55** -.53** .83** (0.94) 180 were indicative of hypothesised relationships except for those related to Time 1 antecedents of multicultural identity and perceived cognitive diversity. Multicultural identity showed almost no effects while perceived cognitive diversity had a small positive relationship with task conflict which was significant (r = 0.27, p <.01). The lack of correlations between multicultural identity and other variables in the study was unexpected. This is discussed further in Section 5.6. Consequently, due to the lack of effects, the MII variable was not included in further analysis. As hypothesised, mediator variables perspective taking and information elaboration were significantly correlated (r = 0.36, p <.01) and the moderator variable, inclusive climate was significantly correlated to both perspective taking (r = 0.37, p <.01) and to information elaboration (r = 0.47, p <.01). Information elaboration was also significantly correlated with all outcome variables, in the hypothesised direction; for example, Information elaboration was positively correlated to cohesion (r = 0.45, p <.01) and negatively correlated to process conflict (r = -0.29, p <.01). An interesting preliminary result from the correlation table is the multiple significant intercorrelations of the variable perceived discrimination with all mediator, moderator and outcome variables. 5.5 Data Analysis and Tests of Hypotheses As outlined in Chapter 4, this study used a longitudinal research design to understand the hypothesised sequential process of perspective taking and information elaboration behaviour and the moderating effect of inclusive climate amongst culturally diverse employees. As the hypothesised process model includes direct effects and indirect moderating effects it is a model that tests conditional indirect effects (Preacher, Rucker and Hayes, 2007). To test the hypothesised relationships in this study, I use conditional process analysis, which is an analytical technique designed to test conditional indirect models (Hayes, 2018). Conditional process analysis is a wellestablished analytical technique. Conditional process analysis helps avoid conceptual and analytical limitations associated with traditional approaches for more complex 181 moderated mediation models where one needs to assess conditional indirect effects, direct effects and total effects for different levels of the moderator (Hayes, 2018). For example, one of these advantages is the use of bootstrapping to test conditional indirect effects (MacKinnon et al., 2002). Bootstrapping and the use of bootstrapped confidence intervals provides evidence to supports claims related to the indirect effect over methods which assume symmetry or normality of the sampling distribution of the indirect effect (Preacher, Rucker and Hayes, 2007; Preacher and Hayes, 2008). Bootstrapping is a non-parametric resampling process where multiple samples are drawn from the original data set and the model is re-estimated on each sample (Preacher and Hayes, 2008). As recommended by Hayes (2015) , I set the resampling to 5000 for 95% confidence intervals. I used mean-centred values for the moderator for ease in interpreting moderation effects (Hayes, 2018) Figure 5.2: Hypothesised Moderated Mediation Model 182 Figure 5.3: Model 91 from Hayes (2018) The analytical process for testing conditional indirect effects, as suggested by Hayes (2018) involves six steps. These include translating the conceptual model into a statistical model, estimating the model, checking for moderation effects on the indirect relationships and quantifying and testing conditional indirect and direct effects, if they exist. I used PROCESS v3.0 macros and SPSS syntax provided by Hayes (2018) to test the hypothesised conditional indirect effects model using the steps as suggested by Hayes (2018). One of the advantages of using the PROCESS macro is the ability to collectively test the hypothesised relationships between an antecedent and outcome with the use of built-in model templates. In PROCESS v3.0, the corresponding model template for the hypothesised model is Model 91. The hypothesised model and the corresponding model template are provided in the figures 5.2 and 5.3. All hypotheses related to perceived discrimination and outcomes were tested. Guided by the preliminary results from the low and non-significant correlations with respect to perceived cognitive diversity and most other variables, only hypotheses related to perceived cognitive diversity and task conflict were tested. As mentioned, since there appeared to almost no effects of multicultural identity in the model, the corresponding hypotheses were not tested. Finally, gender, tenure, job role and age were not included as control variables for two reasons. First, there was no theoretical justification for including them as these constructs have not been found 183 to impact any of the other variables in the study and second, they were not found to correlate with any of the other variables in the study (Becker, 2005). 5.5.1 Information elaboration, conflict, cohesion and satisfaction The first series of hypotheses are concerned with hypothesised relationships between information elaboration and key outcome variables. The hypotheses are reproduced from Chapter 3 below: Table 5.7: List of hypotheses between information elaboration and outcome variables Hypothesis 1: Information elaboration will be positively related to team cohesion. Hypothesis 2: Information elaboration will be positively related to team member satisfaction. Hypothesis 3: Information elaboration will be negatively related to task conflict. Hypothesis 4: Information elaboration will be negatively related to process conflict. Hypothesis 5: Information elaboration will be negatively related to relationship conflict. Liner regression analysis provides support for all five hypotheses. These results are summarised in Table 5.8 and discussed below. Table 5.8: Summary of results: information elaboration and outcomes variables Variable (Y) R2 α β* SE p value 95% Confidence Intervals Lower Bound Upper Bound Cohesion .20 2.00 .83 .14 <.001 .55 1.11 Satisfaction .24 1.34 1.01 .15 <.001 .70 1.31 Task conflict .05 3.71 -.24 .09 <.01 -.41 -.06 Process conflict .08 3.72 -.32 .09 <.001 -.50 -.14 Relationship conflict .08 3.88 -.35 .10 <.001 -.55 -.14 α= constant, *Unstandardised coefficients, SE= standard error Information elaboration was assessed at Time 2 while all outcome variables were assessed at Time 3. As hypothesised in hypotheses 1 and 2, increased sharing of 184 information was positively related to feelings of cohesion (β=0.83, p<.001) and member's satisfaction with their teams (β=1.01, p<.001). Similarly, as hypothesised in hypotheses 3-5, information elaboration was negatively associated to all forms of conflict (task: β = -0.24, p<.01; process: β= -0.32, p<.001; and relationship β= 0.35, p<.001). Confidence intervals for all results did not contain zero. Higher regression coefficients for outcome variables of cohesion and satisfaction, compared to conflict variables, suggest that information elaboration may support an employee's sense of bonding and camaraderie amongst their co-workers and their sense of fulfilment given these bonds. Potentially, other aspects of teamwork, beyond information elaboration, may have greater impacts on aspects of conflict. I revisit this when discussing the effects of perceived discrimination on conflict outcome variables. 5.5.2 Perspective taking, information elaboration and inclusive climate Hypotheses 6 and 7 examined the relationship between perspective taking, information elaboration and the moderating influence of inclusive climate. Hypothesis 6 predicted a positive relationship between perspective taking and information elaboration. Results indicate support for this hypothesis indicating that perspective taking is a key mechanism for information elaboration to occur amongst diverse team members (β= 0.57, p<.001). Table 5.9 summarises the results. Table 5.9: Model coefficients: perspective taking and information elaboration Variable R2 α β* SE t p value 95% Confidence Intervals Lower Bound Upper Bound Information elaboration .13 1.67 .57 .13 4.49 <.001 .32 .82 *Unstandardised coefficients 185 Figure 5.4: Statistical diagram of interaction effect in hypothesis 7 Hypothesis 7 predicted that the relationship between perspective taking and information would be moderated by organisational inclusive climate. The moderating effect of inclusive climate on the relationship between perspective taking and information elaboration is represented by the statistical diagram in Figure 5.4. The interaction effect in Hypothesis 7 was tested using mean centred values for perspective taking and inclusive climate at standard deviations of +/-1 of the moderator. Table 5.10 summarises the stepwise models used to test this relationship. Model 1, which is the replication of Table 5.9, contains the model coefficients of the direct relationship between perspective taking and information elaboration. Model 2 introduces the variable inclusive climate to the model, showing R2 change from 0.13 to 0.26. Model 3 provides the model coefficients for the interaction effect of perspective taking and inclusive climate on information elaboration behaviours. Model 3 shows improvement on Model 2 (R2= 0.30, p<.001). Inclusive climate had a positive and significant effect on information elaboration (β= 0.20, p<.001, and CI= 0.12 to 0.28), indicating the importance of inclusive climate for information elaboration to occur in diverse team contexts. The effect of the interaction effect on the relationship between perspective taking and information elaboration is found to be negative and significant (β= -0.23, p<.01, and CI= -0.39 to -0.07), thus providing support for hypothesis 7. 186 Table 5.10: Moderation effects of inclusive climate on the perspective taking – information elaboration relationship Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Variables Only Information Elaboration (Y) Inclusive Climate (W) and Information Elaboration (Y) Inclusive Climate (W), interaction effect (XW) and Information Elaboration β SE p 95% CI β SE p 95% CI β SE p 95% CI Perspective Taking (X) b1 .57 .12 <.001 .32, .82 b1 .34 .13 <.01 .09, .6 b1 .31 .12 <.01 .06, .55 Inclusive Climate (W) - - - b2 .19 .04 <.001 .12, .27 b2 .20 .04 <.001 .12, .28 Interaction XW - - - - - - - b3 -.23 .08 <.01 -.39, -.07 Constant IY 1.67 .5 <.001 .68, 2.65 IY 1.03 .478 <.001 .09, 1.98 IY 3.94 .06 <.001 3.83, 4.05 R2= 0.13 R2= 0.26 R2=0.30 F (1, 134) = 20.14, p<.001 F (2, 133) = 23.86, p<.05 F (3, 132) = 19.24, p<.001 β= Unstandardised coefficients 187 Figure 5.5: The moderating effects of inclusive climate at +1, 0 & -1 /SD A plot of the interaction effects on information elaboration are provided in Figure 5.5 to further explore the interaction effects. Results indicate support for the moderating influence of the interaction effect at lower levels of inclusive climate but not at higher levels. In other words, when inclusive climate is low, the effect of perspective taking on information elaboration is significant. However, this does not hold when inclusive climate is high. There are several implications from these results. The first being that perspective taking amongst team members does support information elaboration in diverse contexts. A second, is the importance of an inclusive climate for this process to occur. Additionally, results indicated the importance of perspective taking, especially in the absence of inclusive climate. In other words, when employees perceived that their organisation did not provide an inclusive culture, they perceived the need for engaging in perspective taking behaviours as essential, to facilitate the sharing of information and gain synergy in utilising the unique information found amongst their diverse team members. Recall that the measure of inclusive climate included items 188 which probed whether employees felt that the organisation has a culture in which people's differences are respected and where people often share and learn about one another as individuals. Thus, in diverse contexts, when employees perceive that the organisational climate does not support a culture for diversity, the ability to perspective take to facilitate the elaboration of task relevant information becomes extremely important. When inclusive climate is high, perspective taking has no significant effect on information elaboration behaviour. This suggests that, given a more open and inclusive organisational climate, employees may more easily express their differences in opinion or knowledge without the need for each other to actively perspective take in order to uncover team members unique knowledge or their perspectives (Mor-Barak, Findler and Wind, 2001). 5.5.3 Antecedent variables and perspective taking Hypotheses 8 and 9 hypothesised positive relationships between the antecedents of multicultural identity and perceived cognitive diversity with perspective taking. Hypothesis 10 hypothesised a negative relationship between perceived discrimination and perspective taking. As already mentioned when reporting the correlation table, multicultural identity had several zero and all non-significant correlations, including an almost zero correlation with perspective taking. Thus, there was no support for Hypothesis 8 expected and this was not further analysed. Perceived cognitive diversity had a negative non-significant correlation with perspective taking. This was further analysed and a summary of this test is provided in Table 5.11. Results indicated this relationship was not significant and hence, hypothesis 9 was not supported. 189 Table 5.11: Model coefficients: perceived cognitive diversity and perspective taking Variable R2 α β* SE t p value 95% Confidence Intervals Lower Bound Upper Bound Perspective taking .02 4.12 -.05 .03 -1.68 .096 -.10 .01 *Unstandardised coefficients Hypothesis 10 stated that perceived discrimination would be negatively related to perspective taking behaviour. Table 5.12 summarises the test of this hypothesis finding support for the hypothesised relationship. Perceived discrimination was found to be negatively and significantly related to perspective taking (β= -0.14, p<.01, and CI= -0.24 to -0.04), thus supporting hypothesis 10. Table 5.12: Model coefficients: perceived discrimination and perspective taking Variable R2 α β* SE t p value 95% Confidence Intervals Lower Bound Upper Bound Perspective taking .05 4.17 -.14 .05 -2.73 <.01 -.24 -.04 *Unstandardised coefficients 5.5.4 Hypothesised moderated mediation hypotheses Given the results of Hypotheses 8-9, it was clear that hypotheses 11a through 11e and hypotheses 12a through 12e, would not find support. Hypotheses 11a-e hypothesised relationships between multicultural identity to the five outcome variables through the moderated mediation of perspective taking and information elaboration. Given that there was no relationship between multicultural identity and perspective taking, hypotheses 11a-e were not investigated. 190 The same held true for Hypotheses 12a-e with regards to the hypothesised effects of perceived cognitive diversity. However, perceived cognitive diversity did show a non-zero significant correlation with task conflict and this was further explored. Results indicated that perceived cognitive diversity was positively related to task conflict (β= 0.02, t= 3.20 p< 0.01, CI= 0.05 to 0.23) and this relationship was significant. However, the coefficient value was very small at β= 0.02. Given the significant findings of Hypothesis 10 (which found a significant negative relation between perceived discrimination and perspective taking) the moderated mediation hypotheses 13a through 13e, with regards to perceived discrimination and the five key outcome variables were further investigated. The list of hypotheses 13a-e to are provided in table 5.13. Further, although not expressly hypothesised, the testing of conditional indirect effects includes the tests of direct effects and these are also provided. These results for all hypotheses related to perceived discrimination and the outcome variables are presented next. Table 5.13: List of hypotheses: conditional indirect effects between perceived discrimination and outcome variables Hypothesis 13a: There will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived discrimination and cohesion, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be positively related to cohesion. Hypothesis 13b: There will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived discrimination and satisfaction, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be positively related to satisfaction. Hypothesis 13c: There will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived discrimination and task conflict, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be negatively related to task conflict. Hypothesis 13d: There will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived discrimination and process conflict, where the 191 mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be negatively related to process conflict. Hypothesis 13e: There will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived discrimination and process conflict, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be negatively related to relationship conflict. Hypotheses 13a-e are related to the effects of perceived discrimination on outcomes of cohesion, satisfaction and three types of conflict. I highlight two aspects in the analysis of the moderated mediations hypotheses tests results before discussing the findings. First, at this stage, the previous hypotheses have established relationships which have provided evidence to 'build up' the model. For example, Hypotheses 1-5 have established the relationship between the second mediator (i.e. information elaboration) and outcome variables, while Hypotheses 6-7 have established the mediating mechanism of perspective taking and information elaboration as well as the moderating effect of inclusive climate on this relationship. Hypotheses 8-10 have established the relationship of the antecedent variables with the first mediator, namely perspective taking. At this stage, the model in its entirety is tested between perceived discrimination and each of the outcomes. Hence, some results of the moderated mediation analysis will, automatically, reflect previous hypotheses tests results. Second, it is important to note that only the indirect effect is hypothesised to be moderated while the direct effect is not hypothesised to be moderated, as explained in Chapter 3. Given that there will be repetition in analysing the results, I present the results in systematic five-step format to provide the reader with easy to follow structure. For each hypothesis between perceived discrimination and an outcome, I first provide a path diagram which provides a diagrammatical representation of the hypothesis being tested. I then provide a statistical diagram with notation to indicate each path being 192 tested. Third, using PROCESS v3.0, Model 91, I present the test results in a table. Each table consists of three main columns entitled Step 1, Step 2 and Step 3. Step 1 and Step 2 are repetitive in that these two parts of the model consists of previously tested hypotheses related to the relationships between perceived discrimination and perspective taking (Step 1) and the moderated mediation between perspective taking and information elaboration, as well as the relationship of perceived discrimination to information elaboration through this moderated mediation (Step 2). Step 3 varies for each outcome variable as this part of the model results indicate the tests of Hypotheses 13a-e. The notation in each table of results corresponds to the notation on the statistical diagram and this is diagrammatically represented in a statistical path diagram with results. Next, I provide a table that compares the direct and indirect effects of perceived discrimination on information elaboration. After the discussion of the direct and indirect effects on information elaboration, I do not repeat this discussion for each outcome variable as this part of the model remains the same, irrespective of the outcome variable. That is, the relationship between perceived discrimination and the moderated mediation on information elaboration is a common component of each hypothesis. In the last step of the analyses, I present a table of the total direct and indirect conditional effects on each outcome variable, followed by a discussion of the result. i. Perceived discrimination and cohesion In the first of these hypotheses, I test hypothesis 13a which states that there will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived discrimination and cohesion, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be positively related to cohesion. The path diagram for this hypothesis is provided in Figure 5.6. T1 refers to measures at Time 1, while T2 and T3 refers to measures taken at Time 2 and Time 3 respectively. 193 Figure 5.6 Hypothesised Path Diagram: perceived discrimination and cohesion Figure 5.7 Statistical Diagram: perceived discrimination and cohesion Figure 5.7 provides the statistical diagram for this model. Testing this model involves tests the following relationships: the direct effect of antecedent on the outcome, which is denoted by path c'; the path from the antecedent, to the first mediator to the outcome variable, denoted by path a1 and b1; the path from antecedent to the outcome through the second mediator, denoted by paths along a2 and b2,; the path between both mediators, denoted by d21, as well as the path from the antecedent to the outcome via both mediators, which is moderated by a single moderator, denoted 194 paths from a1, c2 and b2. This results in the following analysis: 1) the direct effect of perceived discrimination on feelings of cohesion; the indirect effect of perceived discrimination on cohesion through perspective taking behaviours; the indirect effect of perceived discrimination on cohesion through information elaboration and lastly, the conditional indirect effect of inclusive climate (i.e. the moderator) on the mediated relationship between perceived discrimination and cohesion. As mentioned earlier, this corresponds to Model 91 in PROCESS v.3. After running the syntax on SPSS, the following results are obtained as outlined in Table 5.14. Figure 5.8: Path diagram with results: perceived discrimination and cohesion The results in Table 5.14, are indicated in the path diagram in Figure 5.8. I first discuss the relationships hypothesised between perceived discrimination and perspective taking i.e. the relationship, which is indicated in step 1. Step1: Perceived discrimination at Time 1 is, as hypothesised, negatively related to perspective taking at Time 2 and this relationship is significant (path a1; β= -0.14, p<.01 and CI= -0.24 to -0.04). 195 Table 5.14: Model Coefficients for conditional process model: perceived discrimination and cohesion Step 1: X → M Step 2: X → M1 → Y Step 3: X → M1 → M2→ Y Perspective Taking (M1) Information Elaboration (Y) Cohesion (Y) Variables β SE p 95% CI β SE p 95% CI β SE p 95% CI Perceived discrimination (X) a1 -.14 .05 <.01 -.24, -.04 a2 -.06 .07 .41 -.20, .08 c' -.61 .13 <.001 -.87, -.36 Perspective Taking (M1) - - - d21 .29 .12 .02 .05, .58 b1 .05 .22 .81 -.39, .50 Information Elaboration (M2) - - - - - - - - b2 .67 .14 <.001 .39, .95 Inclusive Climate (W) - - - c1 .19 .04 <.001 .11, .27 - - - M1 x W (when Information elaboration is Y) - - - c2 -.22 .08 <.01 -.39, -.06 - - - Constant iM1 .23 .94 .01 .05, .42 iM2 4.04 .13 <.001 3.78, 4.30 iY 3.68 .64 <.001 2.41, 4.94 R2= 0.05 R2= 0.31 R2= 0.32 F (1, 134) = 7.45, p<.01 F (4, 131) = 14.56, p<.001 F (3, 132) = 21.11, p<.001 β= Unstandardised Coefficients 196 Thus, employees who feel discriminated against as less likely to engage in considering the perspective of others. This replicates the findings of tests of Hypothesis 9, which hypothesised a negative relationship between perceived discrimination and perspective taking. Step 2: The second set of results, step 2, relate to the mediating role of perspective taking on information elaboration. The results indicated that the serial mediated relationship is positive and significant, i.e. path d21; β= 0.29, p<.05 and CI= 0.05 to 0.58). The model fit has also improved from R2= 0.05 (F (1, 134) = 7.45, p<.01) to R2= 0.31 (F (4, 131) = 14.56, p<.001). This indicates that, as hypothesised, perspective taking mediates the relationship between perceived discrimination and information elaboration. In other words, when employees, who feel discriminated against, engage in perspective taking, this increases information elaboration amongst team members. Thus, perspective taking mitigates the negative effects of perceived discrimination on information elaboration. Further, the relationship along the direct path (a2) between perceived discrimination and information elaboration is negative and non-significant (β= -0.06, p=.41and CI= -0.20 to 0.08), indicating, again, the importance of perspective taking as a key mechanism for information elaboration. The moderating influence of inclusive climate is also tested. The effect of inclusive climate on the mediation is found to be negative and significant (path c2; β= -0.22, p<.01, and CI= -0.39 to -0.06). This is similar to Hypothesis 7 which showed the moderating impact of inclusive climate on perspective taking and information elaboration. The effect size for the interaction effect is found to be significant, (R2 change= .0376, F (1, 131) =7.11 at p< 0.01.) and thus, 3.8% of the variance in information elaboration is explained by the interaction effect of perspective taking and inclusive climate. When probing the effects of the moderation (see Figure 5.9 below) by plotting the effects using moderator values of +/-1 standard deviation, we find that when inclusive climate is low, perspective taking has a stronger effect on information elaboration than when compared to when inclusive climate is high. 197 Further, I compare the direct and indirect effects (see Table 5.15 below) on perceived discrimination on information elaboration at different levels of the moderator ranging from +2 to -2 SD. The conditional indirect path is calculated as follows, where 'INCL' refers to inclusive climate: The indirect path is = a1*(d21+c2*INCL) The notation used in these calculations are consistent with the statistical diagrams provided in Figure 5.7 and are employed for ease of understanding. As presented in Table 5.14, the direct path is β = -0.059, p<0.001 (rounded to 0.06 in the statistical diagram Figure 5.8 and denoted as c'). Figure 5.9: Plot for the moderation effect of inclusive climate on information elaboration Lastly, the total path is equal to the sum of the indirect path and the direct path such that: 198 Total path = c' + a1*(d21+c2*INCL) From the analysis of the results presented in Table 5.15, results indicate that when inclusion is at its mean, the conditional indirect effect would be -0.4. This shows that the just under half of the effect of perceived discrimination on information elaboration is via the indirect path while the other half is via the direct path. When inclusion levels are lower (gets smaller), the indirect effect becomes a strong negative one (i.e. its impact increases). This means that when inclusive climate is low, there is a strong negative relationship between perceptions of discrimination and information elaboration. At low levels of inclusive climate, the indirect effect or the effect of perspective taking is stronger on information elaboration, than the direct effect of perceived discrimination. Thus, when the organisational climate for inclusion is low, perspective taking plays an even greater role in mitigating perceptions of discrimination on information elaboration. When inclusion is low, the indirect effect becomes more important than the direct. Interestingly, at higher values of inclusion, the indirect effect is reverses in direction of the direct effect. This suggests that encouraging perspective taking behaviours when inclusive climate is high, can reverse the negative impacts of perceived discrimination on information elaboration. This result needs to be taken with some caution as I have already described how the moderation effect is not significant for higher levels of the moderator. Nonetheless, this could be something that needs further exploration and could potentially be of great value to organisations when managing a diverse group of employees and wherein elements of perceived discrimination could deter the benefits of diversity. The total effect is negative, indirect makes up more than direct when inclusion, mean, its 50/50, indirect more important for low levels of inclusive climate. 199 Table 5.15: Indirect and direct paths from perceived discrimination to information elaboration a1 d21 c2 INCL INDIRECT* DIRECT# TOTAL~ RATIO OF INDIRECT TO TOTAL -0.1379 0.292 -0.2233 -2 -0.102 -0.059 -0.161 0.633 -0.1379 0.292 -0.2233 -1.5 -0.086 -0.059 -0.146 0.594 -0.1379 0.292 -0.2233 -1 -0.071 -0.059 -0.130 0.546 -0.1379 0.292 -0.2233 -0.5 -0.056 -0.059 -0.115 0.485 -0.1379 0.292 -0.2233 0 -0.040 -0.059 -0.099 0.405 -0.1379 0.292 -0.2233 0.5 -0.025 -0.059 -0.084 0.296 -0.1379 0.292 -0.2233 1 -0.009 -0.059 -0.069 0.138 -0.1379 0.292 -0.2233 1.5 0.006 -0.059 -0.053 -0.111 -0.1379 0.292 -0.2233 2 0.021 -0.059 -0.038 -0.564 *The indirect path is = a1*(d21+c2*INCL) #The direct path is c'= -0.059 ~The total path is = indirect path + the direct path Step3: Analysis of results from testing the entire moderated mediation model Building on the results of Step 1 and Step 2, I now discuss the moderating influence of organisational inclusive climate on cohesion. Results in Table 5.14 (column Step 3) indicates that the model is slightly improved (R2= 0.32, F (3, 132) = 21.11, p<.001) when studying the effects of perceived discrimination on cohesion. Results indicate that organisational climate moderates the mediated relationships between perceived discrimination and cohesion through perspective taking and information elaboration (path c2: β= -0.22, when p <.01, and CI= -0.39, -0.06). Before discussing the indirect and direct paths effects on cohesion, I first establish significance tests for each of the paths. These are provided in Table 5.16 A-C below where bootstrapped confidence intervals are used as a test of significance. 200 Table 5.16 (A-C): Bootstrap confidence intervals for indirect effects, conditional indirect effects and moderated mediation A. Indirect effects through either mediator Effect SE LLCI ULCI Perceived discrimination-> Perspective taking-> Cohesion -.01 .04 -.09 .07 Perceived discrimination -> Information Elaboration -> Cohesion -.04 .06 -.17 .07 B. Conditional indirect effect through both mediators at +/-1 SD of the moderator Perceived discrimination-> Perspective taking -> Information Elaboration -> Cohesion Effect SE LLCI ULCI -1 SD Inclusive climate -1.43 -.06 .03 -.14 -.01 0 SD Inclusive climate .0000 -.03 .02 -.07 -.002 +1 SD Inclusive climate 1.43 .002 .02 -.03 .05 C. Index of moderated mediation: Index SE LLCI ULCI Inclusive climate .021 .001 .014 .056 Table 5.16A presents the bootstrap confidence intervals for the unconditional indirect effects. These results indicate that the relationship between perceived discrimination and cohesion, either through perspective taking as a mechanism or information elaboration, as another mechanism, are not significant as the confidence intervals include zero. Table 5.16 B presents the bootstrap confidence intervals for the conditional indirect effects. At mean levels of inclusive climate (i.e. standard deviation is zero), bootstrapped confidence intervals indicate that the path between the antecedent, via both mediators to the outcome variable is significant as the confidence intervals do not contain zero. This holds for low levels of inclusive climate as well but does not 201 hold for higher levels of inclusive climate. Combining the results of both A and B shows that for diverse teams, the inclusive climate has a negative relationship on the serial mediation between perceived discrimination and cohesion at both low levels of inclusion and at mean levels of inclusion. The PROCESS output also provides the bootstrapped confidence intervals for the moderated mediation. Table 5.16 C presents the index for the moderated mediation for this model. This significance test tests for the moderation effect, such that for every unit change in the moderator, it quantifies the change in the indirect effect from antecedent to the outcome through the mediator (Hayes, 2018). Thus, the moderated mediation index indicates the relationship of the indirect effect to the moderator. If this index is zero, it would indicate that there is no conditional indirect relationship between the antecedent and outcome variable. The value of the index is a product of the regression coefficients and using the same notation as before, is calculated as follows: The moderated mediation index = a1*c2*b2* INCL As can be seen in Table 5.16 C, the index is 0.021 and bootstrap confidence intervals do not contain zero. This indicates that conditional indirect effect is positive and significant. In other words, the impact of the conditional indirect effect on the relationship between perceived discrimination and cohesion is positive and significant. This means that the conditional indirect effect mitigates the negative effects of perceived discrimination on perceptions of cohesion, and these effects are found to be significant only at low and mean values of inclusion and not at higher levels of inclusive climate. Thus, taking these findings together, hypothesis 13a is supported at lower levels of inclusive climate. 202 Table 5.17A: Direct and Indirect path effects from perceived discrimination and cohesion 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 a1 d21 c2 INCL a2 b1 b2 DIRECT IND via PT IE* IND via PT# IND via IE~ TOTAL^ -0.1379 0.292 -0.2233 -2 -0.0591 0.05 0.67 -0.61 -0.07 -0.01 -0.04 -0.72 -0.1379 0.292 -0.2233 -1.5 -0.0591 0.05 0.67 -0.61 -0.06 -0.01 -0.04 -0.71 -0.1379 0.292 -0.2233 -1 -0.0591 0.05 0.67 -0.61 -0.05 -0.01 -0.04 -0.70 -0.1379 0.292 -0.2233 -0.5 -0.0591 0.05 0.67 -0.61 -0.04 -0.01 -0.04 -0.69 -0.1379 0.292 -0.2233 0 -0.0591 0.05 0.67 -0.61 -0.03 -0.01 -0.04 -0.68 -0.1379 0.292 -0.2233 0.5 -0.0591 0.05 0.67 -0.61 -0.02 -0.01 -0.04 -0.67 -0.1379 0.292 -0.2233 1 -0.0591 0.05 0.67 -0.61 -0.01 -0.01 -0.04 -0.66 -0.1379 0.292 -0.2233 1.5 -0.0591 0.05 0.67 -0.61 0.00 -0.01 -0.04 -0.65 -0.1379 0.292 -0.2233 2 -0.0591 0.05 0.67 -0.61 0.01 -0.01 -0.04 -0.64 INCL = Inclusive climate IND= Indirect effect DIR= direct effect PT= perspective taking IE= information elaboration *the indirect effect through both mediators is = a1*(d21 + c2INCL) b2 # the indirect effect through PT only = a1*b1 ~the indirect effect through IE only = a2*b2 ^ the total effect = direct effect + indirect through both mediators+ indirect through PT only+ indirect through IE only 203 Table 5.17B: Ratio of Direct and Indirect path effects from perceived discrimination and cohesion INCL = Inclusive climate IND= Indirect effect DIR= direct effect PT= perspective taking IE= information elaboration *the indirect effect through both mediators is = a1*(d21 + c2INCL) b2 # the indirect effect through PT only = a1*b1 ~the indirect effect through IE only = a2*b2 ^ the total effect = direct effect + indirect through both mediators+ indirect through PT only+ indirect through IE only INCL RATIO OF IND via PT IE to total RATIO OF IND via PT only to total RATIO OF IND via IE only to total RATIO OF DIR to total -2 0.0942 0.0095 0.0546 0.8417 -1.5 0.0811 0.0097 0.0554 0.8538 -1 0.0676 0.0098 0.0562 0.8664 -0.5 0.0538 0.0099 0.0571 0.8792 0 0.0395 0.0101 0.0579 0.8925 0.5 0.0248 0.0102 0.0588 0.9062 1 0.0096 0.0104 0.0597 0.9203 1.5 -0.0061 0.0106 0.0607 0.9348 2 -0.0222 0.0107 0.0617 0.9498 204 I now turn to a discussion of the relationship between perceived discrimination and cohesion via the direct and conditional indirect paths. In analysing the impact of inclusion on perceived discrimination and cohesion, the direct and indirect paths are calculated for different values of the moderator (ranging from +2 S.D to -2 S.D) and presented in Table 5.17A. In Table 5.17B, I also provide the ratio of direct to conditional indirect effects for the same values of inclusive climate. The notations used in these calculations are consistent with the statistical diagrams provided and are employed for ease of understanding. All values have been presented in Table 5.14. The notation "INCL" indicates inclusive climate in these equations. 1. The indirect effect through both mediators is = a1*(d21 + c2INCL) b2 2. The indirect effect through perspective taking (only) = a1*b1 3. The indirect effect through information elaboration (only) = a2*b2 4. The total effect = direct effect + indirect through both mediators+ indirect through perspective taking + indirect through information elaboration In Table 5.17A, the direct effect of perceived discrimination on cohesion is provided in column 8. For different values of the moderator, the indirect effect via both mediators of perspective taking and information elaboration are provided in column 9; the indirect effect via the single mediator of perspective taking is provided in column 10; the indirect effect via the single mediator of information is provided in column 11 and the total of the direct and conditional indirect effects of perceived discrimination on cohesion is provided in column 12. Both the direct and conditional indirect effects are negative. However, what is important to note is that the impact of conditional indirect part between perceived discrimination on cohesion increases in value as inclusive climate decreases. For example, at low levels of inclusive climate (i.e. -2SD), the direct effect of perceived discrimination on cohesion is β= -0.61 while the indirect effect is β= -0.07; while at mean values of inclusive climate, the conditional indirect path effect is β= -0.03. From Table 5.17B, when comparing the proportion of each of the direct and conditional indirect effects on the total effect, it's clear that the indirect effects via both mediators better explains the total effect of 205 discrimination on cohesion than compared to indirect effects through either mediator, individually. For example, when inclusive climate is at -2SD, the combined effects of both perspective taking and information elaboration account for nearly 10% of the total effect of perceived discrimination on cohesion, compared to indirect effects of perspective taking (which is approximately 1%) or information elaboration (which is approximately 5%). This provides further support for Hypothesis 13a, in terms of the hypothesised moderated mediation model. In other words, this provides evidence for the effects of a moderated mediation on the relationship between perceived discrimination and cohesion. Additionally, the importance of perspective taking and information elaboration is greater at lower levels of organisational inclusive climate. At higher levels of inclusive climate, information elaboration plays a greater role in mitigating the negative effects of perceived discrimination on cohesion compared to perspective taking. Critically, perceived discrimination has a strong direct negative effect on cohesion, which accounts for almost 85% of the total effect on cohesion (at low levels of inclusive climate). Thus, in diverse organisations, when employees who perceive discrimination engage more often in perspective taking behaviour leading to greater information elaboration, this can help mitigate the negative impacts of perceived discrimination on feelings of cohesion. In the context of feelings of perceived discrimination, engaging in perspective taking and information elaboration is especially important when the organisation has not invested sufficiently in creating an inclusive climate. ii. Perceived discrimination and satisfaction Hypothesis 13b proposed that there will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived discrimination and satisfaction, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be positively related to satisfaction. 206 Figure 5.10: Hypothesised Path Diagram: perceived discrimination and satisfaction Figure 5.11: Statistical Diagram: perceived discrimination and satisfaction The path diagrams and the statistical diagrams for this hypothesis are provided in Figures 5.10 and 5.11 respectively. The results of the tests of hypotheses are summarised in Table 5.18. As discussed, Step 1 and Step 2 have already been. As discussed, Step 1 and Step 2 have already been described and are repetitive. Thus, to 207 Figure 5.12: Path diagram with results: perceived discrimination and satisfaction test this hypothesis, I now discuss Step 3, which shows the moderating influence of organisational inclusive climate on the relationship of perceived discrimination and satisfaction. Results in Table 5.18 (column Step 3) indicates that the model is slightly improved (R2= 0.32, F (3, 132) = 20.55, p<.001) when studying the effects of perceived discrimination on satisfaction. These tabulated path coefficients are also provided in a diagrammatical representation in Figure 5.12. Before discussing the indirect and direct paths effects on satisfaction, I first establish significance tests for the indirect paths. These are provided in Table 5.19 A-C below where bootstrapped confidence intervals are used as a test of significance. 208 Table 5.18: Model Coefficients for conditional process model: perceived discrimination and satisfaction Step 1: X → M Step 2: X → M1 → Y Step 3: X → M1 → M2→ Y Perspective Taking (M1) Information Elaboration (Y) Satisfaction (Y) Variables β SE p 95% CI β SE p 95% CI β SE p 95% CI Perceived discrimination (X) a1 -.14 .05 <.01 -.24, -.04 a2 -.06 .07 .41 -.20, .08 c' -.54 .14 <.001 -.83, -.25 Perspective Taking (M1) - - - d21 .29 .12 .02 .05, .58 b1 .08 .25 .74 -.41, .58 Information Elaboration (M2) - - - - - - - - b2 .85 .16 <.001 .54, 1.17 Inclusive Climate (W) - - - c1 .19 .04 <.001 .11, .27 - - - M1 x W (when Information elaboration is Y) - - - c2 -.22 .08 <.01 -.39, -.06 - - - Constant iM1 .23 .94 .01 .05, .42 iM2 4.04 .13 <.001 3.78, 4.30 iY 2.85 .71 <.001 1.44, 4.26 R2= 0.05 R2= 0.31 R2= 0.32 F (1, 134) = 7.45, p<.01 F (4, 131) = 14.56, p<.001 F (3, 132) = 20.55, p<.001 β= Unstandardised Coefficients 209 Table 5.19 (A-C): Bootstrap confidence intervals for indirect effects, conditional indirect effects and moderated mediation A. Indirect effects through either mediator Effect SE LLCI ULCI Perceived discrimination-> Perspective taking-> Satisfaction -.011 .046 -.114 .074 Perceived discrimination -> Information Elaboration -> Satisfaction -.051 .076 -.224 .091 B. Conditional indirect effect through both mediators at +/-1 SD of the moderator Perceived discrimination-> Perspective taking -> Information Elaboration -> Satisfaction Effect SE LLCI ULCI -1 SD Inclusive climate -1.43 -.072 .038 -.160 -.012 0 SD Inclusive climate .0000 -.035 .021 -.083 -.002 +1 SD Inclusive climate 1.43 .003 .023 -.039 .056 C. Index of moderated mediation Index SE LLCI ULCI Inclusive climate .026 .016 .002 .065 Table 5.18 indicates that perceived discrimination has a negative and significant effect on satisfaction (path c': β= -0.54, p < 0.001, and CI= -0.83 to -0.25). Table 5.19, A shows that the indirect path via a single mediator is not significant. When probing the interaction on the serial mediation, Table 5.19 B shows that the serial mediation is significant for lower levels of inclusion. Lastly, Table 5.19 C indicates that this moderation mediation path is positive and significant. These results collectively, provide support for Hypothesis 13b, in that the relationship of perceived discrimination on satisfaction is positively influenced by the conditional indirect effect of perspective taking, and information elaboration at lower levels of inclusive climate. Thus, the conditional indirect effect mitigates the negative impact of perceived discrimination on feelings of satisfaction at lower levels of inclusive climate. 210 The relationship between perceived discrimination and satisfaction via the direct and conditional indirect paths is further explored by analysing the impact of inclusion on perceived discrimination and satisfaction. Consisted with the process described earlier when analysing the relationship effects between perceived discrimination and cohesion, the direct and indirect paths are calculated for different values of the moderator (ranging from +2 S.D to -2 S.D) in the perceived discrimination and satisfaction relationship and presented in Table 5.20A. The ratio of direct to conditional indirect effects for the same range of values of inclusive climate is provided in Table 5.20B. The notation used is consistent throughout this chapter for ease of understanding. All values have already been presented in Table 5.18. "INCL" indicates inclusive climate in these equations. 1. The indirect effect through both mediators is = a1*(d21 + c2INCL) b2 2. The indirect effect through perspective taking (only) = a1*b1 3. The indirect effect through information elaboration (only) = a2*b2 4. The total effect = direct effect + indirect through both mediators+ indirect through perspective taking + indirect through information elaboration In Table 5.20A, the direct effect of perceived discrimination on satisfaction is provided in column 8. Column 9 contains the indirect effect via both mediators of perspective taking and information elaboration for different values of the moderator; the indirect effect via the single mediator of perspective taking is provided in column 10; the indirect effect via the single mediator of information is provided in column 11 and column 12 contains the total of the direct and conditional indirect effects of perceived discrimination on satisfaction. Both the direct and conditional indirect effects are negative. However, what is important to note is that the conditional indirect part has less 211 Table 5.20A: Direct and Indirect path effects from perceived discrimination and satisfaction 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 a1 d21 c2 INCL a2 b1 b2 DIRECT IND via PT IE* IND via PT# IND via IE~ TOTAL^ -0.1379 0.292 -0.223 -2.0 -0.059 0.082 0.855 -0.539 -0.087 -0.011 -0.051 -0.688 -0.1379 0.292 -0.223 -1.5 -0.059 0.082 0.855 -0.539 -0.074 -0.011 -0.051 -0.675 -0.1379 0.292 -0.223 -1.0 -0.059 0.082 0.855 -0.539 -0.061 -0.011 -0.051 -0.662 -0.1379 0.292 -0.223 -0.5 -0.059 0.082 0.855 -0.539 -0.048 -0.011 -0.051 -0.649 -0.1379 0.292 -0.223 0.0 -0.059 0.082 0.855 -0.539 -0.034 -0.011 -0.051 -0.636 -0.1379 0.292 -0.223 0.5 -0.059 0.082 0.855 -0.539 -0.021 -0.011 -0.051 -0.622 -0.1379 0.292 -0.223 1.0 -0.059 0.082 0.855 -0.539 -0.008 -0.011 -0.051 -0.609 -0.1379 0.292 -0.223 1.5 -0.059 0.082 0.855 -0.539 0.005 -0.011 -0.051 -0.596 -0.1379 0.292 -0.223 2.0 -0.059 0.082 0.855 -0.539 0.018 -0.011 -0.051 -0.583 INCL = Inclusive climate IND= Indirect effect DIR= direct effect PT= perspective taking IE= information elaboration *the indirect effect through both mediators is = a1*(d21 + c2INCL) b2 # the indirect effect through PT only = a1*b1 ~the indirect effect through IE only = a2*b2 ^ the total effect = direct effect + indirect through both mediators+ indirect through PT only+ indirect through IE only 212 Table 5.20B: Ratio of Direct and Indirect path effects from perceived discrimination and satisfaction INCL = Inclusive climate IND= Indirect effect DIR= direct effect PT= perspective taking IE= information elaboration *the indirect effect through both mediators is = a1*(d21 + c2INCL) b2 # the indirect effect through PT only = a1*b1 ~the indirect effect through IE only = a2*b2 ^ the total effect = direct effect + indirect through both mediators+ indirect through PT only+ indirect through IE only INCL RATIO OF IND via PT IE to total RATIO OF IND via PT only to total RATIO OF IND via IE only to total RATIO OF DIR to total -2 0.127 0.016 0.073 0.784 -1.5 0.109 0.017 0.075 0.799 -1 0.092 0.017 0.076 0.815 -0.5 0.073 0.017 0.078 0.831 0 0.054 0.018 0.079 0.849 0.5 0.034 0.018 0.081 0.867 1 0.013 0.018 0.083 0.885 1.5 -0.008 0.019 0.085 0.905 2 -0.031 0.019 0.087 0.925 213 of a negative impact of perceived discrimination on satisfaction. When inclusive climate is at its mean, the direct effect of perceived discrimination on satisfaction is β= -0.54 while the conditional indirect effect is β= -0.03. From Table 5.20b, we find that at this mean level of inclusive climate, the conditional indirect effect represents approximate 5% of the variance in the relationship while the direct effect represents 85% of the variance. At lower levels of inclusive climate (i.e. at -2SD), the conditional indirect effect represents nearly 13% of the variance, while the direct effect represents 74% of the variance in the total relationship between perceived discrimination and satisfaction. This indicates the importance of the moderated mediation path between perceived discrimination and satisfaction when inclusive climate is low. Thus, in diverse contexts when employees feel discriminated against, this has a negative impact on satisfaction, However, engaging in perspective taking behaviours, which leads to information elaboration, does mitigate this negative impact, especially, when the organisation has not invested in an inclusive climate. iii. Perceived discrimination and task conflict Hypothesis 13c stated that there will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived discrimination and task conflict, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be negatively related to task conflict for higher levels of inclusive climate. Figure 5.13: Hypothesised Path Diagram: perceived discrimination and task conflict 214 Table 5.21: Model Coefficients for conditional process model: perceived discrimination and task conflict Step 1: X → M Step 2: X → M1 → Y Step 3: X → M1 → M2→ Y Perspective Taking (M1) Information Elaboration (Y) Task Conflict (Y) Variables β SE p 95% CI β SE p 95% CI β SE p 95% CI Perceived discrimination (X) a1 -.14 .05 <.01 -.24, -.04 a2 -.06 .07 .41 -.20, .08 c' .38 .08 <.001 .23, .54 Perspective Taking (M1) - - - d21 .29 .12 .02 .05, .58 b1 .02 .14 .91 -.26, .29 Information Elaboration (M2) - - - - - - - - b2 -.15 .10 .10 -.32, .03 Inclusive Climate (W) - - - c1 .19 .04 <.001 .11, .27 - - - M1 x W (when Information elaboration is Y) - - - c2 -.22 .08 <.01 -.39, -.06 - - - Constant iM1 .23 .94 .01 .05, .42 iM2 4.04 .13 <.001 3.78, 4.30 iY 2.7 .39 <.001 1.92, 3.48 R2= 0.05 R2= 0.31 R2= 0.20 F (1, 134) = 7.45, p<.01 F (4, 131) = 14.56, p<.001 F (3, 132) = 7.45, p<.001 β= Unstandardised Coefficients 215 Figure 5.14: Statistical Diagram: perceived discrimination and task conflict Figures 5.13 and 5.14 provide diagrammatical representations of this hypothesis and the statistical path diagram for analysis. Tables 5.21 and 5.22 (A-C) summarise the tests of the hypothesis and the tests of significance for the hypothesised moderated mediation paths. Figure 5.15 provides the statistical path diagram with the path analysis results. Figure 5.15: Path diagram with results: perceived discrimination and task conflict 216 From Table 5.21, perceived discrimination has a strong positive effect on task conflict (path c': β=0.38, p <.001and CI= 0.23 to 0.54). However, when investigating the effects of the moderated mediation path between perceived discrimination and task conflict, the R2 has reduced from R2= 0.31 (F (4, 131) = 14.56, p<.001) to R2= 0.20 (F (3, 132) = 7.45, p<.001). Additionally, the coefficient of the path from information elaboration to task conflict is not significant (path b2; β= -0.15, p= 0.10 and CI= -0.32 to 0.03). From Tables 5.22 A-C, results indicate that the moderated mediation path is not significant at any level of inclusive climate and further indicated by a moderated mediation index which is near zero and non-significant. These results indicate that Hypothesis 13c is rejected. Table 5.22 (A-C): Bootstrap confidence intervals for indirect effects, conditional indirect effects and moderated mediation A. Indirect effects through either mediator Effect SE LLCI ULCI Perceived discrimination-> Perspective taking-> Task Conflict -.0021 .0236 -.0545 .0432 Perceived discrimination -> Information Elaboration -> Task Conflict .0086 .0166 -.0163 .0513 B. Conditional indirect effect through both mediators at +/-1 SD of the moderator Perceived discrimination-> Perspective taking -> Information Elaboration -> Task Conflict Effect SE LLCI ULCI -1 SD Inclusive climate -1.43 .012 .011 -.006 .037 0 SD Inclusive climate .0000 .006 .005 -.003 .019 +1 SD Inclusive climate 1.43 -.001 .005 -.012 .008 C. Index of moderated mediation Index SE LLCI ULCI Inclusive climate -.0045 .0043 -.0151 .0019 217 iv. Perceived discrimination and process conflict Hypothesis 13d stated that there will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived discrimination and process conflict, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be negatively related to process conflict. Figure 5.16: Hypothesised Path Diagram: perceived discrimination and process conflict Figures 5.16 and 5.17 provide diagrammatical representations of the hypothesised relationship and the statistical path diagram for analysis. Figure 5.17: Statistical Diagram: perceived discrimination and process conflict 218 Table 5.23: Model Coefficients for conditional process model: perceived discrimination and process conflict Step 1: X → M Step 2: X → M1 → Y Step 3: X → M1 → M2→ Y Perspective Taking (M1) Information Elaboration (Y) Process Conflict (Y) Variables β SE P 95% CI β SE p 95% CI β SE p 95% CI Perceived discrimination (X) a1 -.14 .05 <.01 -.24, -.04 a2 -.06 .07 .41 -.20, .08 c' .44 .08 <.001 .27, .60 Perspective Taking (M1) - - - d21 .29 .12 .02 .05, .58 b1 .17 .14 .24 -.11, .46 Information Elaboration (M2) - - - - - - - - b2 -.25 .09 <.01 -.44, -.07 Inclusive Climate (W) - - - c1 .19 .04 <.001 .11, .27 - - - M1 x W (when Information elaboration is Y) - - - c2 -.22 .08 <.01 -.39, -.06 - - - Constant iM1 .23 .94 .01 .05, .42 iM2 4.04 .13 <.001 3.78, 4.30 iY 2.72 .41 <.001 1.90, 3.53 R2= 0.05 R2= 0.31 R2= 0.24 F (1, 134) = 7.45, p<.01 F (4, 131) = 14.56, p<.001 F (3, 132) = 13.90, p<.001 β= Unstandardised Coefficients 219 Figure 5.18: Path diagram with results: perceived discrimination and process conflict Tables 5.23, 5.24 (A-C) summarise the tests of the hypothesis and the tests of significance for the hypothesised moderated mediation paths. Figure 5.18 represents the tabulated results in the statistical path diagram. Perceived discrimination has a strong positive effect on process conflict (path c': β=0.44, p <.001and CI= 0.27 to 0.60). As can be seen from Table 5.23, when investigating the effects of the moderated mediation path between perceived discrimination and process conflict, the R2 has reduced slightly from R2= 0.31 (F (4, 131) = 14.56, p<.001) to R2= 0.24 (F (3, 132) = 7.45, p<.001). However, the coefficient of the paths from information elaboration to process conflict is negative and significant (path b2; β= -0.25, p<.01 and CI= -0.44 to -0.07). Table 5.24, A shows that mediation through either mediator is not significant. While, from Tables 5.24 BC, results indicate that the moderated mediation path through both mediators is significant at low levels of inclusive climate. The moderated mediation index further indicates that the moderated mediation path is negative and significant. However, the value of the index is very low (index = -.0077) and the upper bound confidence interval is near zero. 220 Table 5.24 (A-C): Bootstrap confidence intervals for indirect effects, conditional indirect effects and moderated mediation: A. Indirect effects through either mediator Effect SE LLCI ULCI Perceived discrimination-> Perspective taking-> Process Conflict -.0237 .0237 -.0775 .0149 Perceived discrimination -> Information Elaboration -> Process Conflict .0148 .0226 -.0291 .0647 B. Conditional indirect effect through both mediators at +/-1 SD of the moderator Perceived discrimination-> Perspective taking -> Information Elaboration -> Process Conflict Effect SE LLCI ULCI -1 SD Inclusive climate -1.43 .021 .015 .002 .059 0 SD Inclusive climate .0000 .010 .008 .001 .030 +1 SD Inclusive climate 1.43 -.001 .007 -.018 .013 C. Index of moderated mediation Index SE LLCI ULCI Inclusive climate -.0077 .0062 -.0235 -.0003 After testing for significance, similar to format followed earlier in the analysis of Hypothesis 13a-c, I explore the direct and conditional indirect paths for different values of them moderator ranging from -2SD to +2SD. These are provided in Table 5.25A and 5.25B. At low levels of inclusive climate (i.e. -2SD), the direct effect is β = 0.44 while the conditional indirect effect via both mediators is β= 0.03. At these levels of inclusive climate, the conditional indirect path via both mediators is approximately 5% of the variance in the perceived discrimination and process conflict relationship, while 96% of the variance is explained by the direct effect. It is interesting to note that the conditional indirect path via perspective taking is in the opposite direction of all the other paths in this model. This suggests that perspective 221 Table 5.25A: Direct and Indirect path effects from perceived discrimination and process conflict 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 a1 d21 c2 INCL a2 b1 b2 DIRECT IND via PT IE* IND via PT# IND via IE~ TOTAL^ -0.1379 0.292 -0.223 -2.0 -0.059 0.172 -0.251 0.436 0.026 -0.024 0.015 0.453 -0.1379 0.292 -0.223 -1.5 -0.059 0.172 -0.251 0.436 0.022 -0.024 0.015 0.449 -0.1379 0.292 -0.223 -1.0 -0.059 0.172 -0.251 0.436 0.018 -0.024 0.015 0.445 -0.1379 0.292 -0.223 -0.5 -0.059 0.172 -0.251 0.436 0.014 -0.024 0.015 0.441 -0.1379 0.292 -0.223 0.0 -0.059 0.172 -0.251 0.436 0.010 -0.024 0.015 0.437 -0.1379 0.292 -0.223 0.5 -0.059 0.172 -0.251 0.436 0.006 -0.024 0.015 0.434 -0.1379 0.292 -0.223 1.0 -0.059 0.172 -0.251 0.436 0.002 -0.024 0.015 0.430 -0.1379 0.292 -0.223 1.5 -0.059 0.172 -0.251 0.436 -0.001 -0.024 0.015 0.426 -0.1379 0.292 -0.223 2.0 -0.059 0.172 -0.251 0.436 -0.005 -0.024 0.015 0.422 INCL = Inclusive climate IND= Indirect effect DIR= direct effect PT= perspective taking IE= information elaboration *the indirect effect through both mediators is = a1*(d21 + c2INCL) b2 # the indirect effect through PT only = a1*b1 ~the indirect effect through IE only = a2*b2 ^ the total effect = direct effect + indirect through both mediators+ indirect through PT only+ indirect through IE only 222 Table 5.25B: Ratio of Direct and Indirect path effects from perceived discrimination and process conflict INCL = Inclusive climate IND= Indirect effect DIR= direct effect PT= perspective taking IE= information elaboration *the indirect effect through both mediators is = a1*(d21 + c2INCL) b2 # the indirect effect through PT only = a1*b1 ~the indirect effect through IE only = a2*b2 ^ the total effect = direct effect + indirect through both mediators+ indirect through PT only+ indirect through IE only INCL RATIO OF IND via PT IE to total RATIO OF IND via PT only to total RATIO OF IND via IE only to total RATIO OF DIR to total -2 0.056 -0.052 0.033 0.963 -1.5 0.048 -0.053 0.033 0.971 -1 0.040 -0.053 0.033 0.980 -0.5 0.032 -0.054 0.034 0.988 0 0.023 -0.054 0.034 0.997 0.5 0.014 -0.055 0.034 1.006 1 0.006 -0.055 0.035 1.015 1.5 -0.003 -0.056 0.035 1.024 2 -0.013 -0.056 0.035 1.034 223 taking and information elaboration may influence employee behaviour work under different mechanism in the relationship between perceived discrimination and process conflict and can be explored further in future studies. Overall, these results provide support for Hypothesis 13d, in that the hypothesised moderated mediation relationship between perceived discrimination and process conflict is significant only for low levels of inclusive climate, although effect sizes are small. Instead, the results indicate that for diverse contexts, perceived discrimination strongly predicts process conflict and the mediating paths of perspective taking and information elaboration plays a very small albeit statistically significant role in this relationship when levels of inclusive climate are low. Overall, the direct effect is of greater importance in understanding this relationship. v. Perceived discrimination and relationship conflict Hypothesis 13e stated that there will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived discrimination and relationship conflict, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be negatively related to relationship conflict. The hypothesised relationship is represented in Figures 5.19 along with the statistical path diagram in Figure 5.20. Figure 5.19: Hypothesised Path Diagram: perceived discrimination and relationship conflict 224 Figure 5.20 Statistical Diagram: perceived discrimination and relationship conflict Tables 5.26 summarise the tests of the hypothesis and Figure 5.21 represents the tabulated results in the statistical path diagram. Tables 5.27 (A-C) the tests of significance for the hypothesised moderated mediation paths. Perceived discrimination has a strong positive effect on relationship conflict (path c': β=0.44, p <.001and CI= 0.25 to 0.62). Table 5.26 also provides the R2 change, Figure 5.21: Path diagram with results: perceived discrimination and relationship conflict 225 Table 5.26 Model Coefficients for conditional process model: perceived discrimination and relationship conflict Step 1: X → M Step 2: X → M1 → Y Step 3: X → M1 → M2→ Y Perspective Taking (M1) Information Elaboration (Y) Relationship Conflict (Y) Variables β SE p 95% CI β SE p 95% CI β SE p 95% CI Perceived discrimination (X) a1 -.14 .05 <.01 -.24, -.04 a2 -.06 .07 .41 -.20, .08 c' .44 .10 <.001 .25, .62 Perspective Taking (M1) - - - d21 .29 .12 .02 .05, .58 b1 .08 .17 .62 -.25, .41 Information Elaboration (M2) - - - - - - - - b2 -.26 .11 .02 -.47, -.05 Inclusive Climate (W) - - - c1 .19 .04 <.001 .11, .27 - - - M1 x W (when Information elaboration is Y) - - - c2 -.22 .08 <.01 -.39, -.06 - - - Constant iM1 .23 .94 .01 .05, .42 iM2 4.04 .13 <.001 3.78, 4.30 iY 2.79 .47 <.001 1.86, 3.72 R2= 0.05 R2= 0.31 R2= 0.20 F (1, 134) = 7.45, p<.01 F (4, 131) = 14.56, p<.001 F (3, 132) = 11.31, p<.001 β= Unstandardised Coefficients 226 when investigating the effects of the moderated mediation path between perceived discrimination and process conflict. The R2 has reduced slightly from R2= 0.31 (F (4, 131) = 14.56, p<.001) to R2= 0.20 (F (3, 132) = 11.31, p<.001). The coefficient of the paths from information elaboration to relationship conflict is negative and statistically significant at p<0.05 (path b2; β= -0.26, p=0.02 and CI= -0.47 to -0.05). From Table 5.27 B and 5.27 C, results indicate that the moderated mediation path is significant at low levels of inclusive climate only i.e. at standard deviation of -1. Table 5.27 (A-C): Bootstrap confidence intervals for indirect effects, conditional indirect effects and moderated mediation A. Indirect effects through either mediator Effect SE LLCI ULCI Perceived discrimination-> Perspective taking-> Relationship Conflict -.0111 .0249 -.066 .0356 Perceived discrimination -> Information Elaboration -> Relationship Conflict .0152 .0229 -.0306 .0646 B. Conditional indirect effect through both mediators at +/-1 SD of the moderator Perceived discrimination-> Perspective taking -> Information Elaboration -> Relationship Conflict Effect SE LLCI ULCI -1 SD Inclusive climate -1.43 .023 .015 .007 .057 0 SD Inclusive climate .0000 .010 .008 -.0004 .0293 +1 SD Inclusive climate 1.43 -.001 .008 -.020 .013 C. Index of moderated mediation Index SE LLCI ULCI Inclusive climate -.008 .006 -.023 .0001 The confidence intervals of the moderated mediation index contain zero indicating that the there is no definitive evidence of the moderating effect on the mediated relationship (Hayes, 2015). To explore this further, I calculated the direct at indirect 227 Table 5.28A: Direct and Indirect path effects from perceived discrimination and relationship conflict 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 a1 d21 c2 INCL a2 b1 b2 DIRECT IND via PT IE* IND via PT# IND via IE~ TOTAL^ -0.138 0.29 -0.22 -2.0 -0.06 0.08 -0.26 0.44 0.026 -0.011 0.015 0.467 -0.138 0.29 -0.22 -1.5 -0.06 0.08 -0.26 0.44 0.022 -0.011 0.015 0.463 -0.138 0.29 -0.22 -1.0 -0.06 0.08 -0.26 0.44 0.018 -0.011 0.015 0.459 -0.138 0.29 -0.22 -0.5 -0.06 0.08 -0.26 0.44 0.014 -0.011 0.015 0.455 -0.138 0.29 -0.22 0.0 -0.06 0.08 -0.26 0.44 0.010 -0.011 0.015 0.451 Table 5.28B: Ratio of Direct and Indirect path effects from perceived discrimination and relationship conflict INCL = Inclusive climate IND= Indirect effect DIR= direct effect PT= perspective taking IE= information elaboration *the indirect effect through both mediators is = a1*(d21 + c2INCL) b2 # the indirect effect through PT only = a1*b1 ~the indirect effect through IE only = a2*b2 ^ the total effect = direct effect + indirect through both mediators+ indirect through PT only+ indirect through IE only INCL RATIO OF IND via PT IE to total RATIO OF IND via PT only to total RATIO OF IND via IE only to total RATIO OF DIR to total -2 0.056 -0.024 0.033 0.935 -1.5 0.048 -0.024 0.033 0.943 -1 0.040 -0.024 0.033 0.951 -0.5 0.032 -0.024 0.033 0.959 0 0.023 -0.025 0.034 0.968 228 effects when inclusive climate is at its mean (i.e. SD=0) and when it is at low levels (SD= -2). These results are provided in Table 5.2A and 5.28B. Tables 5.28A and 5.28B show that at mean levels of inclusion, the ratio of the indirect is only 2% of the total effect while the direct effect is 97% of the variance in the relationship between perceived discrimination and relationship conflict. This implies that in diverse context, perceived discrimination is a strong predictor of relationship conflict while the conditional indirect effect via perspective taking and information elaboration is insignificant. Hence, hypothesis 13e is rejected. This concludes the test of hypotheses and analysis. I summarise the results of the tests of hypothesis in Table 5.29. As can be seen from Table 5.29, results indicate support for hypotheses 1-5 related to information elaboration and the outcome variables. Results also indicate support for hypotheses 6-7, in relation to the mediating relationship of perspective taking and information elaboration as well as the moderating effect of inclusive climate on this mediation. Hypotheses 8 and 9 found no support while perceived discrimination was found to be negatively related to perspective taking. Given that there was no support for the effects of multicultural identity and perceived cognitive diversity on perspective taking, the moderated mediation hypotheses relating to these antecedents, namely hypotheses 11a to 11e and hypotheses 12a to 12e, were not tested. Hypothesis 13a and b, were partially supported in that the conditional indirect effects were significant at lower levels of inclusive climate. No support for the conditional indirect effect was found on the relationship of perceived discrimination on task conflict (hypothesis 13c) and on relationship conflict (hypothesis 13e). Results indicated weak but significant effects of the conditional indirect effect on the relationship between perceived discrimination and process conflict. 229 Table 5.29: Summary results of hypotheses tests No. Hypothesis Result 1 Information elaboration will be positively related to team cohesion. Supported 2 Information elaboration will be positively related to team member satisfaction. Supported 3 Information elaboration will be negatively related to task conflict. Supported 4 Information elaboration will be negatively related to process conflict. Supported 5 Information elaboration will be negatively related to relationship conflict. Supported 6 Perspective taking will be positively related to information elaboration Supported 7 The relationship between perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive organizational climate. Supported 8 Multicultural identity will be positively related to perspective taking. Rejected 9 Perceived cognitive diversity will be positively related to perspective taking Rejected 10 Perceived discrimination will be negatively related to perspective taking. Supported 13a There will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived discrimination and cohesion, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be positively related to cohesion. Partially Supported 13b There will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived discrimination and satisfaction, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be positively related to satisfaction. Partially Supported 13c There will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived discrimination and task conflict, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be negatively related to task conflict. Rejected 13d There will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived discrimination and process conflict, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this Partially Supported 230 conditional indirect effect will be negatively related to process conflict. 13e There will be a conditional indirect relationship between perceived discrimination and process conflict, where the mediating process of perspective taking and information elaboration will be moderated by inclusive climate and this conditional indirect effect will be negatively related to relationship conflict. Rejected In Section 5.6, I highlight the key findings and contributions of this study. In Section 5.7, I conclude this chapter with the Chapter Summary. 5.6 Discussion and Key Contributions The primary aim of this study was to investigate the underlying mechanism of how multicultural individuals influence diverse teams. To develop a more holistic understanding of this phenomenon, given the context of a culturally diverse work environment, the study was juxtaposed with the investigation of perceived cognitive diversity and perceptions of discrimination. On account of framing the study of multicultural individuals within the diversity literature, through this quantitative study, I am able to contribute to two bodies of literature. Findings from this study, therefore contribute to research on multicultural individuals as well as the research on the diversityperformance relationship. In Section 5.6.1, I first discuss the findings and contributions in relation to our understanding of multicultural individuals. In Section 5.6.2, research findings that contribute to the diversity-performance literature are summarised into three core contributions. The first contribution is with respect to the mechanism of perspective taking and information elaboration and the moderating effect of inclusive climate on this mechanism. Second, I discuss the role of perceived cognitive diversity in our understanding of the diversity-performance relationship. Last, I discuss the significant role of perceived discrimination in this context. 231 5.6.1 Multicultural Individuals Multicultural individuals are often theorised to be able to contribute to diverse teams contexts in multiple ways including the ability to consider multiple perspectives, avoid group think and allow for greater sharing of ideas (e.g. Fitzsimmons, Miska and Stahl, 2011). Contrary to what is often theorised, this study did not find support for this assertion. There may be several reasons for this finding. From a theoretical perceptive, this may because it is not through a perspective taking mechanism that they contribute towards the diverse team processes. Perspective taking relates to efforts taken to understand the motivations and views of others; in the context of culturally diverse work contexts, it relates to efforts at understanding the perspectives of cultural-others. The assumption is that one can correctly ascertain the perspective of the other i.e. that one has some prior knowledge of what may be the potential perspectives that others may be considering. In effect, there is some level of 'guesswork' involved. As discussed in Chapter 3, the construct of 'perspective taking' does not include accuracy in perspective taking; it only refers to level of efforts in perspective taking. Further, there may be some level of bias when individuals report the level of efforts that they expend in perspective taking along with the fact that individuals will vary in what they constitute as sufficient effort in perspective taking before they assume to understand another's viewpoint. Thus, effectiveness in perspective taking is contingent on several factors (see Section 3.8). It could be possible that because multicultural individuals are highly cognisant of the existence of various culturally influenced perspectives, that they do not assume to know what pool of perspectives or thoughts that the cultural-other may or may not possess or choose from. In other words, on account of their own identity development and affiliation with multiples cultures, multicultural individuals may be more acutely aware than their more monocultural counterparts, that there be multiple ways of viewing the world and cognitively processing phenomenon around them, especially in a diverse context. Thus, they do not automatically assume that they know what perspectives others may take or that they may be correctly ascertaining the perspective of someone else and therefore, do not engage in perspective taking. They may instead, chose to take a more basic approach of directly engaging and seeking 232 knowledge of others views in order to obtain a more accurate understanding of how others are thinking. This suggests that multicultural individuals might be actually more aware of how complex the differences can be. In effect, instead of perspective taking in any form and assuming to accurately guess how others are thinking, multicultural individuals may instead be engaging in directly seeking information or learning about others from one-to-one interactions with them. Thus, in theorising the underlying mechanism of how multicultural individuals may impact diverse team processes, a more nuanced theoretical approach which examines micro-interactions on an individual level (e.g. dyadic) may be helpful. This also suggests that the mixed methods approach of this thesis in examining multicultural individuals' views of their day-to-day interactions in an inductive study, adds significant value to our understanding of how these individuals can impact team processes. A second explanation may be related to the data itself. The measure, namely the Multicultural Identity Index, was an inclusive measure that took into consideration multiples ways of being multicultural as based on our existing research, including number of years lived abroad, cultural influences at a younger age, heritage culture of parents, number of languages spoken and so on. The MII also balanced theory-led operationalisations using researcher-defined measures with components which reflected individual agency in individual's multicultural identity formation (i.e. informant-led measures), instead of relying on any single component. The data on multicultural identity was normally distributed although slightly skewed to lower levels. In order to achieve a balanced panel for better accuracy in the statistical analysis, much of the survey data over the period of the study was excluded. In this regard, only those individuals who responded to the surveys at all three times in the duration of the study were included and it could be that several multicultural individuals who scored higher on the index were excluded from the final sample size of 136. The loss of data and subsequent explanatory power could account for the lack of statistically significant findings regarding multicultural identity. However, this does not account for the several near zero correlations. 233 In Table 5.30, I provide the correlation table for an unbalanced panel. In this sample, I included individuals who answered the surveys in at least two points of time in the study. As can be seen from the table, when the sample size for multicultural identity is 195, there are still several near zero correlations. This further suggests that a different mechanism as a whole explains how multicultural individuals can impact diverse team processes and outcomes. I also explored whether the total number of years lived outside of one's home country, which is often used proxy for multicultural identity, showed better correlations with the variables under study (this correlation table is provided in Appendix 6 under Additional Analysis). Again, years lived abroad also yielded null results in terms of the lack of statistically significant findings and several near zero correlations. Lastly, the lack of findings with regards to multicultural individuals may be on account of some unique aspect of the site of study not captured in the quantitative study. As discussed in Chapter 2, organisational contexts influence identity saliency and this impacts how individuals behave within an organisation (Fitzsimmons, 2013). It could be that multicultural individuals do not feel accepted or valued in this research setting and thus impacting any benefits they bring to their team processes. In sum, these unexpected findings from field data and proposed explanations suggests that further investigation is warranted in trying to understand how multicultural individuals impact team processes and if there are any contextual factors that hinder their ability to do so. Thus, this raises 234 Table 5.30: Descriptives, correlations and scale reliabilities for unbalanced panel+ + Sample contains individuals who participated in at least 2 of the 3 data collection periods T1= Time 1, T2= Time 2, T3= Time 3 Alpha coefficients for each scale are provided in the parenthesis. ** p< 0.01 level and * p< 0.05 level 235 questions as to the ability of multicultural individuals to contribute to diversity in real world work contexts, as is often theorised, and potentially, if and why they may choose not to contribute towards team processes and outcomes. This kind of investigation warrants a more in-depth approach, where multicultural individuals themselves, describe and explain how they negotiate team dynamics in diverse work contexts. I address this issue in an inductive study which is described in the following chapter, i.e. Chapter 6. 5.6.2 Implications for diversity research i. The importance of information elaboration for key team outcomes As discussed in Chapter 3, much of the diversity performance relationship has been studied with student teams or in a laboratory stetting. This study contributes to our understanding of how information elaboration is an important mechanism in the diversity performance relationship by using field data. Results show that information elaboration positively and significantly predict cohesion and feelings of satisfaction. Results also show that information elaboration has a negative relationship with task, process and relationship conflict. This suggests that unlike more homogenous work contexts, organisations with a diverse employee base may need to extend greater efforts in ensuring that systems are put in place to support information elaboration. Such efforts would support the process of mitigating conflicts in task achievement, build more cohesive teams and increase overall employee satisfaction. ii. Perspective taking, information elaboration and inclusive climate Using the category-elaboration framework (CEM), this study proposed that in a diverse work context, that perspective taking would predict information elaboration and that this relationship between perspective taking and information elaboration would be moderated by inclusive climate. Results showed strong support for the relationship between perspective taking and information elaboration. These finding 236 are significant contributions to the diversityperformance literature in several ways. For example, much of the previous literature using the CEM framework has focused on the moderators of the diversity-performance relationship, in attempting to understand when information elaboration could be enhanced. Instead of only focusing on the conditions under which information elaboration takes place, this study shows that perspective taking behaviour is an important mechanism that supports information elaboration in culturally diverse contexts. Taken in conjunction with the previous finding, where greater information elaboration predicts cohesion and satisfaction, and lower levels of conflict, it would be desirable to invest in perspective taking in order to achieve these desirable outcomes. The organisational implications of this impact both organisational culture and leadership. Organisations, leadership within teams and leaders in general, benefit from accessing the unique information held by their diverse employees if they promote, and allow for the time and space and conducive environment for individuals to perspective take. For example, prior to decision making on planning tasks for a project, team leaders could include a session or a pre-meeting session aimed solely at engaging in perspective taking amongst team members. These could take the form of dyadic pairings or smaller group sessions, before meeting and finalising decisions as a larger team. Findings from this study suggest that for team leaders, encouraging and supporting perspective taking behaviour becomes especially critical if their team members' perceptions of the organisational inclusive climate are poor i.e. employees do not feel that their differences are welcomed and respected in the organisation. When inclusive climate perceptions are high, perspective taking had no significant effect on information elaboration behaviour. In the context of high inclusive climate perceptions, employees may already openly and more easily express their differences in knowledge without the need for each other to actively perspective take to discern team members unique knowledge. 237 iii. Perceive discrimination and diversity and what these means for multicultural individuals Another key contribution of this study is with regards to the role of perceived discrimination in the diversity performance relationship. As discussed in Chapter 3, often diversity, both cultural and cognitive, is associated with conflict. However, in this thesis I argued that the mere existence of difference did not necessarily equate to conflict. Instead I suggested that in diverse contexts, perceptions of discrimination and differential treatment would predict all forms of conflict and detrimental effects to cohesiveness and satisfaction. Results from this study strongly support these findings as there were consistent, strong direct effects of perceived discrimination on all three forms of conflict. Comparatively, mediating paths of perspective taking or information elaboration failed to mitigate the overall negative of perceived discrimination on all forms of conflict. In addition, the lack of findings related to perceived cognitive diversity and conflict further assert the argument that it is not diversity per se that is a source of friction, but the perceptions of outgroup and in group bias and discrimination that results in conflict. This overwhelming support for the effects of perceived discrimination to contribute to different kinds of conflict effectively moves the focus of the benefits of diversity from the contribution of diverse employees and the coordination between them, to the leadership of those in charge of managing this diversity. In other words, these results suggest that tapping into the value of diversity is not on the onus of diverse employee groups; it is on the onus of the leadership that must manage a diverse employee base. Those managing diverse employee groups must ensure that they avoid actions, policies or decisions that may lead to perceptions of bias or favouritism. This would suggest that those in leadership and management positions need to be cognisant of the diverse needs of their employees or at least open to understanding them. 238 In terms of fostering cohesion and enhancing employee satisfaction, positive and significant moderated mediation indexes for both outcome variables signifies that the negative effects of perceived discrimination are mitigated by the conditional indirect effects of perspective taking and information elaboration. In other words, both perspective taking and information elaboration as sequential behaviours lessened the negative feelings of discrimination on perceptions of cohesiveness and feelings of satisfaction. Again, this is especially critical for leaders of diverse teams where employees feel that the organisational inclusive climate is less welcoming of diversity. At low levels of inclusive climate, the conditional indirect effect explained approximately 10% of the total effects of perceived discrimination on cohesion and 13% of the total effects on satisfaction. Thus, this provides further evidence of the importance of the key mechanisms of perspective taking and information elaboration and the conditional effects of inclusive climate in diverse contexts. These results suggest that for multicultural individuals to be able to contribute towards diverse contexts, there may need to be a greater focus on organisational cultures which are supportive of diversity. This study showed the detrimental effects of perceived discrimination in a diverse work environment when individuals were asked if they felt discriminated based on their nationality and enacted (nationalitybased) cultural norms. With in-group favouritism on the basis of nationality, it is often easy for individuals to categorise themselves into nationality-based sub groups and stereotype others into subgroups using signifiers such as physical attributes (e.g. skin colour, facial features, height etc) or language. However, this poses a problem for multicultural individuals who may identify with more than one national culture and belong to more than one subgroup. If they do not belong to the favoured subgroup, then, like other outgroup members, they may suffer from negative outcomes of perceived discrimination such as lower organisational commitment, lower job satisfaction, increased stress and negative effects on wellbeing (e.g.s Sanchez and Brock, 1996; Pascoe and Richman, 2009). However, if any of the multicultural individual's identity affiliations is part of the favoured group, s/he may 239 be able to leverage this through cultural frame switching (Benet-Martínez et al., 2002). Lastly, if one of their identity subgroups is favoured over another, a potential conflict may be created in reconciling between these identities (Baumeister, Shapiro and Tice, 1985). In general, in the context of subgroup formation (based on any type of categorisation, whether it be nationality or religion or any other societal culture), made salient by the presence of discrimination, multicultural individuals will find themselves in social context which reinforces the importance of individuals with a single identity over others with multiple identity affiliations, such as multicultural individuals. Thus, in diverse work contexts where individual identity affiliations are perceived to be given greater importance, multicultural individuals could feel alienated. In turn, this could impact their motivation to contribute to the organisation. These ideas are discussed in detail in Chapter 7. 5.7 Chapter Summary The purpose of this chapter was to investigate the mechanism underlying how multicultural individuals impact team processes and outcomes in diverse work contexts. This chapter outlined the details of longitudinal research design, the methods as well as the measure used. It also provided details of the participants and the final sample. This chapter introduced the Multicultural Identity Index as an inclusive and parsimonious operationalisation of multicultural identity. The quantitative study described in this chapter investigated a mediated moderation model to tests the effects of multicultural identity, perceived cognitive diversity and perceived discrimination on outcomes of cohesion, satisfaction, task conflict, process conflict and relationship conflict. Results of this study include, first, the importance of information elaboration in diverse work contexts on all key outcomes as evidenced by field data. Second, the significant effect of perspective taking on information elaboration and the moderating effect of inclusive climate. Third, perceived 240 discrimination was found to be a strong predictor of all three types of conflict and cohesion and satisfaction. Fourth, in relation to the relationship of perceived discrimination and outcomes of cohesion and satisfaction, another key contribution was the importance of the conditional indirect of perspective taking and information elaboration, at low levels of inclusive climate. Implications of perceptions of discrimination on the motivation of multicultural individuals was briefly discussed in this chapter and will be further examined in Chapter 7. A fifth key insight was that contrary to what was hypothesised based on previous literature, multicultural individuals did not engage in perspective taking as key mechanism for influencing diverse team processes. As discussed in Section 5.6.1, this warrants further investigation, for which an inductive, qualitative approach may be better suited to examine this in greater depth. To do so, I now turn to the second study that forms part of the mixed methods approach of this thesis. In Chapter 7, I use a qualitative study which investigates the micro-dynamics by which multicultural individuals negotiate diverse team processes. 241 CHAPTER 6: MULTICULTURAL INDIVIDUALS' EXPERIENCE OF DIVERSE TEAM DYNAMICS 242 Chapter 6: Multicultural Individuals' Experience of Diverse Team Dynamics 6.1 Chapter Overview This thesis uses a mixed methods approach to examine how multicultural individuals can impact team performance. In the previous chapter, I conducted a quantitative study which tested a moderated mediation model which examined how the mediating mechanisms of perspective taking and information elaboration facilitated multicultural individuals impact on diverse team outcomes. In this chapter I take a different approach and examine the interpersonal dynamics between multicultural individuals and their team members to provide a nuanced and meaningful understanding of multicultural individuals and team dynamics above and beyond what is captured in Chapter 5 through the quantitative study. The qualitative approach described in this chapter, allows for an in-depth study of the underlying mechanisms by which multicultural individuals are able to contribute towards diverse team functioning through studying their interpersonal dynamics using multiple qualitative data collection tools and triangulating between them. In turn, it provides this research with a means to explore and understand the lived experience of multicultural individuals in real world organisational context an area of research that has not been explored in the literature and provides an important contribution to the overall research undertaken in this thesis, on how multicultural individuals impact diverse team processes. I begin with outlining the aims of this chapter in Section 6.2. In Section 6.3, I provide a rationale for the qualitative approach taken in this study. In Section 6.4, I highlight the cultural context in which the organisation is situated and note how this influences the data collection process. In Section 6.5, I describe the steps taken to ensure credibility and dependability of the data. I discuss methods used in Section 6.6 and report my findings from the qualitative analysis in Section 6.7. In Section 6.8, based on theory generated from these findings, I propose a framework for studying the 243 impact of multicultural individuals on diverse team performance. I provide a summary of the chapter in Section 6.9. 6. 2 Aims of this Chapter The primary aim of this chapter is to explore the lived experience of multicultural individuals in their dynamics in culturally diverse teams, using the context of XYZ Healthcare. As detailed in Chapter 2, there is currently limited research that empirically examines the role of multicultural individuals in work contexts. Thus, by studying their personal experience this chapter aims to provide new insights and add value to our understanding of how these individuals impact diverse teams. As discussed in Chapter 4, using a qualitative study, as part of a mixed methods approach. provides as a secondary means to identify the mechanisms and factors that influence multicultural individuals' potential to impact team dynamics and, in this way, supplements and qualifies the results of the quantitative analysis of Chapter 5. As a secondary aim, this chapter aims to generate theory on how multicultural identity and contextual factors influence the conditions and the manner by which multicultural individuals impact team performance. Based on the results of this study, I propose a framework where I identify three key factors that influence multiculturals ability and willingness to contribute to diverse team performance. I propose that this framework would be useful for future research in advancing the field as, unlike much of the previous research, this research is based on evidence gleaned from multicultural individuals in real world contexts. 6.3 Rationale for a Qualitative Approach While the quantitative component of this study sheds light on the sequential mechanism of the diversity-performance relationship and the role of multicultural individuals in that process, a qualitative approach provides an in-depth understanding of the everyday team dynamics experienced and enacted by multicultural individuals 244 in a diverse context. Qualitative approaches analyse phenomenon in their natural setting, thereby allowing for context and enabling researchers "to make sense of, or to interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them" (Denzin and Lincoln, 2000, p.3). In this way, qualitative research helps capture information that is not conveyed in quantitative data (Gephart, 2004), such as the underlying causes for behaviour such as beliefs, values, feelings and motivations (Ritchie and Lewis, 2003). It is particularly suited to understanding social processes which are meaningful to individuals and management practices within organisational context and to advance our understanding of organisational phenomena (Gephart, 2004). Thus, the dynamic and contextual nature of these interactions warrant this inductive and contextualised approach in order to discern the underlying motivations of multicultural individuals and their thought processes during team interactions. Adopting a qualitative approach, along with the quantitative approach, therefore, provides multiple complementary perspectives in understanding the mechanisms by which multicultural individuals are able to and motivated to contribute towards diverse teams. In this study, I use a combination of semi-structured interviews, participant observation, informant interviews and organisational documents for data collection. As described in the Chapter 4, I choose an inductive grounded theory research approach in order to investigate the yet unexplored interpersonal dynamics of multicultural individuals in a diverse work context. Using an inductive grounded theory approach allows me to understand how these individuals construct and interpret their social settings with a view to developing theory through processes of constant comparison and theoretical sampling (Suddaby, 2006). 6. 4 The Cultural Context of the Study In this section, I discuss the core issues related to the context of the study, which had the potential to impact data collection. After outlining these issues, in the next section, I detail the steps taken to safeguard the quality of the research during this process. 245 The purpose of the qualitative study is to explore the experience of multicultural individuals and understand their perspectives on team dynamics within the given organisational context. As discussed in Chapter 4, contextual influences on individual behaviours and perceptions may arise from social norms on account of organisational and national cultures (e.g. Kirkman and Shapiro, 2001), the interplay of both organisational and national cultures (e.g. Gerhart and Fang, 2005) and well as external labour markets (e.g. Bacharach and Bamberger, 2004). Bearing this in mind, in order to access data from multicultural individuals about their interpersonal dynamics as well as organisational issues and to ensure the credibility and dependability of the data, there are three core issues which are relevant for data collection in the context of XYZ Healthcare and the cultural contexts of Bahrain and the organisation. The first two issues relate to the acceptance of my role as a researcher and continued access to employees. The third issue relates to the quality of the data. I discuss these next. 6.4.1. Continued Support from Leadership The first concern was ensuring the continued support from management and team leaders. As the organisation is a 24-hour hospital with in-patient, out-patient and emergency care, the management was clear that patient care and service delivery could not be affected because of onsite data collection. Thus, the support and cooperation of the management and team leaders was required so that they would 1) allow for employees to take some time off for the interviews during work hours 2) ensure that other team members could cover any work if a team member was in the interview and 3) feel confident that any time their team members would be called out of the interview if required to maintain normal workflows. Therefore, the scheduling of interviews was purposefully structured to be very flexible so that employees would not be penalised in any way for participating in the study. 246 6.4.2 Establishing Relationships of Trust with Participants The second concern was establishing a relationship of trust and openness with participants. I was keen to establish a strong sense of confidentiality and anonymity amongst the employees so that they felt confident enough to speak their mind. It was the first time the organisation was participating in a research project of any kind and hence, I was conscious of the need to reassure them of the process and to ensure their privacy was respected. I was also aware, that for some participants, I might need to explain what the nature of a research project was. This meant that data collection would require me to adapt to these specific needs of the interviewees (Ritchie and Lewis, 2003), such as a significant amount of time and effort invested in meeting with participants, as well as being available for private one-to-one discussions if participants needed reassurance. 6.4.3 Ensuring Accuracy of Information The third issue related to the context of this study was in being able to verify the accuracy of organisational critical events relayed to me via interviewees or information from employees and those in leadership positions. This was a particular area of concern as the culture of the Middle East and in general, the Asian context, is one in which any negative situations are not spoken about openly, especially to a visiting 'guest' (such as researcher). This is because, in both these cultural contexts, the values related to maintaining dignity and prestige in social interactions, i.e. "saving face" is an integral part of personal and work-related social interactions (Hall and Herrington, 2010; Hooker, 2008). Furthermore, value is placed on maintaining codes of conduct that enshrine group conformity and cohesion (Feghali, 1997; Ellis and Maoz, 2002). As a result of these beliefs, authority is often given deferential respect (Hooker, 2008) and communication styles are often geared towards finding harmony and being accommodative (Ellis and Maoz, 2002). In this respect, I wanted to account for social desirability bias as participants may be reticent about revealing unofficial or socially undesirable practices. 247 Additionally, cultures which value saving-face also rely more on avoidance and compromising styles of resolving any conflicts as opposed to confronting conflict (Ting-Toomey et al., 1991). This means that instead of dealing with any conflict or misunderstandings in an openly transparent manner, such as in team meetings, individuals from cultures that value saving-face will prefer to either not raise any issues or compromise by deferring to leadership instructions instead of negotiating a jointly agreed upon resolution with all parties concerned (Ting-Toomey et al., 1991). Alternatively, individuals will work 'behind the scenes', i.e. privately, either in oneto-one interactions or in smaller groups, to resolve issues in a quiet and confidential manner, without using formal lines of communication and avoiding any formal complaint redressal systems (Ting-Toomey et al., 1991). These one-to-one or smaller group interactions may include those in leadership positions if such pre-existing relationships exist and have been well-developed. The emphasis of these cultures, in general and in the work context, is on hospitality and development of trusting and long-term relationships (Cassell and Blake, 2012; Hooker, 2008). It is to be noted that by 'trusting relationships' the reference is to trust towards maintaining social harmony and face-saving behaviour for all those within the relationship allowing for long-term stability in relationships (Al Zidjaly, 2012). Therefore, resolving any issues within interpersonal dynamics both in terms of work and in personal contexts, requires tact, respect for all parties concerned, time, patience and a focus on the longterm maintenance of relationships. For a researcher seeking to uncover the underlying dynamics of interpersonal interactions, especially with respect to multicultural individuals in this context, this cultural environment creates a uniquely challenging situation for uncovering these dynamics. Organisational practices and organisational culture are affected by 1) the context of the culture of the country the organisation is situated in (Aycan et al., 2000; Smith et al., 2002) and 2) the culture-related leadership styles such as those of senior management (House et al., 2002; Elenkov and Manev, 2005). As already described 248 in Chapter 4, XYZ Healthcare is part of a larger group of healthcare organisations run by a predominantly Indian management team. The team was primarily from the southern state of Kerala. This distinction is made as South Indian cultures vary from their Northern counterparts and are often seen as separate and distinct (e.g. Rai, 2004; Dyson and Moore, 1983). The Hospital is situated in the Kingdom of Bahrain. Thus, the organisational culture at XYZ Healthcare is influenced by both the Middle Eastern Bahraini culture and South Indian management cultureboth of which, as outlined earlier, focus on long term relationship building, saving face, respect for authority and non-confrontational means of resolving conflicts. Given the ramifications of both cultural influences, the cultural context of XYZ Healthcare meant that 1) the value placed on conformity and social harmony may limit access to information and override the researcher's efforts at ascertaining accuracy in the information obtained; 2) additionally, the value placed on "saving face" might inhibit employees, team leaders or even senior management from sharing information or even allowing for misinformation so as to protect relationships and 3) it would be important to respect and not to upset the cultural dynamics of the organisation in the process of obtaining and clarifying information about the interpersonal work dynamics at XYZ Healthcare. In this section, I outlined the unique contextual challenges in collecting qualitative data with respect to organisations in the Middle East and the Asian context at XYZ Healthcare. In the next section, (Section 6.5), I outline the strategies employed to address these issues in order to ensure access and accuracy of information in the data collection process. 6.5 Data Collection Strategies Employed to Ensure Quality of Data In the previous section, I outlined how the unique context of the Middle East and South Indian cultures influenced access to adequate and accurate information for this study. In this section, I describe actions taken to mitigate these challenges in data 249 Figure 6.1 Timeline for qualitative study Items included in italics refer to events on site when data collection was avoided/not conducive ACHSI refers to the Australian Council on Healthcare Standards International A p r i l July September October November 2015 2016 2016 • Preliminary discussions with senior management and agreement on principle • Initial observations of work flows and hospital outlay • Received documents on employee demographics • Received reports on operational key performance indicators • Interview with Chief Medical Officer • Preliminary interviews with 9 team leaders ✓ 5 Days on site May June • Formal permission received and data collection schedule agreed • Participant observation • Extensive time spent with different work teams & building relationships • Collected updated documents on employee demographics ✓ 9 Days on site • Participant observation • In-depth interviews (Phase 1) • Informal discussions with employees • Informal discussions with employees • Interview with senior management • Collected updated documents on employee demographics ✓ 17 Days on site • Participant observation • In-depth interviews (Phase 2) • Informal discussions with employees and senior management • Collected updated documents on employee demographics ✓ 12 Days on site • ACHSI Inspection November • Ramadan 250 collection to encourage employees to participate in the study; for team leaders to support their team members participation and to ensure accuracy of the data. I outline three key measures used namely, time spent at the organisation, the researcher's personal capabilities as a cultural insider, and triangulation methods used. 6.5.1 Being Embedded in the Field As discussed in Section 6.4.2, this study required a considerable amount of time spent embedded in the organisation in order to gain access, legitimacy and trust amongst the leadership and participants. As described in Chapter 4, the period of both qualitative and quantitative elements of the study was over four months from July to November 2016 with data collection periods during the months of July, September and November. Initial data was collected in November 2015 for the qualitative study as well. This equated to a total data collection period of forty-three days for the qualitative study. A timeline of the qualitative study is provided in Figure 6.1. However, interviews for this study were conducted in Time 2 and 3 and not conducted at Time 1. This was done intentionally. In order prepare for interviews, time spent in the organisation at Time 1, was strategically used for establishing relationships with employees at various levels of the organisation, observing workflows and understanding the task requirements of different teams. The hospital is situated across four floors, with work teams spread across these four floors. During Time 1, I visited each work area, across three shifts, to introduce myself and informally meet and spend time with employees. This meant that I spent time in every area of the hospital ranging from the delivery bay (where supplies would come in) and where security staff had an office to the operation theatre complex. The only areas of the hospital I did not enter were where infection control practices did not allow my entry and areas where patients received treatment, such as inside the intensive care unit and patient rooms. This helped support my understanding of workflows and bottlenecks in service delivery which participants 251 sometimes and which provided context to the issues they raised. Spending time with employees in their work space also allowed me to view their interactions and understand the nature of the tasks that they undertook. Going to their work areas allowed employees to make use spaces within different parts of the hospital to speak to me privately. Thus, instead of requesting employees to meet me in a designated part of the hospital for data collection purpose (e.g. a meeting room for interviews), I met them in areas which allowed for privacy, confidentiality and comfort as well as putting them at ease. Furthermore, I provided the participants with my personal phone number had they wished to talk to me with any concerns they may have had. In order to ensure that workflows were not interrupted and employees were not rushed through interviews, I adopted a very flexible interview scheduling system. This meant that interviews sometimes took place during morning shifts starting at 7 am, or during lean periods such as lunch breaks, or during the start of the second shift when workflows were low such as 2pm or even after an evening shift had finished at 6 pm. For example, one of the interviews was conducted in an empty delivery room with a resident doctor who was on call. Yet another was conducted in the sleep lab between two shifts. One participant preferred to speak outside the hospital premises at a coffee shop, after her shift. Providing this level of flexibility to interviewees allowed them to participate in the interview fully, in a relaxed manner and allowed for time to explore points raised in the interview extensively. This helped to maintain the quality of the interviews by minimising interruptions and allowing for sufficient time for participants to speak without fear of neglecting work or potential repercussions from superiors or colleagues. Hence, taking the time and effort to go to employees and develop a rapport with them, meet them at their convenience in terms of workflows and shifts and in areas of the hospital and outside, helped establish trusting relationships with them and gave 252 them the confidence and comfort to speak freely. These efforts greatly facilitated gathering rich and high-quality data, especially from participants who were extremely busy or worked in high-stress functional roles and who may have otherwise been hesitant to open up or even participate. 6.5.2. Being a cultural insider One of the most difficult things in qualitative, especially ethnographic related research, such as participant observation, is in being accepted as a trusted member of the group one wishes to study. As previously detailed in Chapter 4, my personal background is that I am multicultural individual who identifies with both the Middle Eastern and South Indian Keralite cultures. My identity, my cultural affiliation and my ability to understand the etiquettes of communication in both social groups, allowed me to build rapport with participants and develop the role of a cultural insider in both social groups. There were several examples in which these personal resources helped me gain employees trust and develop a working relationship with them which led to their participation, cooperation and disclosure of information during my work at XYZ Healthcare. I provide one such example here as it was one of my more challenging situations in terms of being trusted as a researcher, obtaining the support of a team leader and getting an agreement to participate in the study. My personal understanding of the participant's culture helped to address the situation. In my first trip on data collection (i.e. Time 1 of the longitudinal study), I wanted to ensure that I built a long-term personal connection and relationship with the head of each department/team leader in order to foster their support for their team members participation in the study. (This was over and above the introductory email that was sent out by the Human Resources Manager and co-signed by the Group Medical Director.). I met each head of the department/team leader in their area of the hospital, based on a time within the 8-hour shift that they would be relatively free to meet. One 253 such gentlemen was a tall, imposing, fifty-eight-year-old from Egypt. He was the lead for one of the larger teams in the hospital; additionally, the team was multicultural and had individuals from several different functional roles who worked together in one of the most critical areas of the hospital. In spite of introducing myself, providing my business card (an important etiquette), explaining my background as a researcher, my affiliation with the London School of Economics (LSE) with my online profile on the LSE website as proof, giving him a copy of the survey, assurances of confidentiality, access to contacts at the LSE Ethics Committee and providing him with the emails of both my supervisors, he refused to trust me in my role and my claims as a researcher. His comment was, "Anybody can make up a webpage. How can I be sure you are not collecting data for someone else...maybe even the British government?" He further commented that questions in the survey included personal background information and asked him about conflict within his team. I understood from his cultural context, that he had no reason to randomly trust a stranger he had just met, with his personal thoughts, especially on conflict. The legitimacy of my identity as researcher from a reputable institution held no importance to him and to his mind, did not amount to a reason to trust my role. Disclosure of this level of private information, for him, was reserved for those he knew and trusted. I needed to first establish some rapport and if required, I could always come by and ask again after finding a means to establish a connection. I also realised that, from his perspective, it was wrong on my part to have just jumped in with the request for participation without first establishing the beginning of some working relationship. I put aside the pile of surveys I had. I dropped the more Western English accent (i.e. more confident, direct, matter-of-fact) that I naturally have and adopted a more 'Arab tone' (i.e. I smiled more, spoke more softly, friendlier and slower) and said, with respect for his senior position, "Let's talk about something else, do you have children, sir?" (in the Arab world, the value of family and children is very highly regarded. Furthermore, the success of ones' children, especially their academic and career success, are matters of great pride.) He was taken aback. He tentatively answered that yes, he had a daughter. I replied that I did too. I asked what she was studying for. He proudly said that she was studying for her 254 masters in his home country. As is the custom in both the Arab and Islamic world, I immediately said, "Mabrook! Masha'Allah you must be so proud of her!" (In Arabic, "Mabrook" means 'congratulations for this blessing' and "Masha'Allah" indicates praise to God for such a blessing). He thanked me and appreciated this response. I then suggested quietly, "Then when you see me, maybe you can imagine I am just like your daughter, doing a project and all that I am asking for is your help in completing my research project. That is all. I am just like your daughter, working for my PhD.". He smiled, chuckled and after a moment, reached out for the survey, and as he flipped through the survey said, 'Ok, leave this survey here, I can look at it today, I am a bit free today. Come by my office tomorrow and let us see.'. Later on, he and his entire team participated in the study during all three time periods of data collection. In subsequent visits to the site, we would joke that his 'daughter' had come back with the next survey and in the final round of data collection, he also allowed me to interview him. A second reason that allowed me unique access as an insider, was my previous association with the Group Management team which is also headquartered in Bahrain. The Group Management team has oversight over all the healthcare units of the Healthcare Group in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. As described in Chapter 4, I was previously employed by this Healthcare Group in a different location and therefore had met and worked with some of the members before they became part of the senior management (i.e. members of the Group Management team) at the group head quarter. The Group Management team was mostly employed by professionals from Kerala. Access to these individuals primarily allowed me to have an insight into the overall view of the operational aspects of XYZ Healthcare. For example, information about XYZ's market share and rewards structures came from my discussions with this senior team. A few of the administrative staff at XYZ Healthcare, were aware of my association with the Group Management team. Specifically, these were the Human Resources Manager, the Finance Manager, the Chief Operating Officer, one of the Marketing staff and the 255 head of Quality Control at XYZ Healthcare. I met them individually in November 2015, once the study had been informally sanctioned but before coming on site for data collection. I explained to these individuals, how this study was unrelated to anything within the Group Management team, reassured them about confidentiality, anonymity and allowed them to ask me any questions that might have dissuaded them from participating in the study or if they had any other apprehensions. I also requested that my association with the Group Management team not be mentioned at XYZ Healthcare, especially during the tenure of the research project. The Human Resources, Finance, and Quality Control staff were part of the organisation from inception and were trained at and deputed from the flagship tertiary care hospital in Kerala. The flagship tertiary care hospital was established even before the units in the GCC had been established. Hence, they had no concerns about job security and they had long established relationships (longer than mine) with the senior management and knew members of the board of directors. The Marketing staff member indicated that he was not concerned as he felt secure in his role and he felt confident in his specialist skills. He was a Bahraini national who grew up and studied in Indian schools in Bahrain, and he felt that he also had a good relationship with senior management at the Group headquarters. The Chief Operating Officer was new in his role. He was being inducted into his role during Time 1 of this study. Unfortunately, his knowledge of my previous association, I believe, did impact his interactions with me. I had asked for an interview with him as part of my efforts at triangulation (I expand on methods of triangulation in Section 6.5.3) and his answers, although eloquent were scripted and repetitive. All these key individuals agreed not to disclose the fact that I knew members of the Group Management team. 6.5.3. Triangulation Triangulation helps to both confirm and to improve the precision of research findings (Ritchie and Lewis, 2003). Triangulation can be achieved in multiple ways including the triangulation of sources where data is compared using different qualitative methods (Patton, 1999). In this study, I used this form of triangulation by drawing on 256 multiple qualitative sources. Qualitative sources included participant observation such as participation in meetings and observing patient flows and the examination of company documents such as weekly administrative team meeting minutes, incident reports, quality control reports, patient numbers and marketing literature including the company webpage and Facebook page. Informal interactions with employees included time spent time in conversations with employees at their work stations or in the prayer room and meals with different sets of employees during lunch breaks, including being invited for team luncheons. Informant interviews were also a source of triangulation. At Time 2, I was invited to participate as an independent observer, in one of the surprise inspections for the upcoming ACHSI accreditation visit. I was asked to provide feedback during this inspection by the consultant in charge. During Time 3, the Group Management team held a strategy meeting with the COO who was presenting the 5-year vision plans for the organisation. I was again, permitted observer status, but I was not allowed to include details of the content of the meeting in this research nor participate in the meeting. When critical incidents were mentioned in interviews or when interviews made impassioned claims regarding negative instances, I sought alternate voices from the team and reports from quality control or human resources departments to corroborate these claims. To this effect, I also interviewed team members to corroborate whether multicultural team leaders were accurate in speaking about how any team conflicts were resolved. In the next section, Section 6.6, I provide details of the sample, data collection process, coding and data analysis techniques used in this part of the study. 257 6.6 Methods In this section I describe the data collection techniques, the details of the sample and the coding and analytical methods used. 6.6.1 Data collection techniques and process I used three data collection techniques. The primary source of data collection was semi-structured, in-depth interviews while, as already described, participant observation and documentation were used as triangulation sources. Before each interview, participants were reminded of the confidentiality of the process and verbal consent was obtained before the recording of interviews. Two interviewees preferred not to be recorded. In all interviews, copious notes were taken during the interview. These notes were reviewed after the interview to ensure clarity, legibility and accuracy while still fresh in my mind. Reviewing the notes also allowed me to identify any parts of the information that needed further triangulation or clarification. Interview protocols addressed the same set of three broad topics. The interview protocols are provided in Appendix 1. Initial questions were meant to put the participant at ease and were related to the background of participant and their journey to employment at XYZ Healthcare. The second set of questions related to interactions in their team. Questions included, "How often do you meet as a team?"; "Do you have opportunities to share information and give feedback regarding your teamwork?"; "How does your team resolve conflicts? Can you give me an example?". The last set of questions were aimed at encouraging the interviewee to be reflective of these team dynamics, so that information gathered could be further gleaned for accuracy and objectivity and less emotionally. Questions included, "If you could advise someone who is about to join a diverse team, what would you 258 advise them to be successful?"; "if you could change something to improve your team dynamics, what would it be?". As the nature of the interviews was semistructured, I could explore a wide range of participants work issues, backgrounds and team dynamics. This included several prompt questions such as "Why is that important to you?"; "Why do you think your team members acted that way?". When interviewees provided incomplete answers, I often repeated their answers for verification or posed follow up questions to confirm if I understood them accurately. For example, I often stated, "So, please correct me if I didn't understand, but did you mean (ask for the clarification) when you said (repeat what the interview said) ...?". This helped clarify incomplete responses. The interviews were transcribed verbatim. Transcripts were reviewed for accuracy by replaying the recordings from random points in the interview and reviewing the transcript. Additionally, I selected random passages in the transcript and the audio was replayed as another check for accuracy. Wherever possible, I included instances where participants laughed or gestured in the interviews to add context to their comments. This became a valuable part of the analysis especially when interviewees expressed frustration with situations they described. Additionally, seven non-multicultural team members were interviewed for the purpose of triangulation. This process yielded a total of 28 hours audio recordings. The average length of an interview was one hour and twenty-five minutes. 6.6.2 Selection of Sample As detailed in Chapter 5, the MII identifies who are multicultural individuals through a combination of measures that include their heritage and their decisions towards second culture acquisition. The selection of the sample of multicultural individuals 259 Table 6.1 List of Multicultural Individuals with a score of 4 or above on the MII IDNO= unique participant identification number for this study; MII score= multicultural identity index score; F=Female, M= Male, YRSABR= total number of years lived outside of home country; Tenure is expressed in years. IDNO Team Name MII Score Job Role GENDER NATIONALITY YRSABR TENURE 00794 Administrative team 8 Guest and Patient Relations Liason Officer F USA 24 1 00222 Marketing 6 Team Leader F Canada 17 5 00686 Internal Medicine 6 General Practioner F India 15 2 00353 Emergency Medicine 6 General Practioner F Bahrain 30 4 00423 Insurance Claims department 5 Administrative staff F Bahrain 0.5 4 00352 Front office 5 Front office receptionists F Bahrain 0 4 00805 Front office 5 Front office receptionists F Bahrain 0.1 1 00843 Front office 5 Front office receptionists F Bahrain 0 0 00594 Emergency Medicine 5 General Practioner M Kenya 14 2 00217 Obstetrics/Gynaecology &Paediatrics 5 Consultant F Brunei 28 5 00467 Orthopedic and Physiotherapy 5 Consultant M France 8 3 00817 Cosmetology 5 Nursing F India 30 0 00134 ENT Team 5 Senior Resident and Team Leader M India 13 5 00487 Administrative team 4 Housekeeping Services-Team Leader F India 40 3 00561 Human Resources 4 Administrative staff M Bahrain 0 3 00319 Insurance Claims department 4 Administrative staff F Phillipines 7 5 00146 Radiology 4 Senior Technician M India 15 6 00703 Front OfficeInsurance reception counter 4 Front office receptionists M Bahrain 1 1 00590 Internal Medicine 4 Consultant M Bahrain 5 2 00202 Dental Department 4 Senior Resident M India 10 5 00147 Emergency Medicine 4 General Practioner F Sudan 37 5 00533 Obstetrics/Gynaecology &Paediatrics 4 Consultant and Team Lead M Lebanon 30 2 00588 ENT Team 4 Nursing F Phillipines 3.5 2 00366 Nursing-Supervisory Team 4 Nursing Training Team Lead F India 6 4 00369 Nursing-Maternity Wing 4 Midwife F India 20 4 00360 Nursing-Maternity Wing 4 Nursing F India 6 4 00734 Nursing-Intensive Care Unit 4 Nursing F India 6 1 00351 Obstetrics/Gynaecology &Paediatrics 4 Consultant F India 19 4 260 interviewed in this study was determined by the their MII score. As per the items on the MII, of a total achievable score of 9 on the MII, an individual can score 3 by virtue of the choices or actions that result from parental decisions. A minimum score of 4 is indicative of individuals choosing to be multicultural and provides a meaningful cut-off score that captures the construct and provides sufficient information as a selection criteria (Cascio, Alexander and Barrett, 1988). As detailed in Chapter 5, MII scores were obtained from demographic and personal data obtained at Time 1 through the first survey. In this sample, the maximum score obtained by any employee was 8. The scale is on a continuum. For identifying individuals for this study, I used the median cut off of 4 as indicative of individuals who are higher on the multicultural continuum. Table 6.1 below provides the summary information of those individuals who scored 4 and above on the MII. Twenty – eight employees had an MII score of 4 and above. From this sample, I interviewed fifteen individuals, representing 51% of the sample. These fifteen individuals represented seven different teams. By the 11th interview, through the iterative process of coding (described next) I had reached theoretical saturation (Glaser and Strauss, 1967) and the additional four interviews did not add additional themes. This suggests that the sample size was appropriate for this study. 6.6.3 Coding and analysis I used thematic analysis in the coding of my data. Thematic analysis allows for the investigation of patterns of meanings or themes, understanding the relationships between them, and the interpretation of such patterns in the data to explain the phenomenon under study. In this way, thematic analyses seek to unearth the themes salient in a text at different levels (Attride-Stirling, 2001) by the careful reading and re-reading of the data such that emergent themes become categories for analysis (Fereday & Cochrane, 2006). The process of coding serves to systematically identify these emergent themes (Attride-Stirling, 2001). Coding of interviews in this study was through a multistep iterative process (Attride-Stirling, 2001; Creswell, 2009). 261 First, through the notetaking process during interviews, repeated emergent themes were noted down. Secondly, at the end of a day of interviewing, I looked for repeated patterns between interviews. These first two steps influenced subsequent interviews in that I became more aware when these themes appeared, although this did not preclude being open to any other emergent themes. Third, an initial sample of five transcripts were reviewed, without looking at the themes from the notes. This was done to keep a fresh view of the data. Then these were once again reviewed with the audio files, to explore influences of context. Lastly, the transcripts were coded using NVivo. Coding in this manner, by moving between different steps and revisiting the coding done in the previous step brought out persistent patterns and allowed for confidence in the reporting of results. Codes were then aggregated to sub-themes when commonalties were found. Codes that emerged from each of these steps were iteratively reviewed, until the final set of subthemes and higher order global themes were finalised. As part of the triangulation process and checking for consistency in the thematic analysis, before I left the organisation, I sought to interview a member of the Group Management team who was instrumental in setting up the organisation in its initial phase. I also interviewed other members of teams to understand if the themes that arose from interviews of multicultural individuals were the same or unique to them. For the purpose of triangulation, I focused on six highly diverse teams with varying levels of coordination and performance. These teams were the Emergency, Cosmetology, Insurance, Internal Medicine, Administrative and Obstetrics and Gynaecology teams. 6.7 Findings and Discussions In this section of the chapter, I outline and discuss the findings of the qualitative study. The findings are discussed in two parts. First, I start with findings relating to the sample and discuss how, self-identification as a measure for identifying multicultural individuals from a sample may not always align with a research-based 262 operationalisation of identifying who is multicultural. This discussion contributes to the field's endeavour to establish a parsimonious yet comprehensive operationalisation of multicultural individuals (Vora et al., 2017c). This discussion also indicates that the Multicultural Identity Index can be a useful operationalisation for this purpose. Second, I expand on the results of the coding and thematic analysis. The results indicate that when studying multicultural individuals impact for team performance, exploring both the willingness and ability of these individuals to contribute to diverse team dynamics is important. In other words, it may not be sufficient to theorise and investigate how multicultural individuals are able to contribute towards diverse teams (i.e. a study of their ability). Instead, results suggest that it is important to include factors related to multiculturals' motivations to contribute to diverse teams as well (i.e. a study of their willingness) Thus, both individual ability and contextual factors that support the motivation of these individuals is needed to understand how multicultural individuals impact diverse team performance. Results also indicate that seeking new perspective taking and a cultural learning orientation is part and parcel of the multicultural identity. Thus, multicultural individuals are able and can contribute to diverse teams via the process of perspective taking and information elaboration. However, results also indicate that contextual factors which demotivate 'natural' and personal motivation for perspective taking and integrating information, have detrimental effects for multicultural individuals at a personal level in addition to impending any efforts to create synergy in diverse teams. In fact, during this study, one multicultural individual left the organisation, a second individual resigned and a third, who was in a leadership position, was in the process of deciding whether to resign or not. The details of these findings are discussed in the subsequent sections below. 263 6.7.1 Being multicultural vs identifying as multicultural One of the challenges of researching multicultural individuals is in finding a mutually accepted operationalisation of the construct of multicultural individuals (Vora et al., 2017c). In this study, I wanted to be parsimonious as well as comprehensive with the operationalisation of the construct of multicultural individuals and ensure that the operationalisation accurately reflected the conceptualisation used in theorising. Thus, I introduced and used the Multicultural Identity Index (MII) as an inclusive yet rigorous measurement for operationalisation. As described earlier, the MII uses a combination of demographic and personal information in order to calculate a composite MII score (please see Chapter 5, Section 5.3.4 for a detailed description of the MII). One of these questions asked individuals if they identified with any other cultures, using the following query, "Other than your country of origin, do you identify strongly with any other cultures/ nationalities? (If yes, please list them)". As described in Section 6.4, there were a total of 28 multicultural individuals at XYZ Healthcare (as per the MII score). Interestingly, for the survey question asking if they identified with any other cultures (other than their home culture), seven of these individuals did not identify with any other culture other than the culture of their country of origin. In other words, although they scored a higher score on the Multicultural Identity Index, they did not self-identify as a multicultural individual. Recall that for the purpose of the study, high MII scores are indicative of individuals being multicultural. Thus, this raises an interesting point in that as per a rigours and comprehensive measure, these seven individuals, score high on the index and are categorised as being multicultural individuals i.e. from the point of view of the research. However, when asked if they identify themselves as multicultural individuals, they do not selfidentify as multicultural individuals, and instead, they selfidentify as nationals of their country. It is important to note, that the MII-derived multicultural identity categorisation is not imposed by the researcher and in addition, allows for individual agency in the dynamic nature of identity construction (Beech, 264 2010). Thus, even when given a choice to identify as a multicultural individual, given their dynamic background, multicultural individuals choose not to identify as multicultural but instead use their national identity. I name this occurrence as 'being multicultural' vs 'identifying as multicultural'. Given this finding, I then checked how many individuals in this sample selfidentified as multicultural. Forty-one employees stated that they identified with a culture(s) other than the culture of their country of origin. Digging a little deeper, I cross-checked these individual's responses with their scores on the MII. Interestingly, their MII scores ranged from 0-8. Of the 41 individuals who identified as being multicultural, only 21 had an MII score of 4 and above, representing 51% of these individuals. In other words, more individuals identified as multicultural, although when indexed against their measures that explored their knowledge, identification with and internalisation of other cultures, (i.e. using the MII), they did not score as well in terms of 'being multicultural'. I therefore, suggest, that there may be a tendency for individuals, to claim or feel they are multicultural, but do not, on scrutiny, have any other indications of a multicultural identity other than their claims. As discussed in Chapter 2, this issue has been raised by other scholars in the field as a potential problem in using only identity based measures for operationalising the construct of multicultural individuals (Vora et al., 2017a). Using a multidimensional and more inclusive measure, such as the MII, helped mitigate this issue and provided rigour in clearly demarcating the boundaries of the construct. In turn, using a combination of both informant-defined and researcher-defined components helped to highlight the benefits of using a multidimensional approach. Demonstrating conceptual and measurement clarity in this way, therefore, lends strong support for the findings of this qualitative study. 265 An in-depth study of the benefits of a multidimensional measure was not a focus of this qualitative study. Hence, this could not be further explored in this study and it remains a phenomenon for a future program of research. For example, future research may wish to explore whether using researcher-defined measures provides different results compared to using informant-defined measures and if there is an optimal balance between using researcher-defined measures and informant-defined measures in the process of identifying who is multicultural in a given sample. However, for this sample, I suggest two possible explanations. First, I suggest the concept of aspirational multiculturalism. Given that many of the employees live in multicultural Bahrain, it could possible that this way of life and the opportunities it holds, is extremely appealing to respondents. Compared to their fellow nationals living back in their country of origin, and compared to a more monocultural familial background, employees in Bahrain may feel that they are genuinely different, more aware and have greater exposure to a more globalised environment than their peers at home. They may conflate the association with a multicultural work environment and the exposure to multiple cultures in their social environment with identifying with multiculturalism, without really internalising many of the value systems or differences in behaviour or beliefs that they see around them. In other words, they may be simply conflating living in a multicultural environment as being multicultural. Alternatively, they may genuinely be at an early part of their journey towards becoming multicultural. Stating an affiliation with other cultures without yet having acquired much knowledge or having internalised any of the cultural schema that is part of a multicultural identity, may be the beginning of their journey to becoming a multicultural individual. For those multicultural individuals with a high MII, who do not identify as multicultural, an explanation for using a national identity instead of a multicultural one, could be due to the saliency of national identities in a multicultural work context. In multicultural work contexts, it is often nationality that becomes an easy 266 heuristic for social categorisation of individuals. Thus, in a multicultural context, one's national identity is one of the most obvious and easily retrieved proxies of difference. For example, on account of physical differences, a Filipino national amongst a Bahraini or Indian will easily be identified by their nationality before a conversation on differences on vocation or personal interests or even qualifications become a point of diversity. However, amongst a single national group (e.g. Bahrainis), there may be sub-divisions within the group that become salient once the national identity is shared. I raise this as a possible explanation as this emerged when conducting the survey with the Front Office team. The Front Office team operate several reception counters across all sections of the hospital services, including a single-person reception desk in a separate building shared with other private medical imaging services. As the Front Office staff are spread out over several shifts, the Front Office manager and I agreed that that the first survey could be handed out during a team meeting, so that all team members could receive the same briefing and I could be available for any queries. The team is entirely made up of Bahraini citizens. On the survey items related to perceived discrimination (please see Chapter 5 for measures used in the survey), one of the employees asked for a clarification. Her question was, 'What do you mean by culture in this questionyou mean nationality or...?'I reassured her that all the questions in the section referred to the same set of instructions that spoke about 'national culture' i.e. one's nationality. She said that there were differences within the country because of the different tribes they belong to, but yes, she said 'in relation to another nationality, we are one.' Thus, within this apparently homogenous national team, when removed from the context of multicultural work groups, their sub-cultures in terms of tribal identities and ethnic groups, came to the fore. In contrast, when individuals have to claim an identity in a highly multinational work environment, identifying with their nationality may be the most easily accessed default identity. Thus, identifying as multicultural may not be as easily cognitively registered or accessed in a multicultural work context. 267 Another explanation for why high MII multicultural individuals identified with their nationality, may be due to connotations attributed to the question on account of variations in English proficiency. In the Middle East, identification of one's nationality is often used for official purposes when filling out forms. It could be that identifying with one's nationality is the default response used when filling out forms, and respondents were more inclined to adopt this default response instead of considering the language used in question. Although the survey was pilot tested by individuals representing eleven nationalities, the general level of English language proficiency would be different amongst different groups of employees (e.g. from technicians to consultants) in an organisation. This may be especially true for this sample as some of the job roles are filled by individuals who have the right to work but are not necessarily sponsored on a work visa by XYZ Hospital and may not have the exact qualifications required to fill the role. This method of drawing on, for example, spouses of expatriates who are sponsored by a different company, supports cost cutting measures in recruitment and is not uncommon in the region. Employers do not have to go through the expensive process of handling visa applications, foreign recruitment programs, liaising with Government bodies et cetera, while at the same time, benefiting in reducing the time taken to fill a vacant post. Therefore, sometimes individuals with some basic knowledge (e.g. an MA in Chemistry) are hired for jobs (e.g. bank teller) that do not necessarily align with their educational qualifications. Often relevant skills are learnt on the job and if not client-facing, may well be suited for both the employer and employee, especially those individuals for whom a second income is important. In turn, for the employer, on the job training may work out to be a much more cost-effective way to gain an employee. The Insurance Claims team had several such members who were hired locally and were not directly sponsored by the hospital. For example, one of them originally manned a small store, another was a housewife and yet another was previously a driver, before they were all trained for 'the white-collar job' of sifting through insurance claims and learning how to work with medical staff and insurance 268 providers to ensure insurance claims were processed in time for payment. This is not to say that they did not understand English-that would not be at all accurate as they communicated with one another and did all their work in English. In fact, this is to just to suggest that their comprehension of the question may have varied depending on their level of proficiency in English. Similarly, there may have been other employees in other teams whose level of proficiency may have resulted in miscomprehension of the question related to identifying with other cultures. I think this only serves to raise an important question in the generalisability of question formats originally created for a predominantly homogenous work context in their applicability to highly heterogenous contexts. However, a more than fifty-percent difference in those who identified as multicultural (48) versus those who are multicultural (21; based on the MII) cannot be attributed to language proficiency entirely. Based on this sample, I strongly suspect that there is an aspirational multiculturalism component to these results. As mentioned earlier, future work will need to explore this further in order to determine whether there is indeed a qualitative difference in 'being multicultural versus identifying as multicultural'. 6.7.2 Results from thematic analysis Thematic analysis of the in-depth interviews provided insight into three key strategic resources that multicultural individuals drew on in order to facilitate teamwork and task completion. These reflected multicultural individuals' willingness and ability to support diverse team functioning. Emergent subthemes centred around three higher order themes relating to factors that either hindered or supported the willingness and ability of multicultural individuals to impact diverse team processes. The sub-themes showed consistency with theorising in Chapter 2 with respect to multicultural individuals' ability and interest in perspective taking. In addition, analysis of the interviews indicated that factors relating to personal background of the multicultural individual, which were not theorised, were also highlighted as a critical resource for these individuals, especially in relation to the development of a learning orientation 269 mindset. The higher order themes were labelled as: Influences of Personal Background, Relationships with Team Members and Enabling Environment. These higher order themes suggest a conceptual framework for understanding how multicultural individuals can impact diverse team performance. Each of these three themes suggest mechanisms and boundary conditions under which multicultural individuals can impact diverse team dynamics. I provide an overview of the higher order themes, sub-themes, their description and example quotes from interviews for each theme in Table6.2A through Table2c.The tables provide the reader with a guide to the thematic analysis for each individual theme. The individual themes are discussed next. i. Theme 1: Influence of Personal Background A common theme amongst multicultural individuals in this study was the influence of their personal background on their identities and their worldviews. A multicultural identity is a source of strength and personal pride for these individuals. It was also a motivational factor which supported the desire and the ability to seek new perspectives from others who were different. Parental examples and multicultural experiences in life were indicative of lifestyles that encouraged, supported and celebrated the adoption of a learning goal orientation (Dweck, 1986; Dweck and Leggett, 1988). A learning goal orientation is an individual personality and motivational disposition that places value in increasing one's competence and gaining mastery in achievement situations (Dweck and Leggett, 1988; Dweck, 1986). Analysis also showed that multicultural individuals enjoyed seeking new perspectives and learning new skills and knowledge. This motivation to consider, learn about and integrate new cultural perspectives and information is seen as a personal strength and had ramifications for their willingness to work with diverse team members. I describe each of the sub-themes in detail in the next few paragraphs. 270 Table 6.2A: Findings from Thematic Analysis Theme1: Influence of Personal Background Sub theme Description Example Quote Parents as motivational examples or promoters of cultural interactions Parental groundedness in home culture roots while actively interacting with other cultures act as inspirational motivators "since we were in a country which didn't wholly solely practice our culture because like (there is) the Bahraini culture you know, and along with that we had Indians, we had Filipinos and many other communities you'll find over here. And plus, my father was a lot into social activities, he's a big social person, so he would like to socialize ...and... we started befriending people of different cultures and all, exchange of ideas, exchange of – you know all these communication factors.... or I'd say my family we will always associate with all sort of nationalities from the childhood. So that way we didn't have much of culture barriers, or let's say languages, or let's say just you know thought process – we didn't have any of those restrictions ...So, you enjoy it you know, so it's something you enjoy, you would like to grow into it, you don't feel there is any restrictions, or you know in a thought process, or respect to mingling." Finding personal strength in cultural roots Cultural roots act as motivating factor to pursuing a mentality for openness and learning "...island mentality is very real and the people are really set in their ways.... (but) I'm a very integrative type of person... Probably it's from my culture of being African, so even you know I was born in the UK, you know I'm still an African, I could have been born in the plane or in China, it doesn't change who I am. It doesn't change – so I think it's from there ultimately from – even though I lived in London, as soon as you walk through the doors, you're in Ghana-as soon as you went into the house. So that's probably where that came from, and through you know growing up in an Afro-British and AfroAmerican cultures has made me I think more far more open than a lot of my peers are, and I will continue – and I've continued to be like that even as I got older" 271 Table6.2A (continued): Findings from Thematic Analysis Theme1: Influence of Personal Background Sub theme Description Example Quote 'Emotional' home The concept of home is more emotional than a connection to a social group or based on political boundaries "I will say yes, 70 percent I'm Bahraini now, because you are so much exposed to the environment that's here, the culture over here, the traditions and friends, and of course they really matter. And then back in Pakistan, yes, we are – I still have acquaintances, but its friends along with mostly relatives. So, you go occasionally, a year before marriage I used to go let's say every summer, but now, it's rarely after five years, four years, so since my entire family is here, my siblings, my parents are still based here. So, it's more you feel connected to the place you're living for a very long time." Cultural learning orientation A desire for personal growth and learning related cultural contact "I love to learn and – because like if you stay in the one field only like if you keep yourself in one side, you feel funnier. You feel bored. It's really boring. For example, my first goal to explore, (when I go) to another country is like learning the other culture also and seeing – to learn many things... Of course, because we need to grow, we need to explore, and learning different things is really amazing and makes you to feel that you are really existing." 272 Parents as motivational examples or promoters of cultural interactions Parenting and the examples set by parents in how they engaged in cultural others seems to have had an important impact on multicultural individuals in this sample. The influence of parents and upbringing indicates that their inputs set the norm for intercultural contact and learning for these multicultural individuals, a norm that these individuals have carried on into adulthood. Some individuals had mixed parentage and the cultural influences of mixed parentage was obvious for these multicultural individuals. For example, one participant was of Lebanese-Slovakian heritage with American citizenship and she her ability to speak Slovak, French, Arabic and English allowed her to work in several multinational organisations in client facing roles. However, even when parents were monocultural and only travelled within various parts of the country or to neighbouring countries, the examples that parents set in terms of learning from different cultures appears to have had a significant influence on the personality and motivations of these individuals. One of the interviewees, from the Philippines, described remembering her parents and their: "happiness (spending) time (in) travelling and going in other places....you will learn in different place". – Ms. SS, Insurance Claims A final example of parental influence was with parents of a multicultural who sent all their children abroad for higher studies as the norm. This Malay-ethnic Bruneian national stated that it was the norm in her family for all youngsters to be sent abroad from secondary school onwards. At no point in the description of parents' interaction with cultural others or encouragement to live and study and adapt in other cultures, was there an indication of renouncing cultural roots. On the contrary, interviewees spoke of personal strength of their cultural roots. The openness to new thoughts or ideas that came from 273 dissolving cultural barriers did not mitigate bonds to their home culture. In fact, one participant said, "your roots are with you, they will always be with you, no matter what you do. But then that does not mean you should hold yourself back from knowing people, or you know befriending people, and enjoying time with them." – Dr. TH, Emergency Services 'Emotional' home In this process of exploring other cultures and learning new ways of thinking, the concept of "home" became more emotional rather than a fixed geographical location such as the individuals home country. This did not mean that participants were did not feel rooted in a particular culture, but they acknowledged that they were different from their monocultural counterparts back in their home countries. This gave them a more global, outward looking view about their own identity resulting in a more dynamic identity construction. For example, on being asked about being born and experiences growing up in the United Kingdom, one of the interviews comments was: "...the UK is all paperwork; it's a passport, it's a birth certificate. it's a piece of paper. I can make one. Like now if I could get a Bahraini passport, it doesn't make me Bahraini. The blood that runs through my veins is the vagina I came through, the woman who carried me is all Africa. ... I'm going to always go there but it's not home (i.e. the UK), it's not who I am. It's not what I see when I look in the mirror" Mr. H, Orthopaedics and Physiotherapy 274 Another interviewee commented on the first time her family returned to Sudan, her home country, after growing up in Bahrain (she subsequently returned to live in Bahrain): "I felt like stranger (participant laughs self-consciously) ... because all my life it was in Bahrain, so I (am) used to Bahrain, even when we used to go like in my annual vacation (to Sudan) ... I will feel more not comfortable to getting contact directly with the people. Maybe because I was away for long time, I'm not too used there, to the community, maybe their tradition became different for me because I'm used to the Bahraini culture and tradition here... I don't know. (in Sudan) to some extent I felt like a stranger, I am not used to the community and to deal with the people... And still I have the passport of Sudan, I didn't change my passport; I'm not a Bahraini (national)" -Dr. N, Emergency Services Cultural learning orientation and intercultural contact Quite often, the words "learn" and "learning" were used repeatedly in the interviews. References to learning were mentioned in primarily two contexts: the first was in connection with intercultural contact, either from because of parental influences as described earlier or descriptions of personal travels later in life. The second context was in reference to interpersonal relations and team dynamics, which I address in the next section. In the first context, references to learning were about personal growth and excitement about exploring new cultures and ways of being. Multicultural individuals' personal aims revolved around the need to grow, seek new experiences and learning. Growth and learning in this context were about the individual's mindset and attitudes towards life and others, when given an opportunity to do learn something new. Thus, I coded this as cultural learning orientation as defined by Dweck and colleagues (Dweck, 1986; Dweck and Leggett, 1988). A learning orientation is associated with a focus on developing knowledge and increasing 275 competence, as the individual desires to improve his/her previous level of knowledge, expertise, or skills or desires to master a specific task (Pieterse, Knippenberg and Dierendonck, 2013). To cite an example from the interviewees, in addition to those provided in the table, one of the participant's comments on the need for getting to know people from other cultures was: "I feel it really adds to your knowledge. Every person that you meet whether it's your culture, or other culture, he's going to give you somethinglet's say it's added to your knowledge, to your exposure, all these things, they matter." Dr. T, Emergency Services A participant remarked: "First of all, it's interesting, it's so much to learn you know with different cultures. Not too many people got even – get this opportunity to live outside, to you know when you're being exposed to different cultures and they have you know – and interacting with different people, different nationals, it's just – you know you can learn so much."Ms. M, Marketing Another participant emphasised how growing up in multiple cultures influenced this mindset from childhood and onto adulthood: "you know growing up in an Afro-British and Afro-American cultures has made me I think more far more open than a lot of my peers are, and I will continue – and I've continued to be like that even as I got older and that's even become more so."Mr. H, Orthopaedics and Physiotherapy The development of a cultural learning orientation as lifelong mindset for multicultural individuals is an important point. The analysis of these interviews suggests the repeated importance given to these individuals' learning orientation forms the basis of their ability and willingness to explore the ideas, views and 276 perspectives of others around them. Although the analysis of these interviews cannot be used to confirm causality, the fact that the learning orientation was always spoken of during the initial part of the interview when participants were asked to describe their personal background suggests that the learning orientation is developed earlier in life. The development of the orientation earlier in life may therefore, set the stage for perspective-taking skills and behaviour later on in adult life, and especially with respect to working in diverse teams. In fact, the second context in which learning orientation is often-referenced is with respect to the benefits of having diverse teams and multicultural individuals' interactions with team members. In the discussion of the next theme, I discuss this sub-theme and its impact on relationships between team members. ii. Theme 2: Relationship with Team Members The central focus of these interviews was in relation to factors, which multicultural individuals, felt impacted their team dynamics within diverse teams. To this effect, three emergent sub-themes indicated that multicultural individuals 1) valued diversity within teams as source of new perspectives and learning and that; 2) open, honest communication and 3) the establishment of clear, systematic protocols facilitated the ability of multicultural individuals to interact with diverse team members and contribute to team performance. However, the realisation that sometimes team members perceived threats to professional identity and competence when new perspectives are proposed, was a source of frustration for multicultural individuals and acted as a strong negative influence on interpersonal relationships. I expand on these findings in detail next. Diversity as a source of perspectives and learning Multicultural individuals expressed an interest and desire to work in diverse teams, including as a preference over homogenous teams. They indicated that diverse teams provided a source of learning and a potential for both professional and personal 277 growth. For example, when discussing collaborating on treatment plans for patients, one of the interviewees said about interacting with diverse team members: "in diversity, the main problem would be getting everybody on the same plane and working the same way that the hospital wants them to work. That's a con. Pro is you get everybody's opinion. You know, you learn a lot. But that's a pro only when the other person is ready to learn from the other, but it becomes a con or it becomes a friction when (they say), "I don't want to learn what you want to do, or how you used to practice, or how you did your rounds." You know, or "Oh, are you trying to be too smart by telling us what you did in your previous hospital, or–" ...But if I keep thinking like that then how would I grow? I think if you compare to have diversity or homogeneity, between both pros and cons, I would pick diversity." –Dr. A, Internal Medicine resident Further, they spoke about diverse team members as sources of knowledge, different perspectives and ideas which could add value to team performance, provided that individuals shared information such as their perspectives and thought processes. In this context, the sharing of perspectives and information was even more critical as treatment plans for patients sometimes needed a multidisciplinary approach between various medical practitioners. This was especially true for Emergency Care and Internal Medicine patient care where different perspectives of medical practitioners were important for holistic patient care but also true even within other areas of the hospital. Culture for open and honest communication According to interviewees, the caveat for diversity leading to the sharing of perspectives and information was the presence of a culture for honest and open communication, which included being culturally sensitive. Interviewees indicated 278 that the fear of speaking up held negative consequences for the team's performance while open communication facilitated the growth of the team. For example, a cosmetology technician stated the following, "Do your work well, and if you have any issues, you can just directly go to [team leader], or go to your in-charge and openly tell it, and if you are finding your work strenuous, just tell it because – and the work will be tiring, and it's not like the usual nursing procedures, more of a cosmetic kind, so then it's totally different. If you are not happy, you have to tell it." -Ms. G, Cosmetology Clinic Another employee reflected the importance of open communication when dealing with diverse colleagues: "People need to understand how you work, and people need to understand that although you are for example straight, or direct, but it doesn't mean you are strict, yeah? So, as I said communication and talking to them on an individual and personal basis when they see that although you are like that but you don't mean it in a bad way, so the important thing is not to take it personally but take it as a step forward. Sometimes you have to call the team member to your room and have a chat because you cannot deal with everyone the same way; everyone needs different way of dealing with them. So, it needs to be individual as well" Ms. D, Guest and Patient Relations 279 Table 6.2B: Findings from Thematic Analysis Theme 2: Relationship with Team Members Sub theme Description Example Quotes Diversity as a source of new perspectives and value for teamwork Diversity of perspectives as good source for team dynamics and personal growth "... it helps me to understand people and like it helps me with my job; it helps me with life because and it's like, "Okay, I get you.". it makes life enjoyable seeing it from other people's point of view." Culture for open and honest communication Honesty and openness in communications in order to enhance task completion and team performance "the ability (to) communicate, let's say the skills to communicate, and then also to – I feel to the ability or the guts to accept or to confess when you are wrong, you know to admit, along with vast amounts of tolerance. So, these are the strengths of any team dynamics I would say... So, I feel in such a situation and especially in a team when you are working, if there is any problem, sit down, take the points, communicate; ask what's wrong, ask what can be done you know." Frustration with team members perceived professional identity threat Multicultural individuals' frustration with resistance to progress in teamwork on account of other's feelings of threat to their professional identity and competence. (i.e. performance avoidance orientation of monocultural team members) "Listen, I'm not coming to step on anybody's shoes, I'm coming to work with people. But these other departments only wanted to see it this way and you know felt threatened and again, they just provided not only no support, but their animosity enormous an unnecessary rivalry, even though while all of this is going on, they're still receiving patients from me" Common rules and systems applicable to all The importance of shared and agreed upon protocols in a diverse setting "A team Salma, means you follow one rule regardless what the rule is because there is one person in charge of this rule; if it's the specialist that's doing something wrong he will be maybe questioned about it. But until he's questioned, this rule goes 280 Similarly, another interview, Dr. TH, from a diverse team said, "I think like I said as the new people from different background started to add up to our teams and diversity started to come in, so we felt – yes, gradually things are getting better, and we found out that yes, one of the major things that had helped to bring changes is communication. So, from that time onwards we started to you know, focus on, "Okay, we need to communicate, we don't need to hold back and hold grudges, and then you know speak behind each other and get annoyed," or something (like that). So, we you know, there are a lot of things we need to give in, in order to have a positive outcome." Unlike the construct of psychological safety which refers to a shared team belief that the team is a safe space for interpersonal risk taking and which is associated with learning behaviour (Edmondson, 1999); in this context, when participants referred to "open" communication, they are referring to others in the team being open to constructive feedback and not taking personal offence. Thus, it would appear that psychological safety to voice one's own thoughts are not enough in diverse contexts; there is also the need to work with others who demonstrate that they do not take offence easily when suggestions or ideas are shared or mistakes are pointed out. Thus, when multicultural individuals speak of sharing of information r perspectives, they often referred to a situation where others took offence quickly or personally. This now leads to the next emergent sub-theme, namely the frustration that multicultural individuals expressed when they spoke of team members for whom any attempts at correcting or improving task performance, became offensive. Frustration with team members perceived professional identity threat As mentioned in the first theme, there were two contexts in which interviews often referenced "learning". The first, as already discussed above, was in reference to participants desire for personal growth and a learning orientation towards learning from cultural others. The second context and the context in which "learning" was 281 more often referenced was when participants expressed real frustration with those team members who did not have interest in learning from one another's diverse perspectives or in sharing knowledge. This frustration was not aimed at the personal level but at a professional level as these individuals viewed this resistance to learning as a hindrance for information elaboration and finding synergy from diversity in the team. They expressed their frustration at the team being unable to utilising all the resources in the group because of this resistance to creating synergy. One consultant put it bluntly and was exasperated when he said: "I don't know why they don't admit that they don't know! Why do they feel threatened?" Dr. T, Consultant A consistent theme surrounding this frustration was commentary on fear of losing a job or being reprimanded publicly or fear of losing patients. For staff who were part of administrative teams, or part of nursing, the comments about fears were associate to a loss of job and being reprimanded. As the hospital is a private firm, patient numbers per doctor were important indicator of performance for doctors. Thus, comments about 'fear' were in relation to loss of patient numbers. For example, when speaking about some of the nurses, Dr. A said, "they have a fear... fear of getting caught, fear of getting in trouble, fear of answering the consultant, (when the consultant asks), '"Oh, you didn't do this?" She indicated that this defensiveness of the nurses sometimes made it difficult to coordinate with other consultants because the fear stymied the communication between nurses and various consultants in the ward. 282 In another example in an administrative team, Ms. R, a team member noted, "Some people (are) scared to tell the things like they might be think that "Oh, I'm telling this maybe my boss really you know, I will lose my job." However, participants indicated their frustration when colleagues within their team showed no interest in learning anything new or accepting new ways of working. For example, one of the General Practitioners when commenting on this difference between team members in her team said, "If someone who wants to reach to a target or achieve some things, definitely he will be more impatient, and he will be you know ready to jump ahead of others. Where the others who – someone who's not interested or who feels that he has attained a certain level and he's satisfied with whatever he has achieved, so he will not be moving much, he will not be struggling, or let's say he will not be participating so much into the improvement or seek new experiences. These people are they will be like a counterforce..., for people who are motivated and who want to just you know go ahead and attain something there in their life.", She goes on to say how she tried to bridge the gap amongst her some of team members, "I tried, many times I tried..., but there then again it comes down to person's nature who would not want to change. So, you can't force them, right? You can just try your level best to communicate with both of them and try to settle things out, and – but then again, they will have grudges". Dr. T, Emergency Services References were made to team members choosing not to engage or work with interviewees because of the fear that team members might lose patients. For example, one interviewee, Mr. H, said that his teammates appeared to think that, 283 "...basically, I'm coming in on their patch. So, it was like, "Oh, we're not going to help this guy because it means if that people are going to him, they're not going to come to us," and this is what was evident for me.". Comments such as "Oh, are you trying to be too smart by telling us what to you did in your previous hospital?" from team members were indicative of being accused of superiority and arrogance, when interviewees were attempting to suggest new ways of working. Some of these comments tended to indicate a power play where seniority, either in age, experience or tenure, were made manifest to multicultural participants who were junior. Interviewees felt that their team members were happy with the status quo, content to do what they had done in the past and were not interested in learning anything new from one another and that this disinterest was, they felt, borne out of a fear of looking incompetent or fear of lower performance. Interviewees also expressed how team members felt intimidated or became defensive if they probed further. As a last example, a team lead of one of the multicultural teams, who is a specialist in a particular investigative procedure, was lamenting his team members' refusal to send patients to him, for the specific test, as they are required to do as per protocol. He said, "You know, I'll tell you why because they are afraid that if they send me patients I will take them; I would steal their patients. So how can you speak of team when there is this attitude?" Dr. R, Consultant At no time during the interviews did multicultural individuals refer to the nationality or culture of others, when discussing their frustrations in team dynamics. Thus, they never spoke of stereotypes or stereotypical behaviour of any sub-groups in the team or organisation. This was further indicative of the development of a learning orientation which mitigates the propensity to resort to stereotypes and intergroup prejudices (Pieterse, Knippenberg and Dierendonck, 2013). Instead, they viewed 284 identity threat types of behaviours of others as issues borne out of individual members' personalities, resulting in what they termed as personality clashes within the team. Some participants were keen to stress that these individuals did not represent their cultures or any groups. One participant referred to such personalities as types of people with "small mentalities". Triangulation Observations of team meetings and hospital rounds corroborated interviewees comments regarding fear. I cite two examples here. The first is with regard to the variety of responses to the Chief Operating Officer (COO) during a weekly administrative team meeting. The administrative team is a highly diverse team which represents the team leads of many of the operations of hospital such as HR, IT, front office, finance, security etcetera. This is a critical team which was formed to ensure that all non-medical services are coordinated throughout the hospital to ensure patient care and smooth service delivery. Hence, this a large team. This team had four multicultural individuals and twelve monocultural individuals, including the (COO). Several of the monocultural team members chose to sit away from the central table (even though there was seating available) and opted for the additional chairs placed around the room. Almost all of these individuals avoided eye-contact with other members of team, especially when issues regarding their departments were raised. They preferred to not be forthcoming with information when issues were raised, with answers to queries of how quickly a technical issue could be resolved, usually consisting of one or two words such as "Soon" or "2-3 days". The COO had to ease them into providing responses and take the lead in resolving these issues. Except for one of each, the multicultural individuals and the Bahraini monocultural staff sat at the central table along with the COO. Multicultural individuals were more often observed to make eye-contact, raise issues, weigh in on solutions that affected the service delivery, even if it did not concern their department and take notes. They also tended to bring more facts and information to the issues they raised. Two of the monocultural individuals who were Indian, sat through the entire forty-minute 285 meeting without saying a single word. An interview with one of these two individuals included several comments from the individual reiterating how hard he works and his dedication to the job. The general theme of his comments was an effort at impression management and the need to convince me that work flows in his team were optimal. A second observation was from hospital inspection rounds. The consultant in charge of ensuring infection control practices were on par for the ACHSI re-accreditation inspection invited me to join him on mock-inspection rounds in the ward, along with the nursing ward leader and the quality control manager. The resident doctor joined us at the ward. The purpose of the rounds was to support the nursing staff for the ACHSI inspection, so that they would be aware of how the inspection team may approach them and what kind of questions they may be asked. The mock-inspection was being conducted after weeks of training. During the round, one of the ward nurses was asked a question. The consultant thought she may have felt nervous if asked in front of her peers and patients and suggested that we move to an enclosed area to one side so that she may feel more at ease. The nurse's hands were visibly shaking and she seemed to have an incredibly difficult time in answering the consultant's questions, even when the consultant was trying to gently help her out with prompts. Both the consultant and the resident doctor were multicultural individuals and had already worked with all parties over the months, so this was not a first-time interaction, nor was there any penalty regarding the outcome of these rounds. The nursing ward leader mentioned that these questions were already covered in the training and this was confirmed by the quality manager. Thus, the presence of a fear of failure or being 'caught out' and so appearing incompetent was present in some employees. This appeared to be a manifestation of performance avoidance orientation. Performance avoidance orientation reflects an individuals' desire to avoid being judged to be performing worse than others in an achievement setting (Dweck, 1986; Elliot and Church, 1997). The primary motivation for such individuals is to avoid looking incompetent to their colleagues. 286 Performance avoidance orientation is associated with individual's belief that intelligence is a fixed traits i.e. that it is not malleable, that it cannot be increased (entity theory of intelligence; Dweck and Leggett, 1988). This contrasts with individuals who believe that their core qualities, such as intelligence, can be improved upon and changed through learning and effort (incremental theory; Dweck and Leggett, 1988) such as those individuals with a learning orientation. Thus, individuals who are high on performance avoidance orientation believe that there is a limit to what they can learn and to improve on in their performance. They tend to avoid challenges and prefer true-and-tested practices that they are familiar with so as to avoid any risk of failure. Prior research demonstrates that a performance avoidance orientation has several negative outcomes, such as low efficacy, anxiety, lower performance and selfhandicapping behaviours (e.g. Kaplan and Maehr, 2007; Elliot and McGregor, 1999; Harackiewicz et al., 2000; Payne, Youngcourt and Beaubien, 2007). As individuals high on performance orientation avoid uncharted opportunities for learning and development this reduces their motivation to explore differing perspectives, making it difficult to work in culturally diverse teams (Pieterse, Knippenberg and Dierendonck, 2013). Belief in a fixed mindset (i.e. entity theory) also negatively impacts intergroup relations. When individuals believe that the behaviour of others are fixed on a specific attribute then their ability to discern situational components or individual traits that might explain behaviours of others is compromised leading (Chiu, Hong and Dweck, 1997). When this tendency to attribute fixed traits was extended to social groups (e.g. 'all Arabs are like that'), individuals who endorsed an entity theory of personality were more likely to endorse and sustain stereotype formation as accurate description of the social group compared to incremental theorists (Plaks et al., 2001; Levy, Stroessner and Dweck, 1998). Entity personality theorists are also more quick to judge others based on a small sample of behaviours and reluctant to let go of these stereotypical judgements of others even in the face of additional information (Carr, Rattan and Dweck, 2012; Chiu, Hong and Dweck, 1997; Gervey et al., 1999). 287 Ironically, if they are the target of prejudice or bias, individuals who believe in the incremental theory of personality (i.e. that individuals can learn and change), are more likely to confront individuals who demonstrate prejudice and bias against them (Rattan and Dweck, 2010). Multicultural individuals learning orientation appeared to be in complete contrast to others in the team who appeared to endorse a performance avoidance orientation based on the entity theory of personality. These diametrically opposite approaches, along with research that suggests that incremental theorists are more likely to confront those who demonstrate prejudice against them, appears to be a setting for the 'perfect storm' for conflict within diverse teams. However, in well-functioning diverse teams, along with an open and honest culture for communication, a common system and protocols for all team members was highlighted as an important positive contributory factor to team work. Common rules and systems applicable to all Multicultural participants indicated that an open, honest culture for communication coupled with a clear system of protocols that was equally applicable to all members of the team greatly facilitated team dynamics. As one multicultural team leader put it: "You see, as long as you follow the principles, the principles of nursing and the procedure how to do it, you may do it differently, I might do it differently; as long as you follow the same principles it does not matter" Ms. H, Nursing Although this could be said to be a concern for any team member – multicultural or monoculturalfor multicultural individuals, a clear systems approach to work ensured 288 boundaries within which it was easier to identify how processes could be improved. This was especially true in the absence of a culture of open communication. Thus, the introduction of defined systems and rules was actually a way of sharing perspectives and bring out discussions to process improvements. As one respondent put it concerning a medical multidisciplinary meeting regarding a medico-legal situation, "the diversity is like from extreme north to extreme south. And in this meeting, we're trying to come up with a solution to have a centralized protocol (to decide) when would we seek help of each other which is justified, right, and not wrong for the doctor, the (hospital) management, (the) patient (and) in all aspects (of) medicine." However, the crux of a systems-approach is that the rules need to be applicable to. The participant went on to say that the meeting was on the verge of being futile when there was resistance for change from other doctors: "you make policies, you make protocols, you discuss you have meetings. But everything is a waste unless it is implemented." Participants indicated that transparent and well-defined systems helped avoids ambiguity and opportunity for entitlement behaviour. A common system also supported a learning and growth environment which facilitated information elaboration and synergistic use of available diverse resources. Such an environment along with communication without fear allowed for the sharing of ideas and trying out innovative ideas to test new methods of improving work flow processes or service delivery. Two of the teams that had multicultural leaders seemed to have such a culture for service delivery improvements and interviews with both the multicultural leader as well as two team members (one who was multicultural and one who was not), corroborated this finding. Staff spoke about a culture within the team which included continuous medical education and training; regular team 289 meetings where individuals could raise concerns as well as a culture were leadership was welcoming of feedback that would support process flows. One such example was a suggestion from the Bahraini reception staff regarding a cultural insight about their patients. She suggested changing the timings of a certain service offering would encourage more patients to visit the department and avail of certain procedures. On consideration, this was adopted by the team and patient numbers did increase. This team was the only team that incorporated their own staff training and development programs (there was a number of specialist equipment in this department) such that each member of staff was well trained in the use of all the equipment, supporting flexibility in staffing and endorsing a learning orientation within the department. Systems in place for feedback, regular meetings and training all supported the work of the diverse team. Both multicultural team members as well as the team leader spoke of a system that supported feedback and changes in team processes. Team members said that this created good interpersonal relationships and a sense of unity which allowed them to deal with any issues that arose between team members. However, the process of developing a common system of protocol, when subject to interference by management, suffered resulting in perceptions of entitlement behaviour. I discuss this as part of the next theme that emerged from the data. iii. Theme 3: Enabling and Disabling Environmental Factors As discussed in Section 6.3, XYZ Healthcare operated out of two cultural influencesthe context of the Middle Eastern Arab culture on account of being situated in Bahrain and the predominant South-Indian culture of the management team. Participants spoke of the welcoming nature of Bahrain and the Bahraini people. They spoke of the diversity of the country and a sense of feeling comfortable and being able to be themselves and to go about their lives, including being able to access food which was native to their countries. Participants also spoke of social lifestyles that included individuals from different cultural backgrounds and not just individuals from the same nationality. Some participants of the Muslim faith also expressed their sense of comfort with the Islamic culture in Bahrain. Two participants spoke of 290 Bahrain being a launching pad for their excursions to other countries, either for training or exploring other skill enhancing opportunities (e.g. volunteering for international sporting events, working with a renowned surgeon in Brazil) which they would not have availed of had they not come to Bahrain. Multicultural individuals who came to Bahrain as their first experience abroad, also spoke of choosing to work in Bahrain for the opportunity to work with others from different countries and improve themselves professionally. Participants spoke of a better work-life balance, financial remuneration and tax-free incomes that allowed for savings. Thus, experiences of working and living in Bahrain were generally positive, with participants giving positive reasons for choosing to work in XYZ Hospital. This was slightly contrary to expectations that an Arab context would strongly discourage participants from being forthcoming. On the contrary, Bahraini interviewees joined other multicultural interviewees in their disappointment over the organisational culture not being as welcoming of diversity as they had expected. The South Indian management style, and the overall organisational culture that resulted from it, received a lot of criticism from the participants. There were essentially three areas where the management style had an impact as evidenced in the emergent sub-themes. These are discussed next. Negative competitive team environment (for doctors) Being a private hospital, participants felt that the management team made it clear that revenue and patient numbers were a critical part of performance evaluation for the doctors. The focus on the revenue earning potential of each doctor created unnecessary competition within medical teams but not between teams. In other words, doctors within the internal medicine department who had different specialities did not mention competition as each doctor had a speciality that they focused on. However, in teams were members had similar medical specialities, the focus on 291 Table 6.2C: Findings from Thematic Analysis Theme 3: Enabling and Disabling Environmental Factors Sub theme Description Example Quotes Negative Competitive Team Environment Negative competitive team dynamics due to identity threat, reinforced by management style "I mean let's face it; the name of the game here is how many patients to see.... So how can we talk of a team when the presence of a team is a nuisance?" Leadership support for a learning culture Need for supportive cultural environment (organisational and/or local) that allows for growth and learning "what will make me choose the places whether I can assimilate into the culture, or whether I know I could be supported by culture, or if that culture is going to give me a skill... They wouldn't have done anything anyway, this was part of my reason to leave because I then challenged the management, "What would you do about it?" And I received no response. And then they did make you know, "Oh, we're going to try, we're going to do this," I'm like, "Please don't tell me you're going to do something in two weeks, four weeks, or even eight weeks than you couldn't do in one year. You are lying to yourself. So just you fix your things internally, I'm going to move on. It was good while it lasted, I learnt a lot, you guys benefited a lot you know, but you don't have the infrastructure to support. You don't have the acumen, the knowledge to operate the service like I've got. So, when you do in the future," then maybe they should look to getting somebody, but this time it's not going to work" Mismanagement leading to entitlement behaviours Management overriding team norms and leading to entitlement behaviours (on management response to an uncooperative team member): "I was in very good terms with her, but she doesn't want to be in a team, and she said that – she said that "I don't want to have anything to do with you guys down on the second floor. This is my department. I do what I want." She told me this, "I do what I want," and they (management) gave her four nurses, four receptionists, I don't even have one nurse." 292 patient numbers created a situation that was not conducive to collaboration and cooperation. As one of the doctors put it: "The problem is that we have fear, fear of let's say someone in – grab our positions or will be you know and good books of others, and things like that so that maybe just push away or push aside other people. I don't think this would help in any way." Leadership support for a learning culture The onus on a culture of learning was evident from multicultural individuals in teams which did not have such a culture to teams that did. Additionally, multicultural participants who were in leadership positions also spoke of creating a culture for learning and/or desiring individuals who were open to learning, including going to conferences and training programs. For example, the team lead for the Cosmetology department said, "I'm looking for a team player. You may be a little less proficient, okay, but you're going to learn along the way. We've got so many people who (will) teach you, but you need to be accommodative". Learning included going beyond the task at hand to job skill enhancement. For example, another team lead who was in charge of cleaning staff spoke about teaching her staff how to converse fluently in English (they normally conversed in Hindi although they understood English) and said, "Yeah, most of them speak in English because they – I want them to learn, okay? Most of them speak in English because I want them to learn, and most have learnt". The nurse in charge of another unit spoke about ensuring that all her team members learnt to use the various specialist machinery in the unit, and not just be proficient in the one they were originally trained for. 293 Yeah, and I always tell them that "We are a team here, anything that you are doing you have to inform us, anything that if you are doubtful of anything, please ask question; it is normal to ask question, it's better like that" that's the one I'm telling. And I encourage them to like for the laser nurse, they are thinking that only they are only for laser. I'm telling them that "No, come out and check the whole department; you have to learn also how to do this and do that because if I go for vacation, definitely if I go – or I got sick, definitely doctor will see you standing then he will tell you to come and assist him," that's the one I'm telling. I'm telling them that they have to learn all the things; it's not only one area. Where support has not come in, multicultural individuals have expressed dissatisfaction, intentions to leave or have left. For example, one resident doctor described the management attitude as, "which is like, you know, like a 'chalta he yaar' attitude, ...everything is at "Ah let it work till it works," you know? Just go with it, and that's such an Indian mentality." ('Chaltha hai, yaar,' signifies a laid-back attitude). She went on to say, they "function on the minimum effort required, minimum energy required, minimum money spent, everything. Like you keep it to the minimum, where you don't get bothered, or you don't go into losses, or you don't trouble anything, or you – you know, but you are not the excellent, (and you don't feel that) "Oh, I'll get the best". Another consultant used a similar expression, namely, he said the attitude was, "If it's working fine, leave it; don't touch it. That's the point. Don't wake up sleeping dog. Leave it", indicating that if revenue was being generated and there were no obvious problems, the attitude of the management was to keep the status quo. 294 Mismanagement leading to entitlement behaviours The maintenance of the status quo also resulted in not reigning in certain behaviours that led to some groups of employees feeling more entitled than others, including one of the multicultural participants who was generating a good amount of revenue through his department. He spoke confidently about challenging the management for benefits for his staff and in turn, being granted revenue sharing mechanisms that would incentivise his staff over and above others. Another team lead, who did not receive such entitlement, expressed his frustration when one of his team members did. He claimed that policies and protocols that he was asked to create were somehow never applicable to one of his team members, again, another high-revenue earning colleague. In a similar vein, the nursing superintendent expressed her frustration at not being able to implement a protocol, which she felt was necessary professional practice for nurses because her superior aligned with a group of her staff who were from the same culture and claimed that it was unnecessary protocol that did not affect the nursing service. In all of these instances, the entitled group was always the Indian group. Most of the multicultural participants in this study were not Indians. Hence, this perceived discrimination amongst multicultural individuals where Indian colleagues seemed to have greater freedom, was often a theme in the interviews. Triangulation I sought and was granted an interview with a member of the senior management who was instrumental in setting up the hospital. I asked him what the management approach was to the revenue generation of doctors and what steps the management took to foster a sense of team work amongst the various teams, given the diversity of the organisation. After much discussion, he did mention that the reward structure fostered competition between specialists in the same domain. He also mentioned that he had tried repeatedly to ensure that HR conducted team building programs that would help foster coordination. Lastly, he mentioned that they had tried to introduce a mandatory rule that no Indian language would be spoken on the premises. However, the last two instructions have often fallen 295 through and he agreed that as a management team, they did not always follow through on the language issue either. The constant negative sentiments expressed by this multicultural group of people was in stark contrast to the generally positive culture of the administrative area. On further observation, it appeared that there was a high level of face-saving culture amongst the administrative staff. Incidentally the majority of them (thirteen) were Indian and specifically all from Kerala, barring four Bahrainis, one Jordanian, one Canadian and one Filipino. All of the Keralites were team leads of critical functional administrative areas such as finance, HR, quality control and purchasing. Malayalam (the language of Kerala) was often resorted to during conversations. In addition, in the clinical area, the Chief Medical Officer and the Chief Operating Officer were also Indian (although not from Kerala). Thus, leadership and administrative functions did not reflect the diversity of the remaining teams in the hospital. This could have been one of the reasons why interviewees perceived that Indians were a more entitled group at the hospital. The lack of diversity in leadership and the management approaches that reflected a competitive rather than collaborative or learning environment, was also in contrast to the marketing literature of the organisation. Marketing literature consistently promoted 'internationally experienced' medical staff, international quality standards and the hospital accreditations for excellence in specific procedures. For example, the webpage of the organisation promotes the awardwinning bariatric surgical centre, which was recognised by an American accreditation body. Promotional activities were strategically aimed at expatriate communities and at the high-net worth Bahraini community, with emphasis on 'world-class' services. The management's diversity approach was aligned with the access-and-legitimacy perspective of managing diversity (Ely and Thomas, 2001). This approach basically views the recruitment of a diverse workforce as a business case for 296 gaining access to diverse customer markets by reflecting the multicultural demographics of the organization's external environment (Podsiadlowski et al., 2013; Ely and Thomas, 2001). 6.8 A Framework for future research on Multicultural Individuals' Impact on Diverse Team Dynamics Following a detailed discussion of the findings and analysis of this study, I propose a framework for the study of multicultural individuals' impact on diverse team dynamics consisting of three core components. I suggest that this framework provides a structured approach to future research on how multicultural individuals can impact team performance. The first component relates to the multicultural individual; the second, to the dynamics between multicultural individuals and team members and the third to the role of management in diverse organisations. The framework and its components are outlined in more detail in this section. The first component focuses on the development of cultural learning orientation resulting from multicultural identity formation. That is, unlike monocultural individuals, findings from this study suggests that part of being multicultural is the development of a cultural learning orientation. Component 1: Cultural learning orientation of Multicultural Individuals Previous literature has suggested that multicultural individuals are potentially able to contribute to diverse team performance on account of their access to the multiple internalised cultural schema that are a part of multicultural individuals' mental make-up (e.g. Brannen and Thomas, 2010;see Chapter 2 for detailed discussion). However, the findings of this study suggest that the dynamic ability and willingness to seek and learn about different cultures (and their associated schemas), as opposed to already internalised bodies of cultural knowledge, provides multicultural individuals with unique skill sets over and above monocultural individuals in diverse work settings. 297 The cultural learning orientation (CLO) that multicultural individuals develop as they construct their multicultural identities, becomes an analytical life skill which motivates these individuals to explore the underlying value systems, perspectives and knowledge of other cultures. Their early life exposure to diverse cultural experiences, specifically different ways of thinking and being, acts as a strong precursor to the development of a cultural learning orientation. Multicultural individuals' early experiences with cultural others helped dismantle any hesitations and fears of those different from themselves as well. These experiences also helped reduce ambiguity avoidance in ways of thinking and being which were culturally unfamiliar with their own home cultures. Thus, new cultural interactions are not predicated on fear of the unknown or a desire to maintain the cultural status quo. Instead, it helped create a thirst and continued interest in the culturally unfamiliar both for reasons of personal growth and knowledge as well as professional with a desire to work with culturally diverse teams and break down cultural barriers for understanding one another. In other words, according to the findings of this study, an integral part of becoming multicultural is through the ability and interest to learn and seek knowledge about other cultures. Multicultural individuals enjoy learning and seeking information and knowledge about other cultures and view this learning orientation as a core part of who they are and what they ought to be. This cultural learning orientation equips multicultural individuals to consider and evaluate the different perspectives, knowledge and ideas of other cultures, giving them an edge over monocultural team members. Their desire to experience culturally different ways of thinking of doing enhances their interest to work in diverse cultural contexts. Learning orientation also has a culture-general approach to different cultures, meaning that it is a skill that is not specific to learning or seeking knowledge about a particular culture. The cultural learning orientation developed by multicultural individuals as an important part of their identity, is reflective of their ability and willingness to forge connections with cultural-others, be open to new ways of thinking, seek information, and learn about different perspectives 298 and ways of doing things.. In this sample, the CLO, was seen as being an integral of a multicultural individual's sense of self, manifested as a way of being. It impacts all aspects of life, in terms of professional identity, personal views of the world, and life choices, including decisions about lifestyle, relationships with others, which country to live in, what kind of work environment is desirable and so on. The CLO is suggested as a part of this new framework for studying multicultural individuals because it highlights nuanced difference from other concepts related to crossand inter-cultural competence such as cultural intelligence. Cultural intelligence (CQ), is defined in multiple ways such as "the capability for adaptation across cultures and it reflects a person's capability to gather, interpret, and act upon these radically different cues to function effectively across cultural settings or in a multicultural situation" (Earley and Peterson, 2004, p.105) and "an individual's capability to function and manage effectively in culturally diverse settings" (Ang et al., 2007, p.336) as well as, "a system of interacting knowledge intercultural and skills, linked by cultural metacognition, that allows people to adapt to, select, and shape the cultural" (Thomas et al., 2008, p.127). CQ is anchored in the literature on intelligence and in its original conceptualisation, it is made up of four components, namely, metacognition, cognition, motivational and behavioural cultural intelligence (Ang et al., 2007; Earley and Peterson, 2004; Thomas et al., 2008). While metacognitive CQ recognizes the cognitive processes that individuals use to acquire and understand cultural knowledge, cognitive CQ measures knowledge of the practices and norms of different cultures acquired from education and personal experiences; motivational CQ signifies the capability to direct attention and energy toward learning about and functioning in situations involving cultural differences, and behavioural CQ is indicative of flexibility and skills in behaving in culturally appropriate ways (Ang et al., 2007). However, in a revised version of the CQ construct, authors argue for the removal of the motivational CQ component as they suggest motivation is related to the "willingness to behave in a particular way, while cultural intelligence is the ability to interact effectively" (Thomas et al., 2015, pp.1100–1101). 299 There are therefore, multiple differences between the CLO and CQ. To begin with, CLO is not a measure of intercultural effectiveness or cultural adaptation. It does not seek to identify how effective or adaptive an individual is. Nor is it a motivational means to learn how to function in a culturally diverse situation or behavioural flexibility. Thus, the cultural learning orientation is distinct from the body of work that explores effectiveness in intercultural contact. This study suggests that for multicultural individuals, CLO is a way of thinking and of being. It is intrinsically linked to their sense of self and decisions related to how they think about cultural others and their life choices with respect to diversity of ways in thinking and processing multiple perspectives. CLO reflects a desire to learn from cultural others for the multicultural individual's own personal and professional growth and to break down cultural barriers. Another reason for the introduction of CLO in this framework is its difference from the concept of goal orientation. Goal orientations capture individuals' motivational focus and self-regulatory strategies in achievement settings (Dweck, 1986) i.e. given a challenging situation, with respect to their intelligence or abilities, whereby individuals have to decide how to respond, they may choose a performance goal orientation or a learning goal orientation. In the case of performance goals, individuals are primarily concerned with gaining favourable judgments of their competence (Dweck and Leggett, 1988). With learning goals, individuals are concerned with increasing their competence and developing master (Dweck and Leggett, 1988). Team goal orientations have been found to impact team performance in culturally diverse teams (Pieterse, Knippenberg and Dierendonck, 2013). However, unlike goal orientation which is related to performance or intellectual achievement settings, the cultural learning orientation is not associated to primarily to performance or achievement contexts. It is a general orientation towards learning about cultural others when and where the opportunity arises. Thus, it is not tied to achievement in a cross-cultural setting. This motivation to consider, learn about new cultural perspectives and information is seen as a personal strength and had ramifications for their willingness to work with diverse 300 team members. It was not contingent on work place or personal achievement settings where multicultural individuals were intellectually or otherwise challenged. Again, the CLO is, instead, tied to a way of thinking and being and is independent of any specific context, whether they are achievement settings or otherwise. The focus in this component of the framework is the development of a cultural learning orientation that provides the willingness and ability to perspective take and seek new knowledge from cultural others. Research has found that generally, in culturally diverse teams, individuals are more likely to engage in in-depth information processing and are less prone to develop stereotypes and intergroup biases if they have a learning orientation (Pieterse, Knippenberg and Dierendonck, 2013). Future research may wish to explore how this cultural learning orientation is developed amongst multicultural individuals. Additionally, future research on multicultural individuals' ability to impact diverse team performance may wish to explore the development of cultural learning orientation in multicultural individuals as an underlying mechanism in the diversityperformance relationship. This component of the framework does not suggest that the learning orientation of multicultural individuals will automatically result in perspective taking or sharing of information. The remaining two components explore the boundary conditions under which multicultural individuals' learning orientation can lead to synergistic interactions, such as information elaboration, amongst team members in diverse teams. Component 2: Alignment between goal orientations of multicultural individuals and other team members As discussed in the findings, the misalignment of multicultural individuals' learning orientation and others' performance avoidance orientation leading perceptions of professional identity threat, were a perfect recipe for dysfunctionality in diverse teams. This is not to say that all monocultural individuals displayed entity theories of personality. However, it was clear that all the multicultural individuals alluded to a strong learning orientation as part of 301 their mental make-up and identity formation. A learning orientation aimed at seeking multiple perspectives, learning and growing were constant themes that surrounded their descriptions of themselves and which drove many of their life choices including their world views, which countries they chose to live in and how they managed their careers. When this learning approach conflicted with other team members' approaches of maintaining the status quo and fears of being perceived as incompetent, multicultural individuals time and time again, expressed utter frustration with the (lack of) teamwork. The resistance they claimed to face, in terms of sharing information and ideas, drove two of them to resign during the course of this study, while a third was contemplating submitting her resignation by the time this study concluded. Thus, future research that explores how multicultural individuals can impact diverse team performance should consider the alignment of multiculturals' goal orientation with that of other team members. This line of inquiry may shed light on the conditions under which multicultural individuals are not able to or are dissuaded from contributing to diverse teams. An interesting point to note in this branch of inquiry, is that multicultural individuals did not categorise any of the diverse group members into sub-groups or stereotype them when describing their frustrations. Instead they attributed the negative behaviour of their colleagues to individual personality issues. However, future research may wish to consider if the reverse sentiment holdsdo other non-multicultural team members categorise their multicultural colleagues into social categories in order to mitigate professional identity threat? To put it in another way, is there some form of "othering" that multicultural individuals face as a response to perceived identity threats by their more monocultural colleagues? Negative comments aimed at multicultural individuals, in this study, suggest there may be some evidence of this. Component 3: Diversity Perspectives of Management The third component, although applicable to diverse teams in general, is aligned with the general focus of multicultural individuals' focus on learning. Multicultural individuals are dissuaded from contributing to diverse teams when the diversity perspective of an organisation's management take an access-and302 legitimacy perspective of diversity (Ely and Thomas, 2001). Multicultural individuals view the management of an organisation as dysfunctional when diversity perspective is used for legitimacy and access to markets and recruitment but not for synergy and information elaboration. Such superficial diversity commitment will not have a meaningful impact on organisational performance or team dynamics (Gilbert and Ivancevich, 2000). The synergy perspective identifies that the goal of diversity is to effectively use the information and knowledge brought to the organisation by diverse employees by challenging each other's perspectives in order to find innovative improvements (Dwertmann, Nishii and van Knippenberg, 2016). Similarly the integration and learning perspective links diversity to work processes so that diversity creates a learning environment which an engaged workforce can make use of in order to enhance organisational performance (Ely and Thomas, 2001). While the synergy perspective suggests perspective taking and information elaboration for 'constructive conflict', the integration and learning perspective taking and information elaboration should create a fundamental change in how members of the organisation work, by using diversity as a resource for learning. 6.9 Chapter Summary Much of the previous research on multicultural individuals has focused on the comparison of the cognitive and behavioural skills of multicultural individuals and monocultural individuals especially in laboratory settings (e.g. Fitzsimmons, Liao and Thomas, 2017). Although this approach has been extremely significant in establishing that there are differences in the capabilities of both these groups of individuals, the approach does not help us understand how multicultural individuals function within a real work context. As part of a mixed methods approach, using a combination of qualitative methods this study investigated the unique experiences of multicultural individuals while they negotiated diverse teams. Additionally, unlike data obtained through student populations or survey participant databases such as MTurk, this data provided a rare lens into the inner dynamics of the lived experiences of multicultural individuals as well as their perspectives on team dynamics and organisational issues. 303 Thematic analysis results, along with triangulation from multiple sources, indicated that by virtue of their multicultural identity development, multicultural individuals integrated a cultural learning orientation as part of their mental framework. Multicultural individual's personal aims revolve around the need to grow, seek new experiences and learn. The cultural learning orientation provides multicultural individuals with the motivation and ability to seek novel cultural experiences with a view to enhancing their personal growth. The skill to learn from other cultures as opposed to their access to internalised cultural schema provides multicultural individuals with an edge over more monocultural team members. This seems to be critical to the willingness of multicultural individuals to engage in perspective taking and to building working relationships with team members. These exact learning goals seemed to be in stark conflict with many of the monocultural individuals around them, who wish to maintain the status quo in a given performance setting, such as the context of diverse teamwork. Results also indicated that multicultural individuals perceived diversity as a source of knowledge and diverse contexts added to their desire to grow and learn. However, at times, this growth mindset becomes perceived as a threat to others in diverse teams. Others perceive this as a threat to their professional identity and resort to behaviour related to 'protecting their turf', such as refusing to collaborate. For organisations, this creates a loss of potential synergy and enhanced performance. Reward structures and a lack of supportive management further exacerbates team dynamics. In extreme cases, the multicultural individual intends to quit or has left the organisation. Organisations need to be cognisant of these issues if they wish to garner the synergy that comes from these individual-level goal orientations. On a personal level, results indicate that multicultural individuals receive a backlash from other group members, whether it be a type of professional ostracism which affects their professional performance, or their ideas or leadership are ignored. Based on these findings, this chapter also advances theory by providing a conceptual framework consisting of three core components. An important part of this framework is the recognition of a cultural learning orientation, rather than access to multiple cultural schema, that makes multicultural individuals uniquely positioned to contribute to diverse teams. Furthermore, boundary conditions of organisational climate and management practices influence the willingness of multicultural individuals to contribute to organisations. Thus, the key contribution 304 of this chapter is that it advances our knowledge of how multicultural individuals view themselves, their team dynamics and the organisational context within which they work. 305 Chapter 7: OVERALL DISCUSSION AND SYNTHESIS OF FINDINGS 306 Chapter 7: Overall Discussions and Synthesis of Findings 7.1 Chapter Overview The purpose of this thesis was to empirically investigate how multicultural individuals contribute to diverse team process and outcomes. To this effect, this thesis used a mixed methods approach employing a quantitative study and a qualitative study using field data from an organisation based in a historically multicultural context. In Chapter 5, I tested a moderated mediation model that proposed perspective taking as a key mechanism by which multicultural individuals would support information elaboration in diverse teams to enhance outcomes such as greater cohesion and satisfaction, while mitigating negative outcomes such as conflict. In Chapter 6, I used an inductive approach to take an in-depth inquiry as to multicultural individuals lived experience of diverse team dynamics. The mixed methods design of the study proved critical in providing novel insights to how multicultural individual contribute towards diverse team dynamics. As outlined in Chapter 4, using both lines of inquiryhypotheticodeductive and inductive approachesallowed me to arrive at a more comprehensive understanding of both individual actions and context and the interplay of both when investigating this phenomenon. Had only one approach been used, for example, the quantitative study, the implication would have led one to conclude that multicultural individuals have limited impact on diverse team functioning with respect to information elaboration and perspective taking. However, from the results of the qualitative study, it became very clear that the organisational context plays a critical role in multicultural individuals' willingness to impact diverse team functioning. While the results of the quantitative study indicated that perspective taking may not be a key mechanism by which multicultural individuals impact team performance, the results of the qualitative study provides preliminary evidence that instead, the key mechanism may be rooted in multicultural individuals cultural learning orientation. . In this way, the combination of these studies provides a more holistic understanding of how multicultural individuals impact team processes and outcomes in terms of both their ability and willingness to do so. Critical findings from the use of mixed 307 methods in this study, was the strong evidence of how organisational context, including leaders' attitudes towards the management of diversity, strongly impacted multicultural individuals' ability and willingness to contribute towards diverse team performance. In this chapter, I synthesise the findings of both studies and discuss their implications for theory and practice. I briefly review the findings of each empirical study in Section 7.2, before turning to delineate the overall contributions of this thesis and implications to relevant areas of organisational literature and to management practices in Sections 7.3 and 7.4. I discuss the thesis's limitations in Section 7.5 and present suggestions for future studies in Section 7.6, which will be followed by concluding remarks in Section 7.7. 7.2 Summary of findings of each study The quantitative study in Chapter 5 used the framework of the category elaboration model (CEM; van Knippenberg, De Dreu and Homan, 2004) to test a moderated mediation model which proposed that perspective taking would be a key mechanism by which multicultural individuals contributed to diverse team dynamics and inclusive climate would moderate this mediating mechanism of perspective taking and information elaboration. The study was juxtaposed with constructs of perceived cognitive diversity and perceived discrimination allowing for a more wholistic understanding of the diversity-performance relationship and the role of multicultural individuals in this context. Previous diversity research has indicated the negative effects of conflict, which is theorised to arise from social categorisation, as detrimental to diverse team functioning. In this study I argued that it is not social categorisation per se that results in the negative impacts of diversity. I theorised that instead, perceptions of discrimination that arise from in-group favouritism and out-group discrimination, as a result of social categorisation process, is what leads to conflict in diverse contexts. Additionally, diversity research has also shown that demographic diversity (i.e. diversity based on demographic attributes such as gender or nationality) do not always align with perceptions of cognitive diversity 308 (Kilduff, Angelmar and Mehra, 2000). Thus, the variable of perceived cognitive diversity was included in the model to delineate the national diversity of the sample and the perceived cognitive diversity of the sample. In other words, in this study, I avoided the oft-criticised assumption that a demographically diverse context is necessarily diverse in terms of knowledge, skills and perspectives (e.g. Joshi, Liao and Roh, 2011) and instead, measured perceived cognitive diversityi .e. diversity of knowledge, skills and perspectives as perceived by employeesas an independent measure. This allows for clarity in discussing the effects of both kinds of diversitynational and cognitivefrom the same context. Results from this study provided four key findings which I summarise here. First, the study found that perspective taking strongly predicts information elaboration and that inclusive climate moderates the relationship at low levels of inclusive climate. This implies that in diverse contexts, perspective taking is a key mechanism for enhancing recognition and sharing of the unique informational assets that individuals bring to the team. Second, results also indicated the importance of information elaboration for key team outcomes. Information elaboration was found to positively and significantly predict cohesion and feelings of satisfaction. It was also found to have a significant negative relationship with task, process and relationship conflict. This suggests that unlike more homogenous work contexts, organisations with a diverse employee base may need to extend greater efforts in ensuring that systems are put in place to support perspective taking and information elaboration. Such efforts would support the process of mitigating conflicts in task achievement, build more cohesive teams and increase overall employee satisfaction, especially in contexts where perceptions of inclusive climate are low. Third, cognitive diversity, is often argued to be a source of conflict in diverse teams (Mello and Rentsch, 2015). However, as hypothesised, results indicated that perceptions of discrimination, and not perceived cognitive diversity, which predicted all forms of conflict and detrimental effects to cohesiveness and 309 satisfaction. Mediating paths of perspective taking or information elaboration failed to mitigate the overall negative of perceived discrimination on all forms of conflict. The lack of findings related to perceived cognitive diversity and conflict coupled with the strong results related to perceived discrimination, further assert the argument that it is not diversity per se that is a source of friction, but the perceptions of outgroup and in group bias and discrimination that results in conflict. Lastly, contrary to what is often theorised, multicultural individuals were not found to have any significant relation to mediating mechanisms or any of the outcomes hypothesised in the model. The near-zero results suggested that multicultural individuals did not engage in perspective or information elaboration or had any impacts on key outcomes. I explore this further, in conjunction with the results of the qualitative study in Section 7.3. The qualitative study and its results as outlined in Chapter 6, used grounded theory to investigate how multicultural individuals negotiated their daily interactions in working with culturally diverse colleagues. One of the key findings from this study indicate that development of cultural learning orientation amongst multicultural individuals. A learning orientation is associated with a focus on developing knowledge and increasing competence, as the individual desires to improve her/his earlier level of knowledge, expertise, or skills or desires to master a specific task (Pieterse, Knippenberg and Dierendonck, 2013). Multicultural individual's references to learning were in both a personal and professional capacity. In a personal capacity, the cultural learning orientation was about personal growth and excitement for exploring new cultures and ways of being. Multicultural individual's personal aims revolved around the need to grow, seeking new cultural experiences and opportunities to learn from intercultural experiences. From a professional perspective, multicultural individuals expressed an interest and desire to work in diverse teams, including as a preference over homogenous teams. They indicated that diverse teams provided a source of learning and a potential for both professional and personal growth. They spoke 310 about diverse team members as sources knowledge, different perspectives and ideas which could add value to team performance, if individuals shared information such as their perspectives and thought processes. For multicultural individuals, the cultural learning orientation indicated a skill developed over life, which gave them the ability to enjoy and seek intercultural connections and foster learning about cultural others. A second contribution was in relation to the organisational context and specifically, the diversity perspective of leadership. Multicultural individuals often referenced their frustration with an organisational culture which failed to: 1) respect learning, 2) encourage avenues for open feedback where colleagues would not feel that their professional identity was being threatened, and 3) demonstrate transparency and fairness in the enforcement of rules and protocols across all social groups. Similarly, a third contribution of this study was the identification of factors, which according to multicultural individuals, were disabling coordination and teamwork. A critical element of these factors was the attitude of management towards the management of diversity. Results indicated that multicultural individuals are dissuaded from contributing to diverse teams when the diversity perspective of an organisation's management is rooted in an 'access-andlegitimacy' perspective of diversity (Ely and Thomas, 2001). Lastly, results from this finding provided support for theorising a three-part framework for future research on multicultural individuals and their potential to impact diverse team dynamics. The first component of this framework recognises the cultural learning orientation of multicultural individuals; the second component considers the alignment of goal orientations between multicultural individuals and their non-multicultural counterparts. The last component considers the importance of the organisational context, in that the diversity perspectives of the management significantly impact the willingness of multicultural individuals to contribute to diverse teams. 311 7.3 Overall significance and implications of findings Taking the findings of both studies together, I now explore how these findings inform our understanding of multicultural individuals and their impact on diverse team process and outcomes. Two key aspects arise from this process. The first relates to how we have previously theorised the processes by which multicultural individuals may impact diverse team functioning. Previous theorising has suggested that multicultural individuals are able to contribute towards culturally diverse teams on account of their cognitive and behavioural skills. However, this study finds that multicultural individuals' ability to impact culturally diverse teams comes from their inherent cultural learning orientation. The second key contribution relates to the strong impact of organisational contextspecifically aspects of inclusion and how the attitudes of leadership towards diversity – impact the willingness of multiculturals' to contribute towards the organisation and even their willingness to stay in the organisation. Additionally, an inclusive climate is essential for multicultural individuals to use their cultural learning orientation, thus reinforcing how critical the organisational context is. These core contributions are further expanded up in the next sub-sections. i. Rethinking the mechanism of how multicultural individuals impact diverse teams Multicultural individuals are thought to be able to contribute towards teams because of knowledge of multiple schemas and their integrative complexity i.e. their cognitive ability to consider and evaluate multiple perspectives that arise from the multiple cultural schemas. As a result of learning and integrating information about different cultures, multicultural individuals integrative complexity allows for deeper information processing and complex thinking compared to monocultural individuals (Godart et al., 2015; Tadmor, Galinsky and Maddux, 2012). This information processing ability is cultural general, in that it transcends cultural specific contexts, and that it carries over to other domains, including work domains (Benet-Martinez, Lee and Leu, 2006; Brannen and Thomas, 2010; Crisp and Turner, 2011; Tadmor, Galinsky and Maddux, 2012; Tadmor, Tetlock and Peng, 2009). Multicultural experiences also enhance 312 perspective taking behaviours (Todd and Galinsky, 2012). Diverse teams have individuals who bring diverse sets of knowledge, skills and perspectives to organisations. The CEM framework finds that mechanisms that enhance information elaboration support team coordination and reduce conflict (e.g. Guillaume et al., 2017). Thus, existing research suggest that multicultural individuals, due to their access to cultural schemas, integrative complexity, and multicultural experiences would show greater propensity to engage in perspective taking behaviours, which would support information elaboration and result in positive impacts for teams. However, results suggest differently. Results from the studies outlined in this thesis, suggest that multiculturals' ability to impact team dynamics arise not from perspective taking behaviours but from a cultural learning orientation. If reinforced by management practices that are supportive of a learning environment and an inclusive climate that provides transparency in fairness of treatment of employees of all social groups, multicultural individuals seek out diverse perspectives from cultural others to learn from cultural others and synthesise this new information for improving work processes. In other words, they do not perspective take (i.e. assume to correctly discern the perspective of the other); they seek to learn by asking the perspective of cultural others. Unlike previous research that predicated intercultural contact on constructs such as cultural shock (Oberg, 1960; Mumford, 1998) or cultural distance (Shenkar, Luo and Yeheskel, 2008; Shenkar, 2001; Froese and Peltokorpi, 2011), or preference for homophily (McPherson, Smith-Lovin and Cook, 2001) in diverse contexts, multicultural individuals seem to actively seek novel intercultural experiences. They are aware that there are multiple ways of viewing the world and in the work context multiples way of achieving tasks. They seek the others point of view and are not dissuaded by the idea of ambiguity in intercultural interactions (Gudykunst and Hammer, 1988; Witte, 1993). 313 ii. How context impacts willingness to contribute Over both studies, the effect of structural factors which impacted multicultural individuals' ability to contribute towards team processes, became salient. I highlight the impacts of three of these; namely, 1) management's attitude towards diversity and inclusivity in terms of fairness in the implementation of rules for employees, 2) a culture of perceived discrimination that arises from management practices of in-group bias and 3) the lack of a learning organisational culture. Multicultural employees indicated that the management's representation of the organisational context as one of diversity, was an encouraging reason to join the organisation. These individuals indicated their desire and willingness to learn from cultural others. This comfort with seeking new knowledge that may question their previously held assumptions, was balanced with the comfort in knowing that protocols regarding professional work practices are put in place and apply equally to all. In this way, perceptions of fairness were very important. A learning cultural organisation was also importantthis provided the framework within with the status quo in terms of work processes was examined and discussed to enhance productivity and performance. When evidenced with favouritism and decisions with supported in-group bias, multicultural individuals strongly resisted these practices. This created the perception of a 'misalignment' between stated diversity perspectives for synergy and information elaboration and enacted diversity perspectives used for legitimacy and access to markets and recruitment. Combined with misalignment and perceived discrimination and favouritism, and the lack of supportive of organisational learning culture, multicultural individuals lose their interest to contribute to diverse teams. Instead, even if able to, they are not willing to. As stated in earlier in this thesis, these structural factors of the context lead multicultural individuals to quit. 7.4 Practical implications These findings suggest several implications for practice, with respect to the management of diversity as well as the role of multicultural individuals in diverse 314 work contexts. I list four types of implications for management teams, team leadership and the development of organisational culture. To begin with, this research shows that organisations, leadership within teams and leaders in general, benefit from accessing the unique information held by their diverse employees if they promote, and allow for the time and space and conducive environment for individuals to perspective take. Information elaboration in turn, supports feelings of cohesion and satisfaction as well as reduce conflict in diverse work contexts. As an example of how this research could be applied, prior to decision making on task planning, team leaders could include a session aimed solely at engaging in perspective taking amongst team members. These could take the form of dyadic pairings or smaller group sessions, prior to finalising decisions in full group meetings, in order to elicit the full range of informational, expertise and skill-based diversity amongst team members. Second, findings suggest in situations where team members' perceptions of the organisational inclusive climate are poor i.e. employees do not feel that their differences are welcomed and respected in the organisation, team leaders' efforts at encouraging and supporting perspective taking behaviour becomes even more critical for performance. A third area of practical importance is the vital need of management in diverse settings to emphasise transparency, fairness and inclusiveness in their management practices. Perceived discrimination and perceptions of bias were found to be strong indicators of all forms of conflict in team dynamics and motivators for multicultural individuals to leave the organisation. It is important to note that the individuals who resigned during the duration of this study did not chose to leave the country and return to their home countries, but instead, moved to other competitor organisations. Lastly, management diversity perspectives are an important component of understanding how management attitudes inform their subsequent practices of diversity management. In less multicultural workspaces, the access-and-legitimacy perspective of diversity or the synergy perspective might suffice; however, for multicultural individuals in diverse work contexts, management needs to adopt a integration and learning diversity perspective in order to enhance organisational performance (Ely and Thomas, 2001). 315 7.5 Limitations The following section deals with three limitations of this research, providing a justification for them, together with the precautions taken to limit their effect, and suggesting further paths of investigation ahead. First, this study sought to understand the impact of multicultural individuals on diverse teams. Although the studies were designed to apply to organisations where the nature of the work requires high degrees of collaboration and coordination, it is not clear if these findings can be generalised to culturally homogenous teams which are equally reliant on high levels of coordination and collaboration. Potentially, contrasting with diverse teams, there are other mechanisms or behaviours of multicultural individuals that may contribute to homogenous teams besides a cultural learning orientation. One such mechanism could be that multicultural individuals assume functional boundary-spanning roles (e.g. Di Marco, Taylor and Alin, 2010) in more homogenous contexts. A second limitation stems from the size of the organisation in this research. The organisation employed a little over 200 employees and it had a relatively flat organisational structure. Thus, the studies in this thesis did not take into consideration the effects of hierarchy on coordination and collaboration. Additionally, it was expected that due to the interdisciplinary nature of the work there would be equal emphasis on the need for high levels of coordination and collaboration amongst all the employees, suggesting that perspective taking and information elaboration behaviours would be appropriate and desirable for enhancing work processes. Several factors led to this assumption. For example, the Hospital was stringent on international accreditation standards which require greater levels of coordination and communication; the Chief Medical Officer insisted that the nature of the work interactions at the Hospital was interdisciplinary while informant interviews and discussion with leadership consistently spoke of the need and desire for coordination; and lastly, there is a large body of literature in the medical field which states and reinforces the need for a high degree of coordination, sharing of information and a focus on interdisciplinary teamwork in healthcare (e.g. Leggat, 2007; Reddy and Jansen, 2008; Jain et al., 2008; Nancarrow et al., 2013). 316 However, given the size of the Hospital and the fact that different job roles and functional expertise are clearly defined and distinct, employees may have potentially felt that there was a limited need to perspective take in this context. This may explain lack of significant results with respect to the effects of perceived cognitive diversity in this study. Additionally, given the focus on accreditation standards and protocols, employees may have expected that colleagues in different functional roles will conduct themselves professionally to carry out relevant tasks, as per established protocols, without the need for high levels of collaboration. Similarly, there may be a limited number of tasks between different functional roles which require the need to perspective take and even fewer reasons to perspective take within a functional area as tasks may be clearly defined. For example, in the outpatient department, reception staff are required to process patient registration and consultation, nurses identify and summon the patient, doctors consult and nurses direct the patients for further investigations or to the pharmacy as needed, after the consultation. While there are multiple points of service delivery in this service pathway which may have detrimental effects and/or disrupt patient services (e.g. miscommunication between reception staff and a critical patient resulting in the patient going to the wrong waiting area, the nurse being unable to find the patient and the patient becoming affected adversely), compared to other industries such as creative industries, the levels of coordination may not be significant enough for studying perspective taking behaviours in this context. Further research in different industries with a multicultural workforce is warranted to understand if perspective taking plays a role when the nature of the work is different to the context of healthcare. In addition, future research could recreate the tests of moderated mediation in a larger healthcare organisation. However, even in this context, perspective taking was found to positively and significantly predict information elaboration and hence, the mechanism is still an important aspect of enhancing work processes in diverse contexts. A third limitation is regarding the use of self-report data. The purpose of the quantitative study was to investigate the phenomenon of the study from the level of individuals' perceptions. The purpose of the qualitative study was to explore multicultural individuals lived experience of the same phenomenon. Hence, the 317 nature of the investigation warranted self-reported responses. Self-report responses are often-criticised for common variance errors (Podsakoff et al., 2003). For example, they can be affected by social desirability bias which may obscure the true relationships between two or more variables (Ganster, Hennessey and Luthans, 1983; Nederhof, 1985), especially where cultural norms support social desirability behaviours (Bou Malham and Saucier, 2016). However, several procedural remedies were taken to mitigate these errors as recommended by Podsakoff et al. (2003). I outline seven of these remedies used in this thesis. First, in terms of the survey design, the survey was piloted tested for clarity and simplicity in items with multiple samples including individuals for whom English was not the first language and further advice from experts in the field of crosscultural research was sought. Second, to ensure temporal separation, the surveys were administered at three points in time over a forty-day period of data collection, reducing and consistency motifs where participants use prior responses to answer subsequent questions. Third, the temporal separation further allowed for predictor variables to be measured at earlier stage in the study while criterion variables were measured at the last stage thus reducing any artifactual covariance between the predictor and criterion variable. Fourth, the scale ends points for the predictor and criterion variables were varied, to reduce method bias related to anchoring effects. Fifth, several reassurances and steps were taken towards ensuring anonymity for reducing evaluation apprehension, such as the use of unmarked, brown envelopes and the providing time for self-administration of surveys (Nederhof, 1985). Sixth, although there are some suggestions that cultural distance between the researcher and participants helps avoid social desirability (e.g. Nederhof, 1985), in contexts where cultural norms tend towards social desirability, such as emphasis on face-saving, being a cultural insider and developing a relationship of trust helps mitigate social desirability tendencies in these contexts (Bou Malham and Saucier, 2016). Finally, time was spent embedded in the organisation and this helps support this process of reducing social desirability (Denzin and Lincoln, 2018). 318 7.6 Future research Given that research into multicultural individuals' impact in organisation is at its nascent stages, there are several possible lines of future inquiry. In this section I restrict myself to three broad avenues for future research. These are 1) the need for research in organisational settings; 2) multicultural individuals' reactions to ingroup bias and 3) intersectionality of identities. The need for research in organisational settings As discussed earlier, previous research has provided a wealth of information regarding multicultural individuals within acculturation studies and in relation to monocultural individuals. However, very little research has been done with regards to multicultural individuals in an organisational setting. This thesis contributed to this nascent area by focusing on multicultural individuals in a diverse work context. An important finding of this research is the influence of context on willingness of multicultural individuals to contribute to organisations and the use of a cultural learning orientation of multicultural individuals. Future research is needed to establish whether these findings can be replicated in similar diverse settings. Research is also needed to explore whether different factors affect how multicultural individuals can impact diverse contexts in other industries such as creative industries. Additionally, it would be interesting to understand if there are variations in the mechanisms by which multicultural individuals may impact homogenous work settings compared to diverse ones. For example, instead of the use of a cultural learning orientation, multicultural individuals could acts as boundary spanners in homogenous environments (e.g. Di Marco, Taylor and Alin, 2010; Yagi and Kleinberg, 2011). In other words, does the ability and willingness of multicultural individuals to contribute to organisations change depending on the heterogeneity of the work context? A final point regarding further research using organisational data is in relation to studying the impact of multicultural individuals at different levels of leadership. For example, do multicultural team leaders impact team dynamics differently than 319 multicultural team members, given the same organisational cultural context? Does membership of multicultural individuals in top management teams impact decision quality? In other words, does level of authority impact how multicultural individuals contribute towards organisational performance? Multicultural individuals' reactions to ingroup bias Another area of interesting research could be to explore how multicultural individuals react during situations where they are part of the social group (i.e. they are members of the in-group) which receives preferential treatment. I allude to this in Chapter 5 but further research is needed to understand how identity configurations might impact reactions to in-group bias. For example, in a multicultural work environment, if a multicultural individual identifies with British and Arab sub-cultures, and find that management practices tend to discriminate against Arab employees but are favourable towards British employees, how might multicultural individuals choose to engage with both subgroups, the multicultural workforce and the management? From the organisational perspective, how does this impact work processes? From a personal perspective, how do multicultural individuals reconcile the conflict created between their identities in these work contexts? These questions are important to address as organisations become more diverse while simultaneously there is a growing recognition of the effects of implicit bias in organisations. Intersectionality In a related line of inquiry, previous research finds that subgroup formation strengthens ingroup membership of discriminated groups, where members of groups who feel discriminated against unite, to combat discrimination (Jetten et al., 2001; Mossakowski, 2003). Research also suggests that there are combined effects of minority stress from belonging to multiple minority groups (Sandil et al., 2015). Additionally, sexual orientation can play role in negotiating in-group and out-group bias perceptions and reactions in organisational settings (e.g. Creed, DeJordy and Lok, 2010) while being female might actually be advantageous in diverse work contexts (Tung, 2004). In this study, I did not differentiate between multicultural individuals of different sexual orientation, 320 cultures of origin, race, gender or any other factor that distinguished power differentials between subgroup identities. Future research will be fruitful to unpack how multicultural identity intersects with other identity affiliations, particularly when there are differences in status and power related to these other identity subgroups, and how this impacts their ability to contribute towards organisations. 7.7 Conclusion The studies in this thesis aimed to advance our currently limited knowledge about multicultural individuals and how they impact the work process and outcomes of culturally diverse teams. Findings indicate the development of a cultural learning orientation as a unique skill of multicultural individuals that provides them with the ability to embrace new ideas from cultural others. The influence of supportive organisational contexts and an organisational learning culture are highlighted in these findings. The research setting of a multicultural societal context is important as a precursor to demographic trends that indicate much more heterogenous populations. For example, the United States Census Bureau projects that by 2044, the population will reflect a "majority minority" country, meaning that the majority of the population will belong to a minority group, and that by 2020 more than half of the nation's children are expected to be part of a minority race or ethnic group (Colby and Ortman, 2015). In other words, there is a good chance that many of these children will be multicultural. In light of the increasing ubiquity of multicultural individuals and diversity in the workforce, more research will be needed to understand how these individuals will impact organisations and performance. It is hoped that this thesis provides preliminary insights into this newly emerging reality in the business world. 321 REFERENCES 322 Aberson, C.L. and Haag, S.C., 2007. Contact, perspective taking, and anxiety as predictors of stereotype endorsement, explicit attitudes, and implicit attitudes. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 10(2), pp.179–201. 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