www.argument-journal.eu Published online: 25.06.2015 Argument Vol. 4 (2/2014) pp. 425–438 * * * * Ph.D., associate professor of Pedagogical university of Cracow, Department of Philoso‐ phy and Sociology, head of the Chair of Logic and methodology of Science, Poland. e ‐mail: mirek.r@poczta.fm. Application of natural deduction in Renaissance geometry ryszard mirek* ABStrACt my goal here is to provide a detailed analysis of the methods of inference that are employed in De prospectiva pingendi. For this purpose, a method of natural deduction is proposed. the treatise by Piero della Francesca is a manifestation of a union between the fine arts and the mathematical sciences of arithmetic and geometry. He defines painting as a part of perspective and, speaking precisely, as a branch of geometry, which is why we find advanced geometrical exercises here. keYWOrDS philosophy of art; perspective in painting; geometry in art perception; reasoning and aesthetic perception 426 Ryszard MiRek PrOPOSitiOn 1.13 Piero della Francesca (1415–1492) refers directly or indirectly to euclidean geom‐ etry. the proof of Proposition 1.131 refers to the similarity of the triangles. Piero does not mention a number of euclidean proposition but he uses it in his proof. in euclid's Elements (c. 300 BC), these issues are discussed in the Book Vi, Prop‐ osition 4 to 8 (see euclid). At this point it is worth recalling Proposition 1.12. it shows how to draw in perspective a surface of undefined shape, which is located in profile as a straight line. it means that a horizontal line BC can be foreshortened into a vertical line EB. the line AD represents a hypothetical observer and the point A is the position of the eye in relation to the line EB. the vertical line BF represents the picture plane (Fig. 1). Fig. 1 According to Proposition 1.13 we add a square BCGF that represents the object to be drawn in reality in a horizontal plane (Field, 2005: app. 8). then, we draw from the point A visual rays to the corners of the square (Fig. 2). Fig. 2 1 "1" refers to a number of the book De prospectiva pingendi, and the number "13" to the sequence of propositions. Application of natural deduction in Renaissance geometry 427 then we construct the parallel half‐line from the point A to the line seg‐ ment BC with no end point, and divide the line segment BC into two equal parts in I. From this point we construct the line perpendicular to the point A', and then draw the line from the point E to the point K, again parallel to BC (Fig. 3). Fig. 3 Finally, we draw the line A'B and A'C. the goal of design is to show that from the point of view of A the perspective image of the side BC of the square BCGF is EB, of the side FG is FH, while the farthest side of the CG is EH. What may amaze is Piero's assertion that the line segment D'E' is also the perspective image of the side of CG, so EH = D'E' (1). Let us recall an ap‐ proach proposed by Field, following today's convections of reasoning (Field, 2005:145). At the outset it should be noted, that the triangles A'D'E' and A'BC are similar, because the sides of D'E' and BC are parallel, and the triangles CEE' and CAA' are similar, because EE' and AA' are parallel2. On this basis, we obtain the equivalence: A'C = AC A'E' AE (2). the triangles AEH and ACG are similar, because the sides HE and GC are parallel: AE = EH AC CG (3). 2 Following Field's letters instead of He should be "HE is parallel to GC". 428 Ryszard MiRek the right side of the equation (2) is the reverse of the left side of the equa‐ tion (3). Both equations give so as a result of: A'E' = EH A'C CG (4). As already noted, triangles A'D'E' and A'BC are similar, so we have: D'E' = A'E' BC A'C (5). the left side of (4) is equal to the right side of (5), so we have: D'E' = EH BC CG (6). BC = CG because BCGF is a square, and therefore (6) is reduced to (1): EH=D'E', what was required to be proved. As has been shown the proposition may be used in the interpretation of the painting of Piero della Francesca The flagellation of Christ. the final figure looks as follows: Fig. 4 Application of natural deduction in Renaissance geometry 429 However, what interests us is a logical system based on geometry. Such a system has been discussed in a separate text (mirek, 2014). in a formal system EF one can use a natural deduction in the form proposed by Frederic. Fitch and Ludwik Borkowski, but for the first time was introduced, as the method of subordinate proofs, independently by Stanisław Jaśkowski and gerhard gen‐ tzen. the advantage of natural deduction is that it seems to present in a precise and visually readable way the Francesca's geometrical system. Let us start from the first part of proof: every proof within a natural deduction system begins with a hypothesis (premise), above marked as P1 and P2. the second premise is introduced within a subproof of the proof by means of repetition (reiteration). generally, every subsequent step in the proof (subproof ) is introduced by a hypothesis or it is a formula that is derived from previous steps using one of the rules of the system. Proofs and subproofs are marked out by vertical lines. then we use the introduction rule for conjunction (∧+). For the rule implication an intro‐ duction (⇒+) is required a subproof from which we come back to the scope of the first vertical line. "∆" means a triangle and "~" means a similarity. As a novelty is introduced the use of diagrams in a proof. this is consistent with the methods of inference that are employed in the Elements and particularly in De prospectiva pingendi. in the second example, we have one premise, and therefore we are within a subproof: P1 ∆ A'D'E' ~ ∆ A'BC P2 ∆ CEE' ~ ∆ CAA' 3 ∆ A'D'E' ~ ∆ A'BC (r:P1) 4 ∆ A'D'E' ~ ∆ A'BC ∧ ∆ CEE' ~ ∆ CAA' (∧+:3,P2) 5 A'C = AC (Fig. 3) A'E' AE 6 ∆ A'D'E' ~ ∆ A'BC ∧ ∆ CEE' ~ ∆ CAA' ⇒ A'C = AC (⇒+:P2‐5) A'E' AE P1 ∆ AEH ~ ∆ ACG 2 AE = EH (Fig. 3) AC CG 3 ∆ AEH ~ ∆ ACG ⇒ AE = EH (⇒+:P1‐2) AC CG 430 Ryszard MiRek in the third example, there are two premises, and in the fourth one: While the latter two are as follows: P1 A'C = AC A'E' AE P2 AE = EH AC CG 3 A'C = AC (r:P1) A'E' AE 4 A'C = AC ∧ AE = EH (∧+:3,P2) A'E' AE AC CG 5 A'E' = EH (Fig. 3) A'C CG 6 A'C = AC ∧ AE = EH ⇒ A'E' = EH (⇒+:P2‐5) A'E' AE AC CG A'C CG P1 A'E' = EH A'C CG P2 D'E' = A'E' BC A'C 3 A'E' = EH (r:P1) A'C CG 4 A'E' = EH ∧ D'E' = A'E' (∧+:3,P2) A'C CG BC A'C 5 D'E' = EH (Fig. 3) BC CG 6 A'E' = EH ∧ D'E' = A'E' ⇒ D'E' = EH (⇒+:P2‐5) A'C CG BC A'C BC CG P1 ∆ A'D'E' ~ ∆ A'BC 2 D'E' = A'E' (Fig. 3) BC A'C 3 ∆ A'D'E' ~ ∆ A'BC ⇒ D'E' = A'E' (⇒+:P1‐2) BC A'C Application of natural deduction in Renaissance geometry 431 PrOPOSitiOn 1.11 in turn, in the case of Proposition 1.11 we are referred to the problem that objects of the same size will appear in various proportions in the picture, de‐ pending on the distance of the eye. Once again let's use diagrams supplied by Field (2005: 101–103). Francesca proposes to draw four parallel lines, each 1 braccio long and they are one braccio apart. From the first line which is the picture line to the eye (A) is four bracci (Fig. 5). Fig. 5 According to Piero the proportion between the second one and the first is 5 to 4, the third and the second is 6 to 5, the fourth and the third is 7 to 6. these proportions are derived from pairs of similar triangles. As has been said, in Elements the issues can be found in Book Vi, Proposition 4 to 8 (euclid). in the case of the first and second line one can form the triangles by drawing an additional two lines that come to a point A (Fig. 6). P1 D'E' = EH BC CG P2 BC = CG 3 D'E' = EH (r:P1) BC CG 4 D'E' = EH ∧ BC = CG (∧+:3,P2) BC CG 5 EH = D'E' (Fig. 3) 6 D'E' = EH ∧ BC = CG ⇒ EH = D'E' (⇒+:P2‐5) BC CG 432 Ryszard MiRek Fig. 6 the triangles ACM i ANL are similar and what we want is the ratio of NL to BL. Piero presents the proportion among those four lines is as of the four numbers, namely 105, 84, 70, 60. these ratios also depends on the distance of the first line to a point A. if we increase the distance to 6 bracci, the propor‐ tions will be like the four numbers 84, 72, 63, 56. While changing the height of the eye makes no difference to a ratio. in support of this thesis Field pro‐ poses the following figure: Fig. 7 it is worth noting that both the part of Figure 7 above and below the line segment AQR have the same form as Figure 5. Both triangles ACM, ANP and ACR, ANQ are similar. the aim is to find the ratio of NP to BL. Starting from triangles of ACM and ANP, we obtain the equivalence: NP = AN CM AC (7). Application of natural deduction in Renaissance geometry 433 Likewise with triangles ACR i ANQ we have the equivalence: AN = AQ AC AR (8). By combining the left side of (7) with the right side of (8) and remembering that CM = BL, we have: NP = AQ CM AR (9). Again, let's use the method of natural deduction: P1 NP = AN CM AC P2 AN = AQ AC AR 3 NP = AN (r:P1) CM AC 4 NP = AN ∧ AN = AQ (∧+:3,P2) CM AC AC AR 5 NP = AQ (Fig. 7) CM AR 6 NP = AN ∧ AN = AQ ⇒ NP = AQ (⇒+:P2‐5) CM AC AC AR CM AR P1 ∆ ACR ~ ∆ ANQ 2 AN = AQ (Fig. 7) AC AR 3 ∆ ACR ~ ∆ ANQ ⇒ AN = AQ (⇒+:P1‐2) AC AR P1 ∆ ACM ~ ∆ ANP 2 NP = AN (Fig. 7) CM AC 3 ∆ ACM ~ ∆ ANP ⇒ NP = AN (⇒+:P1‐2) CM AC 434 Ryszard MiRek As has been demonstrated, Proposition 1.11 can be used in the masterpiec‐ es painted by Piero, namely in his The baptism of Christ and The resurrection. in the former one can find the proportions between the trees, as well as between Christ and people on further plans (Fig. 8). Fig. 8 Application of natural deduction in Renaissance geometry 435 3. PrOPOSitiOn 1.8 in turn, Proposition 1.8 is known as "Piero's theorem". Piero shows that the perspective images of orthogonals converge to a centr ic point (Fig. 9). What we want to prove is that if BH, DK, EL, FM, GN, CI can all be ex‐ tended to meet at A, then the pattern of ratios defined by the points HKLMNI on the second transversal, HI, is the same as that defined by BDEFGC on the first one, BC. According to Francesca the triangles ABD i AHK are similar, the triangles ADE i AKL are similar and AEF i ALM are similar etc. What is more, the angles of the triangle ABD are similar to the angles of the triangle AHK, what follows from euclid's theorem from the Book Vi, Proposition 21. therefore, BD to DE is in the same ratio as HK to KL, EF to FG is the same ratio as LM to MN, and FG to GC, as MN to NI. translation into the lan‐ guage of natural deduction takes the form: 436 Ryszard MiRek "<) " means that all angles of both triangles are similar. in the rest part the proof proceeds by analogy. P1 ∆ ABD ~ ∆ AHK P2 <) ABD ~ <) AHK P3 ∆ AGC ~ ∆ ANI P4 <) AGC ~ <) ANI 5 ∆ ABD ~ ∆ AHK (r:P1) 6 <) ABD ~ <) AHK (r:P2) 7 ∆ ABD ~ ∆ AHK ∧ ∆ AGC ~ ∆ ANI (∧+:5,P3) 8 <) ABD ~ <) AHK ∧ <) AGC ~ <) ANI (∧+:6,P4) 9 (∆ ABD ~ ∆ AHK ∧ ∆ AGC ~ ∆ ANI) ∧ (<) ABD ~ <) AHK ∧ <) AGC ~ <) ANI) (∧+:7,8) 10 FG = HK (Fig. 9) GC KL 11 (∆ ADE ~ ∆ AKL ∧ ∆ ABD ~ ∆ AHK) ∧ (<) ADE ~ <) AKL ∧ <) ABD ~ <) AHK) ⇒ BD = HK (⇒+:P3‐10) DE KL Application of natural deduction in Renaissance geometry 437 P1 ∆ AEF ~ ∆ ALM P2 <) AEF ~ <) ALM P3 ∆ AFG ~ ∆ AMN P4 <) AFG ~ <) AMN 5 ∆ AEF ~ ∆ ALM (r:P1) 6 <) AEF ~ <) ALM (r:P2) 7 ∆ AEF ~ ∆ ALM ∧ ∆ AFG ~ ∆ AMN (∧+:5,P3) 8 <) AEF ~ <) ALM ∧ <) AFG ~ <) AMN (∧+:6,P4) 9 (∆ AEF ~ ∆ ALM ∧ ∆ AFG ~ ∆ AMN) ∧ (<) AEF ~ <) ALM ∧ <) AFG ~ <) AMN) (∧+:8,7) 10 FG = LM (Fig. 9) GC MN 11 (∆ AEF ~ ∆ ALM ∧ ∆ AFG ~ ∆ AMN) ∧ (<) AEF ~ <) ALM ∧ <) AFG ~ <) AMN) ⇒ FG = LM (⇒+:P3‐10) GC MN P1 ∆ AFG ~ ∆ AMN P2 <) AFG ~ <) AMN P3 ∆ AFG ~ ∆ AMN P4 <) AFG ~ <) AMN 5 ∆ AEF ~ ∆ ALM (r:P1) 6 <) AEF ~ <) ALM (r:P2) 7 ∆ AEF ~ ∆ ALM ∧ ∆ AFG ~ ∆ AMN (∧+:5,P3) 8 <) AEF ~ <) ALM ∧ <) AFG ~ <) AMN (∧+:6,P4) 9 (∆ AEF ~ ∆ ALM ∧ ∆ AFG ~ ∆ AMN) ∧ (<) AEF ~ <) ALM ∧ <) AFG ~ <) AMN) (∧+:8,7) 10 EF = MN (Fig. 9) FG NI 11 (∆ AEF ~ ∆ ALM ∧ ∆ AFG ~ ∆ AMN) ∧ (<) AEF ~ <) ALM ∧ <) AFG ~ <) AMN) ⇒ EF = MN (⇒+:P3‐10) FG NI 4. COnCLuSiOn As has been noted, the advantage of natural deduction is that it seems to pre‐ sent in a precise and visually readable way a geometrical system. in Francesca's De prospectiva pingendi one can find 48 propositions along with the diagrams. the use of diagrams in a Piero's geometry as in a euclidean one is governed by a discernible logic. An attempt to include it in a logical system with the use of diagrams it seems so obvious and indicated. BiBLiOgrAPHY euclid. Elements. retrieved from the professional website of David e. Joyce, Professor of mathematics and Computer Science, Clark university, Worcester, uSA ©1996, 1997, 1998. retrived from: http://aleph0.clarku.edu/~djoyce/elements/toc.html (02.12.2014). Field, J. V. (2005). Piero della Francesca. A mathematician's art. (Appendix 8) new Haven - London: Yale university Press. mirek, r. (2014). System logiczny oparty na geometrii Piera della Francesca. Studia Philosophica Wratislaviensia, 9 (4), 37‐51.