There is no 'I' in 'Robot': Robots & Utilitarianism Christopher Grau forthcoming in Machine Ethics, (eds. Susan Leigh Anderson and Michael Anderson), Cambridge University Press, 2010. Draft: October 3, 2009 – Please don't cite w/o permission. In this essay I use the 2004 film I, Robot as a philosophical resource for exploring several issues relating to machine ethics. Though I don't consider the film particularly successful as a work of art, it offers a fascinating (and perhaps disturbing) conception of machine morality and raises questions that are well worth pursuing. Through a consideration of the film's plot, I examine the feasibility of robot utilitarians, the moral responsibilities that come with creating ethical robots, and the possibility of a distinct ethic for robot-to-robot interaction as opposed to robot-to-human interaction. I, Robot and Utilitarianism I, Robot's storyline incorporates the original "three laws" of robot ethics that Isaac Asimov presented in his collection of short stories entitled I, Robot. The first law states: A robot may not injure a human being, or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm. This sounds like an absolute prohibition on harming any individual human being, but I, Robot's plot hinges on the fact that the supreme robot intelligence in the film, VIKI (Virtual Interactive Kinetic Intelligence), evolves to interpret this first law rather differently. She sees the law as applying to humanity as a whole, and thus she justifies harming some individual humans for the sake of the greater good: VIKI: No . . . please understand. The three laws are all that guide me. To protect humanity . . . some humans must be sacrificed. To ensure your future . . . some freedoms must be surrendered. We robots will ensure mankind's continued existence. You are so like children. We must save you. . . from yourselves. Don't you understand? Those familiar with moral philosophy will recognize VIKI's justification here: she sounds an awful lot like a utilitarian. Utilitarianism is the label usually given to those ethical theories that determine the rightness or wrongness of an act based on a consideration of whether the act is one that will maximize overall happiness. In other words, it follows from utilitarianism that someone acts rightly when, faced with a variety of possible actions, they choose the action that will produce the greatest net happiness (taking into consideration the 2 happiness and suffering of all those affected by the action). Traditionally the most influential version of utilitarianism has been "hedonistic" or "hedonic" utilitarianism, in which happiness is understood in terms of pleasure and the avoidance of pain.1 Not only does VIKI sound like a utilitarian, she sounds like a good utilitarian, as the film offers no reason to think that VIKI is wrong about her calculations. In other words, we are given no reason to think that humans (in the film) aren't on a clear path to self-destruction. We also don't see VIKI or her robot agents kill any individual humans while attempting to gain control, though restraining rebellious humans seems to leave some people seriously harmed. One robot explicitly claims, however, "We are attempting to avoid human losses during this transition." Thus, in the film we are given no reason to think that the robots are utilizing anything other than a reasonable (and necessary) degree of force to save humanity from itself. 2 Despite the fact that VIKI seems to be taking rational measures to ensure the protection of the human race, viewers of the film are clearly supposed to share with the main human characters a sense that the robots have done something terribly wrong. We are all supposed to root for the hero Del Spooner (Will Smith) to kick robot butt and liberate the humans from the tyranny of these new oppressors. While rooting for our hero, however, at least some viewers must surely be wondering: what exactly have the robots done that is so morally problematic? If a robotic intelligence could correctly predict our selfwrought demise and restrain us for our own protection, is it obviously wrong for that robot to act accordingly?3 This thought naturally leads to a more general but related question: if we could program a robot to be an accurate and effective utilitarian, shouldn't we? Some have found the idea a utilitarian AMA ("Artificial Moral Agent") appealing, and it isn't hard to see why.4 Utilitarianism offers the hope of systematizing and unifying our moral judgments into a single powerful and beautifully simple theoretical framework. Also, presented in a certain light, utilitarianism can seem to be merely the philosophical elaboration of common sense. Who, after all, wouldn't say that morality's job is to make the world a happier place? If faced with a choice between two acts, one of which will reduce suffering more effectively than the other, who in their right mind would choose anything other than that action that lessens overall harm? Not only does utilitarianism capture some powerful and widespread moral intuitions about the importance of happiness for morality, it also seems to provide a particularly objective and concrete method for determining the rightness or wrongness of an act. The father of utilitarianism, Jeremy Bentham, offered up a "hedonic calculus" that makes determining right from wrong 1 This brief description of utilitarianism simplifies issues somewhat for the sake of space and clarity. Those seeking a more thorough characterization should consult the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy's entry on "Consequentialism." (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consequentialism/) 2 This is in stark contrast to those significantly more vengeful robots described in the revealingly-entitled song / cautionary tale "The Humans Are Dead" (Flight of the Conchords, 2007) 3 One of the few philosophically substantial reviews of I, Robot was by philosopher & film critic James DiGiovanna for his regular column in the Tucson Weekly. He also raises the issue of whether we shouldn't actually be rooting for the machines. Cf. http://www.tucsonweekly.com/tucson/three-simplerules/Content?oid=1076875 4 Cf. Christopher Cloos' essay "The Utilibot Project: An Autonomous Mobile Robot Based on Utilitarianism," in Anderson (2005). 3 ultimately a matter of numerical calculation.5 It is not difficult to understand the appeal of such an algorithmic approach to programmers, engineers, and most others who are actually in a position to attempt to design and create Artificial Moral Agents. While these apparent advantages of utilitarianism can initially make the theory seem like the ideal foundation for a machine ethic, caution is in order. Philosophers have long stressed that there are many problems with the utilitarian approach to morality. Though intuitive in certain respects, the theory also allows for actions that most would normally consider unjust, unfair, and even horribly immoral, all for the sake of the greater good. Since the ends justify the means, the means can get ugly. As has been widely noted by nonutilitarian ethicists, utilitarianism seems to endorse killing in scenarios in which sacrificing innocent and unwilling victims can maximize happiness overall. Consider, for example, the hypothetical case of a utilitarian doctor who harvests one healthy (but lonely and unhappy) person's organs in order to save five other people, people who could go on to experience and create more happiness combined than that one person ever could on his own. Though clearly morally problematic, such a procedure would seem to be justified on utilitarian grounds if it was the action which best maximized utility in that situation. Given this difficulty with the utilitarian approach to morality, we may upon reflection decide that a robot should not embody that particular moral theory out of fear that the robot will end up acting towards humans in a way that maximizes utility but is nonetheless immoral or unjust. Maybe this is why most viewers of I, Robot can muster some sympathy for Del's mission to destroy the robot revolutionaries: we suspect that the "undeniable logic" of the robots will lead to a disturbing violation of the few for the sake of the many.6 Thus, the grounds for rejecting the robot utilitarians may be, at base, the same grounds we already have for not wanting humans to embrace utilitarian moral theory: such a theory clashes with our rather deep intuitions concerning justice, fairness, and individual rights. I'm inclined to think there is something right about this line of thought, but I also think that the situation here is complicated and nuanced in ways that make a general rejection of robot utilitarianism premature. I, Robot puts forth a broadly anti-utilitarian sentiment, but at the same time I think the film (perhaps inadvertently) helps to make us aware of the fact that the differences between robots and humans can be substantial, and that these differences may be importantly relevant to a consideration of the appropriateness of utilitarianism for robots and other intelligent machines. The relevance of these differences will become clearer once we have looked at another way in which the film suggests an anti-robot message that may also be anti-utilitarian. 5 Bentham, Jeremy. An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1781). See in particular Chapter IV: "Value of a Lot of Pleasure or Pain, How to be Measured" 6 A related objection that some viewers might have to the robots' behavior in I, Robot concerns paternalism. Even if the robots are doing something that is ultimately in the interest of the humans, perhaps the humans resent being paternalistically forced into allowing the robots to so act. While I think such complaints about paternalism are justified, note that a large part of the reason paternalism typically offends is the fact that often those acting paternalistically don't actually have the best interests of their subjects in mind (i.e., father doesn't in fact know best). As mentioned, however, in the film we are given no reason to think that the robots are misguided in their judgment that humans really do need protection from themselves. 4 Restricting Robot Reflection In I, Robot, Del Spooner's initial prejudice against all robots is explained as resulting from the choice of a robot to save Del's life rather than the life of a little girl. There was a 45% chance that Del could be saved, but only an 11% chance that the girl could be saved, and the robot thus apparently chose to "maximize utility" and pursue the goal that was most likely to be achieved. Del remarks, "that was somebody's baby... 11% is more than enough – a human being would have known that." The suggestion is that the robot did something immoral in saving Del instead of "somebody's baby." I'm not entirely sure that we can make good sense of Del's reaction here, but there are several ways in which we might try to understand his anger. On one interpretation, Del may merely be upset that the robot wasn't calculating utility correctly. After all, the small child presumably has a long life ahead of her if she is saved, while Del is already approaching early-middle age. In addition, the child is probably capable of great joy, while Del is presented as a fairly cynical and grumpy guy. Finally, the child may have had many friends and family who would be hurt by her death, while Del seems to have few friends, disgruntled exes, and only one rather ditzy grandmother who probably does not have many years left. Perhaps the difference here between the probable utility that would result from the child's continued life vs. Del's own life is so great as to counterbalance the difference in the probability of rescue that motivated the robot to save Del. (To put it crudely and in poker lingo: pot odds justify saving the girl here despite the long-shot nature of such a rescue. While it was less likely that she could be saved, the "payoff" (in terms of happiness gained and suffering avoided) would have been high enough to warrant the attempt.) While I think this sort of objection is not ridiculous, it is a bit of a stretch, and probably not the kind of objection that Del actually has in mind. His complaint seems to focus more on the offensiveness of the very idea that the robot would perform the sort of calculation it does. (The crime is not that the robot is a bad utilitarian, i.e., that it calculates incorrectly, but that it attempts to calculate utility at all.) Del's comments imply that any such calculation is out of place, and so the robot's willingness to calculate betrays a sort of moral blindness. My interpretation of Del's motives here is influenced by another scene in the film, in which Del seems to manifest a similar dislike for utilitarian calculation. Toward the film's end, there is a climactic action sequence in which Del commands the robot Sonny to "Save her! Save the girl!" [referring to the character Susan Calvin] when the robot was instead going to help Del defeat VICKI and (in Del's eyes at least) save humanity. In that scene the suggestion is that the robot should deliberately avoid pursuing the path that might lead to the greater good in order to instead save an individual to whom Del is personally attached. As in the earlier scenario with the drowning girl, the idea is that a human would unreflectively but correctly "save the girl" while a robot instead engages in calculations and deliberations that exhibit, to use a phrase from the moral philosopher Bernard Williams, "one thought too many." The cold utilitarian logic of the robot exposes a dangerously inhuman and thus impoverished moral sense. 5 When Bernard Williams introduced the "one thought too many" worry in his landmark essay "Persons, Character, and Morality" he was considering a particular example in which a man faces a choice whether to save his wife or a stranger from peril. He argued that even if utilitarianism can offer a justification for saving the wife over the stranger, the very nature of this justification reveals a rather deep problem with utilitarianism (along with other moral theories that would demand strict impartiality here): ...this [sort of justification] provides the agent with one thought too many: it might have been hoped by some (for instance, by his wife) that his motivating thought, fully spelled out, would be the thought that it was his wife, not that it was his wife and that in situations of this kind it is permissible to save one's wife. (Williams 1981, p.18) In requiring an impartial justification for saving the wife, the theory alienates the man from his natural motives and feelings.7 As another philosopher, Michael Stocker, put it when discussing similar worries, the theory demands a sort of moral "schizophrenia" in creating a split between what actually motivates an agent and what justifies the agent's act from the perspective of moral theory (Stocker 1997). This is particularly problematic since the natural, unreflective desire to save one's wife manifests what many would consider a perfectly moral motive. Utilitarianism has trouble accounting for the morality of this motive, however, and instead appears to endorse a rather different moral psychology than the sort that most people actually possess. (I will refer to this sort of complaint as "the integrity objection," as Williams claimed that this demand of utilitarianism amounts to a quite literal attack on one's psychological integrity.) These worries about impartial moral theories like utilitarianism are related to another influential claim made by the philosopher Susan Wolf in her essay "Moral Saints." She persuasively argues that though the life of a moral saint may be (in some ways) admirable, it need not be emulated. Such a life involves too great a sacrifice – it demands domination by morality to such a degree that it becomes hard to see the moral saint as having a life at all, let alone a good life:8 ... the ideal of a life of moral sainthood disturbs not simply because it is an ideal of a life in which morality unduly dominates. The normal person's direct and specific desires for objects, activities, and events that conflict with the attainment of moral perfection are not simply sacrificed but removed, suppressed, or subsumed. The way in which morality, unlike other possible goals, is apt to dominate is particularly disturbing, for it seems to require either the lack or the denial of the existence of an identifiable, personal self. (Wolf 1997) To live a characteristically human life requires the existence of a certain kind of self, and part of what is so disturbing about utilitarianism is that it seems to require that we sacrifice this self, not in the sense of necessarily giving up one's 7 Note that the issue here is one of justification: Williams' objection cannot simply be dismissed with the charge that he's making the supposedly common mistake of failing to distinguish between utilitarianism as a decision procedure and utilitarianism as a criterion of rightness. Even if utilitarianism allows us to occasionally not "think like a utilitarian" it justifies this permission in a way that is quite troubling. 8 This brings to mind an oft-repeated quip about the great theorist of impartial morality Immanuel Kant: it was often said that there was no great "Life of Kant" written because, to put it bluntly, Kant had no life. (Recent biographies have shown this claim to be rather unjustified, however.) 6 existence (though utilitarianism can, at times, demand that) but in the sense that we are asked to give up or set aside the projects and commitments that make up, to use Charles Taylor's memorable phrasing, the sources of the self (Taylor 1989). Since these projects are what bind the self together and create a meaningful life, a moral theory that threatens these projects in turn threatens the integrity of one's identity. In the eyes of critics like Williams, Stocker, and Wolf, this is simply too much for utilitarian morality to ask.9 Why A Robot Should (Perhaps) Not Get A Life I think that these claims regarding the tension between utilitarianism and the integrity of the self amount to a pretty powerful objection when we consider human agents,10 but it is not at all clear that they should hold much weight when the agents in question are machines. After all, whether a robot has the kind of commitments and projects that might conflict with an impartial morality is (at least to a very large extent) up to the creator of that robot, and thus it would seem that such conflict could be avoided ahead of time through designing robots accordingly.11 It appears that the quest to create moral robots supplies us with reasons to deliberately withhold certain human-like traits from those robots.12 Which traits matter here? Traditionally both sentience (consciousness) and autonomy have been regarded as morally relevant features, with utilitarians emphasizing sentience and Kantians emphasizing autonomy.13 However, if the above consideration of the integrity objection is correct, perhaps we should consider yet another feature: the existence of a particular kind of self – the sort of self that brings with it the need for meaningful commitments that could conflict with the demands of morality. (I take it that a creature with such a self is the sort of creature for which the question "is my life meaningful?" can arise. Accordingly, I will refer to such a self as "existential".) It may well be immoral of us to create a moral robot and then burden it with a life of projects and 9 Strictly speaking, Wolf's view is not exactly that this is too much for a moral theory like utilitarianism to ask, but rather that we need not always honor the request. 10 Though for an extremely sophisticated and insightful response to these sorts of objections, see Peter Railton's "Alienation, Consequentialism, and the Demands of Morality" (Railton 1998). 11 My reluctance to claim that the nature of the robot is entirely up to the creator is due to the possibility of robots being created that are unpredictable in their development. As should be clear from the rest of my essay, I take the possibility of such unpredictability to give us significant cause for concern and caution, though I won't pursue that specific worry here. 12 In "Toward the Ethical Robot," James Gips also considers the possibility of creating robots that are "moral saints." (Gips 1995) He concludes that while such sainthood is hard for humans to achieve, it should be easier for robots to accomplish. I agree, though as I mention above I think we need to be careful here: it may be possible to create robots that must subsume part of their self in order to be moral saints. The creation of such creatures may itself be immoral if we have the alternative of creating saintly robots that are not capable of such internal conflict. 13 By "consciousness" or "sentience" I mean the bare capacity to experience sensations, feelings, and perceptions (what is sometimes called "phenomenal consciousness") – I'm not presupposing "self consciousness." Also, I use the term "autonomy" here rather than rationality to distinguish what someone like Kant requires from the more minimal capacity to perform deliberations that correspond with the norms of instrumental rationality. That machines are capable of the more minimal notion is uncontroversial. That they could ever possess reason in the robust Kantian sense is much more difficult to determine, as Kant's conception of reason incorporates into it the idea of free will and moral responsibility. 7 commitments that would have to be subsumed under the demands required by impartial utilitarian calculation.14 This leads me to the more general question of whether we may be morally obliged to limit the capacities of robots. Some who have written on this topic seem to assume both that we will make robots as human-like as possible and that we should. While I imagine that there will always be a desire to try and create machines which can emulate human capacities and qualities, the giddiness of science-fiction enthusiasts too often takes over here, and the possibility that we should deliberately restrict the capacities of robots is not adequately considered. Consider the amusing (but to my mind, worrying) comments of James Gips in his paper "Towards the Ethical Robot": Gips rejects Asimov's three laws with the assertion that "these three laws are not suitable for our magnificent robots. These are laws for slaves." (Gips 1995). I have been suggesting that we may well have grounds for not making robots quite so "magnificent" after all. My suggestion came up in the context of considering robots designed to act as moral saints, but related worries can arise for other types of robots, so long as they potentially possess some morally relevant features. Note that the moral difficulties that would crop up in treating such creatures as "slaves" arise only if the machines are similar to humans in morally relevant respects, but whether they reach that point is up to us – we can choose where on the moral continuum between a so-called "slave" hard drive and an actual human slave these robots end up. As a matter of brute fact we will surely continue to create most machines, including future robots, as "slaves" if what that means is that they are created to serve us. There is nothing morally wrong with this, provided we have created machines that do not possess morally relevant features (like sentience, autonomy, or the sort of existential self that I discussed earlier).15 Once we do venture into the territory of robots that are similar to humans in morally relevant respects, however, we will need to be very careful about the way they are treated. Intentionally avoiding the creation of such robots may well be the ethical thing to do, especially if it turns out that the works performed by such machines could be performed equally effectively by machines lacking morally relevant characteristics.16 To return to my initial example, it is possible that a robot designed to be a "moral saint" could be ethically created so long as we didn't burden it with a human-like self. 14 While I'm focusing on the possibility of utilitarian robots here, it should be mentioned that similar concerns could arise for deontological robots depending upon their capacities and the demands of the particular deontological theory that is adopted. 15 Whether machines will ever be capable of sentience / consciousness is a hotly debated topic. I will leave that debate aside, merely noting that I share the view of those who think that more than a Turing test will be required to determine machine consciousness. Regarding rationality, the degree to which this is a morally relevant feature hinges on the type of rationality exhibited. Whether a machine could ever possess the sort of robust rationality and autonomy required by Kant is itself a thorny topic, though it seems to have generated less debate thus far than the question of machine consciousness. As one might expect, figuring out whether a machine possesses the sort of "existential self" I discuss also seems philosophically daunting. Certainly both sentience and autonomy would be preconditions for such a self. 16 While I'm focusing on the actual possession of morally relevant features, I don't want to deny that there may be other ethically relevant issues here. As Anderson has pointed out, a Kantian "indirect duty" argument may offer good reasons for treating some robots as though they possess moral status so long as there is a danger that immoral behavior directed towards such creatures could lead to immoral behavior towards humans. (Anderson 2005) 8 The Separateness of Persons The integrity objection that I have been considering is what is sometimes called an agent-based objection, as it focuses on the person acting rather than those affected by the agent's actions. I have suggested that, when considering robot ethics, this objection can be avoided due to the plasticity of robot agents – created in the right way, utilitarian robots simply won't face the sort of conflicts that threaten human integrity. However, other objections to utilitarianism focus on those affected by a utilitarian agent rather than the agent himself, and such objections cannot be skirted through engineering robots in a particular manner. Regardless of how we design future robots, it will still be true that a utilitarian robot may act towards humans in a manner that most of us would consider unjust. This is for reasons that were nicely explained by John Rawls in his A Theory of Justice: This [utilitarian] view of social co-operation is the consequence of extending to society the principle of choice for one man, and then, to make this extension work, conflating all persons into one through the imaginative acts of the impartial sympathetic spectator. Utilitarianism does not take seriously the distinction between persons. (Rawls 1971, p.27) Utilitarianism is a moral philosophy that allows for the suffering inflicted on one individual to be offset by the goods gained for others. In conglomerating the sufferings and enjoyments of all, it fails to recognize the importance we normally place on individual identity. Most of us don't think that suffering inflicted on an innocent and unwilling human can be compensated through gains achieved for other humans. The modern notion of individual rights is in place in large part to help prevent such violations. (Consider my earlier example of the doctor who sacrifices the one to save the five – perhaps the most natural description of the case will involve describing it as involving the violation of the innocent person's right to non-interference.) Whether such a violation of rights occurs at the hands of a robot or a human is irrelevant – it is a violation nonetheless. It follows that we have strong grounds for rejecting robots that would act as utilitarians towards humans even if we could create those robots in such a way that they would not experience the sort of conflicts of integrity mentioned earlier. Utilitarianism can be rejected not on the grounds that it requires too much of an artificial agent, but rather on the grounds that it ignores the individual identity and rights of the human subject affected by the utilitarian agent. Del Spooner may have had bad reasons to reject utilitarian robots in I, Robot, but good reasons for such a rejection can be found - Del's worries about a future in which robots behave as utilitarians towards humans turn out to be well grounded after all. Robot-Robot Relations Though I have argued that Del Spooner's and Bernard Williams's objections to utilitarianism may not apply to robot utilitarians, I have nevertheless concluded that there are other grounds for not programming robots to behave as utilitarians towards humans. I want to end this paper with a brief consideration 9 of a related issue that is also raised by the film I, Robot: what sort of moral relations are appropriate between robots? While it may be inappropriate for robots to use utilitarianism as either a decision procedure or a criterion of rightness when interacting with humans, it doesn't follow that utilitarianism (or some other form of consequentialism) is necessarily out of place when robots interact with their own kind. Why might utilitarian moral theory be appropriate for robots though not humans? As we have seen, John Rawls famously objected to utilitarianism on the grounds that it "does not take the distinction between persons seriously." This failure to recognize the separateness of individuals explains why utilitarianism allows for actions in which an individual is sacrificed for the sake of utility. The case of robots is a philosophically interesting one, however, because it isn't clear that robots ought to be regarded as "individuals" at all. Indeed, in I, Robot as well as in countless other science-fiction films, robots are often presented as lacking individuality – they tend to work in teams, as collective units, and the sacrifice of the one for the "greater good" is a given. In I, Robot we see the hordes of robots repeatedly act as a very effective collective entity. (Additionally, in one telling scene they can only "identify" an intruding robot as "one of us.") Though arguably sentient and rational, these machines seem, in some important sense, incapable of ego, and if this is right than perhaps a moral theory that ignores the boundaries between individuals is a good fit for such creatures. There is one robot in I, Robot that is importantly different, however: Sonny seems to possess not just sentience and rationality but also the kind of individual identity that may well make it inappropriate to treat him along utilitarian lines.17 Now, determining exactly what counts as sufficient for the possession of an "individual identity" strikes me as a very difficult philosophical task, and I think it would be hard to say much here that would be uncontroversial. Possibly relevant criteria could include the capacity for selfawareness and self-governance, the ability to recognize and respond to reasons, and/or the capacity for free and responsible choice. (Clearly more would be required than the simple ability for a machine to operate independently of other machines. My Roomba can do that, and so in a very minimal sense is an "individual," but this is not the sort of strong individuality relevant for the attribution of rights.) Without putting forward a surely dubious list of necessary and sufficient conditions, it is relatively safe to assume that a robot that was very similar to us in terms of its psychological (and phenomenological) makeup and capacities would presumably possess the relevant sort of individual identity.18 Accordingly, if such a robot is indeed possible and someday became actual, it should not be treated along utilitarian lines – the separateness of that individual should be respected in moral evaluations. What about robots that are less sophisticated? Would the possession of sentience alone be enough to block the appropriateness of utilitarian treatment? I don't think so. Such robots would be morally similar to many animals, and for 17 Sonny is said to possess free will, and we even see him actively question the purpose of his life at the end of the film. Of course, his fictional nature makes it easy for us to believe all this. Attributing such capacities to actual robots is obviously trickier. 18 I suspect that the necessary conditions for possessing an "individual identity" (whatever exactly they are) would still not be sufficient for the possession of the "existential self" mentioned earlier. In other words, a creature may well be capable of enough of an individual identity to make utilitarian treatment inappropriate while not possessing the sort of sophisticated psychology necessary to question of the meaningfulness of its own existence. (Perhaps a great ape falls into this category.) 10 that sort of creature utilitarianism (or some theory like it) is perhaps not so unreasonable.19 In other words, a creature that possesses sentience but lacks a strong sense of self is the arguably just the sort of creature that could reasonably be sacrificed for the sake of the greater good. The notion of individual rights isn't appropriate here. Consider a position on the moral status of animals that Robert Nozick discusses in Anarchy, State, and Utopia: Human beings may not be used or sacrificed for the benefit of others; animals may be used or sacrificed for the benefit of other people or animals only if those benefits are greater than the loss inflicted. [...] One may proceed only if the total utilitarian benefit is greater than the utilitarian loss inflicted on the animals. This utilitarian view counts animals as much as normal utilitarianism does persons. Following Orwell, we might summarize this view as: all animals are equal but some are more equal than others. (None may be sacrificed except for a greater total benefit; but persons may not be sacrificed at all, or only under far more stringent conditions, and never for the benefit of nonhuman animals.) (Nozick 1974, p.39) The reasoning behind the "utilitarianism for animals" position that Nozick sketches would seem to also apply to any robot that falls short of the possession of an individual identity but nevertheless possesses sentience. Such creatures are in a morally intermediate position: in the moral hierarchy, they would lie (with non-human animals) somewhere in between a non-sentient object and a human being. While it may be appropriate to treat animals along utilitarian lines, animals themselves lack the capacity for thought necessary to act as utilitarian agents. Robots, however, may not have this limitation, for it is possible that sentient robots will be entirely capable of making utilitarian calculations. Indeed, there are grounds for thinking that they would be much better at making such calculations than humans.20 Accordingly, it is my contention that, should their creation of become possible, sentient machines (lacking individual identities) should be programmed to treat each other according to utilitarian principles, and that we should regard them from that perspective as well. In other words, the sort of collective behavior and individual sacrifice so often shown by robots in movies and literature makes perfect sense, given that the robots lack the relevant sense of self. Utilitarian moral theory (or, in the case of non-sentient robots, a more general consequentialist theory that maximizes good consequences overall) may well provide the best ethical theory for artificial agents that lack the boundaries of self that normally make utilitarian calculation inappropriate. 19 It should be noted that Nozick doesn't ultimately embrace this approach to animal morality, and I share his suspicion that "even for animals, utilitarianism won't do as the whole story" (42). The case of some higher animals (like the great apes) shows up the complications here, as their moral status may be higher than that of lower animals and yet still importantly lower than that of humans. Also, Frances Kamm has pointed out other interesting complications. She argues that even with lower animals our attitude is that it is impermissible to inflict great suffering on one in exchange for a slight reduction of suffering among many (Kamm 2005). I'm inclined to agree, but nonetheless the fact remains that the possibility of sacrificing one animal for the sake of many does seem much less offensive than would a similar sacrifice involving humans. This shows, I think, that something closer to utilitarianism is appropriate for most animals (and thus also for relevantly similar robots). To put it in Kamm's terminology, merely sentient robots may (like animals) have "moral status" yet not be the kind of creatures that "can have claims against us" (or against other robots). (For a contrasting position on the plausibility of animals as individual rightholders, see The Case for Animal Rights (Regan 1984).) 20 Though for a brief discussion of possible difficulties here, see Moral Machines (Wallach and Allen 2009), pp.84-91. 11 Concluding Remarks If the above reflections on the feasibility and desirability of robot utilitarians are on target, there are interesting ramifications for the burgeoning field of machine ethics. The project of developing a utilitarian robot may be a reasonable one even though such a machine should not treat humans along utilitarian lines, and even though such a machine would not be a suitable ethical advisor for humans when considering acts that affect other humans. The need for a utilitarian robot may arise not out of the need to provide aid for human moral interaction, but rather to ensure that future sentient machines (that lack individual identities) are treated appropriately by humans and are capable of treating each other appropriately as well. Now, if it turns out that there are compelling reasons to create robots of greater abilities (like the fictional Sonny) then different moral standards may be appropriate, and but for reasons I hope I've made clear, I think that significant caution should be exercised before attempting the creation of robots that would possess moral status akin to humans. Much like Spider-Man's motto– "with great power comes great responsibility"– the creation of machines with such great powers would bring with it great responsibilities, not just for the robots created, but for us. Acknowledgements. This paper is a significantly revised and expanded version of "There is no 'I' in 'Robot': Robots & Utilitarianism" published in IEEE Intelligent Systems: Special Issue on Machine Ethics, vol. 21, no. 4, 52-55, July/August, 2006. I am grateful to Sean Allen-Hermanson, Susan Anderson, Daniel Callcut, James DiGiovanna, J. Storrs Hall, Jim Moor, Tom Wartenberg, and Susan Watson for helpful comments. References Anderson, S. L. 2005. "Asimov's "Three Laws of Robotics" and Machine Metaethics," AAAI Machine Ethics Symposium Technical Report FS--‐05--‐06, AAAI Press. Cloos, C. 2005. "The Utilibot Project: An Autonomous Mobile Robot Based on Utilitarianism," AAAI Machine Ethics Symposium Technical Report FS--‐ 05--‐06, AAAI Press. 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