Studies in H£rtõ and Philosophy of Science experimenter in the fqIIest sense. In contrasting the Anatomical Procedures with his earlier Us,'fulness of the Parts, Galen tells us that he writes the Procedure~-his second ~olnprehensive overview of body--in order that the student of nature can observe for himself each aspect of the body wbdch Galen had previously reported with speech.~ The very term 'procedure/g'~zg,~pTVstg' (literally 'in-handing') connotes a hands-on approach to the subject. Al'ter guiding the reader through a full dissection of a monkey in books I-V of Anatomical Pi'ocedures, Galen devotes much of the remaining work to more detailed and focused studies of particular systems. Whe~ describing his procedures, he uses not only the first person, but also the second person pronomt and verb. Galen constantly calls for 'you' the reader to share tl~ese experiences by repeati~g the procedures yourself. He sees anatomical practice as freeing the student of nature from dependence on the doctrines of Other contemporary physicians and philosophers who either ignore anatomical manipulation or put undue emphasis mt theoretical specutation.7 One must not base his beliefs about nature on genera! statements he reads in a book, but on direct observations from opening, examining and manipulating the body for oneself. Of course, an experimental scientist does not merely manipulate nature, he does this as a scientist. Since the dawn of civilization, empirics from cooks to physicians have been trying õt various operations so as to learn how to achieve desired ends. The scientist, however, alters nature as part of a more theoretical inquiry into her order. Instead of seeking the mere powers of a craftsman, the student of nature strives first to obtain the understanding of a phiIosopher.~ With wisdom as his goal, the experimental philosopher embarks ~See Anatomical Procedures' IL416. Where possible, passages in Galen wil! be cited with the vdiume and page number of the Kdhn edition. C, Singer, Gt~len on Anatomical Procedures (London: Oxford University Press, 1956), p. 238, argues that the Anatomical Procedures was begva around 177 A.D. and the Usefulness qftke Parts was written between 169 and 175. At On the Order of My Own Books, in i. MueIler (ed.), Claudii Galeni Pergameni S~'ripta Minora (Adolf Hakkert: Amsterdam, 1967), vdi. 2, pp. 80-90, XIX 54, Galen directs his reader to stt~dy the practices outlined in the Procedures before turning to his more theoretical writings. 7I expkire the extent to which Galen's anatomical method responds to the Rationalist and Empiricist attitudes towards the body in Cosas~s, i997, op. cir., note 1. GaleI~ portrays Rationalists as believing that anatomical experm~ents give knowledge about the ditimate reality of the body wtfich contributes to medicine; they generally advance mechanical theories about the body. The Elllpir~cists reject this ~nempt to base medicine on experimentally derived tbeories because they deny dissection and vivisection can reveal umnanifest entities and processes witkin the living orgaNsm, In response, Galen advauzces a critical anatomy which avoids the extremes of both epistemdiogies, and finds inspiration from the 'Ancients', who wrote before the Rationalis~ Empiricist argmnent, for an empirical reMism. Wldle he advocates the use of experintental science, Galen shies away from being overly tt~eoreticaI about anatomy. Interestingly enough, I. Hacking, R~presenling and rntervsni~g (C~mbridge: U~fiversity Press, 1983), p, 24%8, argues that Bacoã advances his vision of experimental science n response to the Emplriss and Dogumtic Theoret c a s of the 17th century. ~ ~This seems to have especially been the case during antiquity wben G. E. R. Lloyd notes that 'seiei~ce was seen as an end ira itself: for it was evidently not seen, by society in general or even by ~otabIe individuals witbha it, as a memos to some other desirable end', 'Science and Morality in CrrecõRoman Antiqdity', in Motbodx and Problems in Greelc Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp. 352 37I, see p. 353. The Experimental Foundations of Galen's Teleology 65 on a open-ended inquiry where manipulation may lead to new underslanding, which in turn may lead to far*thor manipulations and discoveries. By providing the student a hands-on intimacy with the body, Galen sees experimental biology as establishing a deeper understanding of and respect for its natural processes. Anatomical practice allows anyone to observe the living organism not as an undirected agglomeration, but as a being with parts meticulously orgamzed for their function in the whole. Galen's Vivisection Experiments Galen especially seems to advocate discrete and contrived experiments as a foundation of knowledge in his use of vivisection procedures, lk~ his careful study of early anatomical experiments, yon Staden argues that the Hellenistic generation of physicians failed to use their experiments systematically enough to fully ground medicine; when challenged by medical Empiricism. experimental medicine withered away.9 With an awareness of the difficulties raised by the EmpLricists, Galen seeks to use and report anatomical procedures as objective practices by which anyone can establish facts about the body. He often recounts refuting some of his contemporaries by presenting them with a living organism and lhen demonstrating the problems in their theories with public experiments.~0 When outlining one vivisection procedure Galen states his goal has been to write about it so clearly 'that someone diligent will be able to perform completely the above anatomical practice anytime worldng by himself',u Repeatability as such is thus crucial to any given event being an anatmnical procedure. Rather than providing the reader with specific facts (or statements) about anatomy, Galen's text directs the student of nature on how to recreate critical observations for himself. A three step pattern of study and self-training emerges: first dissect the structures of interest from parts obtained from the butcher; then dissect the st~actm'es in a whole cadaver of the animal; and finally manipulate the structures in a firing creature. In order to prepare for vivisection, the student must repeat each step on as many alrimals as necessary to obtain the skill needed for the next stage of manipulation. Although the body's delicate nature requires the biologist to be extremely persistent, Galen believes the reward to be ample: It is indeed shameful and disgraceful thã everyone is accustomed to bring themselves to voyage across the great expanses of the sea for the sake of wealth, and thereby to 9H. yon St~den, 'Experiment and Experience in He[Iealsfic Medicine', Bulletin of the Institute of CTassical Studies 22 (1975), 178 199. ~°See for example Anatomical Procedures II.636-39 and IE641 3, For the cultural context of anatomical experiments in antiquity see H. yon Staden, 'The Discovery of the Body', Ya1# Journal of Biology and M~dicine 65 (1992), 223 241. llGalen, Anatomical Procedures in C, G. Kfil~t (ed.), Galeni Opera Omnia (Hddesheim, 1965), vol. 2, pp. 215-706, see II.694, In order to insure consistent terminology, all translations frora the Greek will be my own. 66 Studies in History and Philosophy of Science endure very great hardships, but as regards the knowledge and the understanding of the nature of things, it is their custom not to undertake the repetition of tlae same task tillle after time.~2 A hunger for knowledge thus drives the biologist to develop experimental techniques for exploring the body. Because of the high value he places on knowledge, Galen argues 'that the best physician is also a philosopher')3 His opposition of those many who seek wealth with those few who seek knowledge harkens back to the Republic, one of the Platonic woyks about which Galen wrote.t4 In contrasting man's hungers for wisdom, honor, and material gain, Plato claims that aspect of us which 'always strives towards knowing what truth is, also cares the least of these about money and repntation')S Given the difficulties of inquirh~g into the tlaith of things, the lover of wisdom must also have a love of worldrp~£õovic~.~6 In the case of embryohigy, Galen guides the natural philosopher through a sequence of progressively more arduous manipulations. After discussing a folk practice of removing the gonads from female pigs, he gives the procedure for dissecting the uterus and gonads in a dead goat. In order to prepare for vivisection, the student must then dissect a pregnant animal and master the basic structural relations of the womb and the fetus.17 Galen advocates vivisection experiments in order to study how and when an individual's life bonus. He reports that some sophists had described the fetus as merely another IYGalen, On Anatomical Procedutws tge Latter Books, W. Duckworth (trans), M. Lyons and B. Towers (eds) (Cambiidge: University Press, 1962), p. 214. Duckworth translates books X XV of Anatomical Procedures, which have been lost in the original Greek but survive in a 9tb century Arabic translation. For careful analysis of how Galen's anatomical language was translated into Arabic see I. Ormos, 'Bemeri(ungen zatr editorischen Bearbeitung tier Galensobrift "l)ber die Selnion toter Lebewesen" ', in J. Kollesch and D. Nickel (eds), Galen und das Hellenntische Erbe (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner VerIag, 1993), pp. 164-172. Galen stresses the importance of persistent practice in education at On the Order of My Own Books, op. cir., note 6, NIX.5%60. 13Galen, That the B~st Physician is also a Philosopher, in L Mueller led.), Claudii Gatani P~rgameni Scripta Mir~ora (Adolf Hakkert: Amsterdam, I967), rI, 1-8. 14111 tds overview of Galei~'s affection for Plato, De Lacy notes that Galen wrote synopses of the B~publie~ Cratytus, Sophist, Statesman, Parmenides, Euthyd~mus, al~d Laws (P. De Lacy, 'Galen's Platollism', American Journal of Philosophy 93 (!972), 27-39, see p. 3i). Galell at On My Own Books, op. cir., note 6, XIX.46, lists ~fine works pertaining to Plato's pltilosopby il~cluding works on tripartite psychoingy and commentaries on tbe Timaeus and Phtlegus. Aithough Galen seems to have a special respect f~r Plato, he does not hesitate from considering the ideas of other pl~losophe~ like Aa'istotle in the search for truth. In Cosans, forthcoming, op. tit., note 1, I explore the way Galen rejects sects, and freely uses various classieai works to advance his tl~ought beyond the parocttiaI concerns of hi~ contemporaries. For a rieb treatmexU of Galen's response to Plato see C. Larrain, Galeni De Eis Quae Medico Dicta Surer in Platonis Tlmaeo (Stattgm~: B. G. Teubner, I992). lSplatõ The B~l)ubl(c, edited Greek text with translatiolx by P. Shorey (Cmnbridge, Mass:Harvard University Press, I935), vol. 2, 58Ib. b d, 535d. A On Habt s, m L Mue er led.), Claudti Galeni Pergameni Seripta Minora (Adair Hakkert: Amsterdarh, ,1967), vol. 2, pp. 9 31~ p. 12, Galen claims that on must search for a cause by raeans of a long term Trial/~o)~uZ0oviz0 z sl9c~. He is especially impressed by Era sis trat~s' "series of trials investigating the powers of habits", p. 16. 170111108, oJ). cig., note I2, p. I71 reports that in his work On the Dissection of Dead Animals, whict~ is extant ill Arabic, Galen argues that anatomist~ must always precede vivisection with ~issection in order to learn the structural relation of parts. g71e Experimental Foundations of Galen's Teleology 67 part of the nrother. ExperimentaI embryology, however, demonstrates that the fetus in tact nmves by its own power. The experimenter can observe especially well two kinds of activities in utero: the pulse nmtiõ that originates from the heart, and voluntary motion that originates from the brain. Galeu recommends investigating the former by gently grasping the umbilical cord withont disturblug the fetus, and comparing its pulse with that of the mother's abdominal aorta. In order to investigate the voluntary motion of the fetus, the anatomist can 'stimulate it so that it jerks and raises itself upwards'.1~ Galeu finds it especially noteworthy that one can observe the young animal move its chest although it does not breathe any air into its lungs. Galen prescribes some of the most detailed experiments on the cardiovascular system that would be performed until the Renaissance. Working at the very dawhirag of anatomy, Aristotle indicates that he observes the motion about a chameleou's heart and examines the effect of removing the heart ix~ the case of tortoises. His most contrived procedure seems to be the use of starvation and strungulation in the preparation of cardio-vascular dissections. In the Hellenistic generation, physicians like Erasistratus use even more sophisticated contrivances, as in the case of inserting a tube into arteries in order to determine if arterial walls or pneuma traveling within causes the pulse)9 Writing four centuries later Galen manipulates even more subtle aspects of the body. In maueuverh~g around the body, he is especially careful with the body's aspect that 20th century biologists designate as the celom. Galen offers detailed instructions ou how to expose the heart by cutting just the pericardium, while not puncturing the pleura and collapsing the lungs.~° Having exposed the throbbing heart, the biologists can perform a wide variety o[ procedures from applying physical pressure, to ligating various vessels, to even feediug and sustaining the animal for some time with its heart exposed. Galen makes even greater use of experimental technique when refuting Erasistratus' theory that only pneuma is naturally present in the arteries. While Galen wrote a smal! treatise inquiring If Blood is' Naturally Contained in the Arteries, he also attempts to preserve his experimental proofs for posterity by outlining them in the Anatomical Procedures. Erasistratus' followers insist that any blood seen when one cuts into an artery is an experimental artifact from the unnatural escape of pneuma and entrance of blood from veins. This puts great pressure on Galen to contrive manip.u~lations that would somehow preve~at the haflux and isolate the arteries' madisturbed state. To do so, he exposes an extended length of the aorta and places ligatures around the artery at two ~SDuckworth transIation, op. eit., note !2, p. 122. 19For excegent logical al~alysis of this experiment see van Staden, op. ciC, note 9, pp. i82-183. For an overview of ancient theories of the cardio-vascular system see C. Harris, The H~art and Vascular System in Ancient Greel¢ Medicine (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973).2°At Anatomical Procedures Ik628-31, Galen describes three different ways of exposing the heart for exarr~natinn. 68 St~gdies in History and Fhilosophy of Science distant places. After tightening the ligatures simultaneously, he cuts open the closed-off section of the artery to see if it contains blood.~ The presence of blood does not satisfy all 'pneuma only' theorists, however. Galen reports one person who asserts that blood leaked into the aorta from the opehing of nlinor arteries, and that if the ligatures were piaced around a superficial artery and the animal allowed a week to recover, then the arteries would turn out to be empty. While this tfieorist simply describes the procedure in speech, Galen reports actually implementing it in deed. Whether performed on goats, sheep, or cows, the arteries turn out to contain blood.22 Although Galeo performs experiments on many aspects of the body, none surpasses the sophistication or" his work on the neuro-mnscular system. In response to Aristoteliaus and .Stoics, he seeks to establish that sensation and reasoniug emanate not from the heart but from the brain. He carelMly defines how nerves connect specific muscles the brain, and enable it to thus control locomotion. Such a detailed understanding would even have practical implications for preserving his surgery patient's capacities in the clinic. One especially intricate set of procedures are those that establish the role of intercostal nerves and muscles in respiratiou.~3 He reports his teachers as attributing the body's capacityto exhale and thus vocalize mostly to our diaphragnr,z4 Yet, they were aware that the thoracic wall also plays at least a minor role. Galen indicates that they would make incisions in the thoracic wa!! of a pig and observe the loss of its capacity to breathe and squeal. They also observe tbat if the incision is the~ patched up, 'the animal instantly breathes again and cries'Y5 Galen builds upon this knowledge by seeking to isolate those specific aspects of the body by which the thorax makes its contribution. Because of the smallness of the first and last intercgstal spaces, he suggests that the philosopher of nature concentrate on the middle nine. After getting extensive practice on dead anifilals, the biologist can turn his scalpel on the living. A simple procedure is to sever the nruscles of the middle nine intercostal spaces while sparing the pleura, and then to observe the animal's inability to exhale. In order to execute a really spectacular demonstration, however, Galen focuses upon the small but potent intercostal nerves. Carefully opening the intercostal space close to the spinal cord, one should use a hook to gently lift up its he,we and loosely insert a wool thread around it. After placing tiff'cads arotmd the nerves of all nine spaces on both sides, they can simultaueously be tightened and the aifinral will lose its capacity to breathe. Galen observes that mSee Anatomical Procedures Ih643. Z3C. Larrain reports that given its mixed nature of being both controlled by the will m~d occurring naturally like the pulse, Galen Palds the motion of respiration perplexing and explores it in On Puzzling Movements, 'Galen, De Motibus Dubiis: die Lateinische Ubersetzung des Niccolo da ReggSo', Traditio 49 (1994), I71-233, see pp. 179 181. ~<Anatomical Procedures IL658. 2SAnatomical Procedures, Kfihn text, op. cir., note 11, Ih665. The Experimental Foundations of Galen's Teleology 69 the animal 'screams when struck, then suddenly becõnes silent upon the compressing of the ñrves by the threads'.~ In order to further demonslrate that the loss is due only to the specific manipulation of tire neiwes, simply !oosen the threads and the function retinas. Tire use of wool thus enables the biologist to apply pressure upon the nerves, which stops their activity without doing permanent damage. By using this basic technique all over the body, Galen establishes the manner in which nerves that ultimately branch off the brain and spinal cord contribute to the activities of the body's various muscles~ Haifidnson claims that Galen's anatomical procedures, 'lacking the ideas of experimental control and isolation',;7 are not experiments in the fullest sense. Yet Galen's extra effort to ligate and restore nerves rather than simply severing them shows that he goes to great lengths to tease apart the artifacts of his procedures from real phenomena. By restorifig function after ligation, Galen essentially controls for other factors and isolates the nerves' condition as the cause of the loss of muscular activity.~s Although the extent to which lie advocates vivisection would no doubt horrify many of us, GaIen is not as callous as he first seems. He clearly recognizes animal suffering. In his criticism of Stoic moral psychology, he rejects the idea that irrational animals do not have passions and desires.~9 Throughout the Procedures he does not sanitize experimentation, but reports how the animals scream when cut open. Given this suffering, the philosopher of nature should not wantonly torture organisms. This is especially the case with the animal closest to man--the monkey. The Simian vivisection 'is a hatefully odi~us spectacle/~t~e~0~g z' ~[vc~ z6 0~agu'?° When experimenting with live organisms, Galen argues that domestic animals like goats and pigs m'e similar enough to man that they can substitute for monkeys. Even in the case of these less hunlan animals, not all possibie vivisections are justified. When guiding the study of testicles, he tells the reader that 'it is superfluous to dissect the testicle of a living animal',~ since vivisection reveals neither new relations nor functions 26Ibi~L, II.669. Although this procedure vail no doubt be quite alien to the 20th century reader, there is something in her experience which indeed relates to the phenomenon explored by Galen. The numbness when one's leg fails asIeep results from a loss of sensory function due the pressure on the sciatic nerve. 2VR. J. Hankinson, 'Galen's Anatomical Procedures', in W. Haase and H. Temporhti (eds) Aufstiog und Niedergang d~r Rdmischer Welt (Berlin: Walter De Gruyter, 1994), part ii: ¥OlUllle 37.2, pp. 1834~1855, see p, 1841. ,~ ~The procedure of tying arteries off witl~ two ligatures, discussed above, provides another example of Galen's effort to control for experimental ~rtifacts and isolate the body's natural state. For more on the use of experimental controls in ~ncient science see -cola Staden, op. cir., note 9. agSee On the Doctrines of Hippocrates and plato V.168 ~°Analomical Procedures, Kidin text, op, cit., note 11, II.690, Galen also refers to the repulsiveness of simian vivisection in the Iatter Arabic books at II, 15 and 85, Duckworth n'anslatiõ, op. cir., note 12. ~Duckworth translation, op. cir., note 12, p. 124. Otznos, op, tit,, note 12, reports Galen as also clair~ng that careful study of the structural relations of cartilage, joints, and muscles of the lary~x in dissectidn reveals more about its activity than a given vivisection procedure. 7O Studies in History and Philosophy of Science that are not seen in the dead. Given the lack ofjustificatinn, the animal should be spared. In many other cases, however, Galen does see the fundamental good of acquiring knowledge as outweighing the suffering of animals. Man simply cannot learn about nature by sitting in a comfortable armchair and reading stories. In order to ground biomedical thought in the body's reality and not on imitations in speech, we must unfortunately make a blood sacrifice. From Books to Bodies A self-conscious awareness about the limitations of books underlies the entire discourse of the Anatomical Procedures. Galen directs the student not simply to read Procedures' words as he would read the stories of Herodotus 'but to store in the memory each of the things seen, so you know the nature of all the body's parts exactly'.3a While Herodotus' narrative transports tire reader's imagination to distant places and times, Galen's text directs the student of nature to acquire anatomhcal material and embed his fingers in the body's gooey presence. Galen makes a hard and fast distinction between the body as it appears in the real world, and the scientist's linguistic description of it.33 He is especially explicit in the case of bones: 'I direct you to acquire exact experience with human bones, neither !ooking at them incidentally nor only reading from a book, not even ours'f4 Throughout the Anatomical Procedures, he expresses frustration with the limits of verbal description: 'what is distingvXshed clearly by seeing or touching alone, it is impossible to teach exactly these tlfings by speeclr'.~5 In urging the student to acquire empirical intimacy with the body, Galen spares none of the senses. His account of the heart even has the student learn the difference between heart and skeletal muscle by contrasting how each tastesV6 Galen's word wariness may have some relation to the traditional Rationalis~ Empiricist dispute. The Greek term '~.@og' can be used to refer to both 'speech' and 'reason', and also serves as the root for tbe term 'Rafionalistl6 itself.~v 3~Galeñ Anatomicarum Admtnis~rationum, books J rV, Greek and Arabic text-edited by I. Garofa!o (Leiden: E.L BriIl, I986), II.393. ~3Von Staden, "Apudnosfoediora verbs: Celsus' reluctant construction oftbe female body', in G. Sabbah (ed.), Le latin mddical. La constitution d'un langage scientifique (Pubhcations de I'U~fiversit~ de Sah~t-I~tienne, 1991), pp. 271-296, see p. 291, argues tbat Celsus on the other hm~d uses language to offer a fully 'textual cm~structiõ of the female body'. a4Ibid., II.220. On a similm" note, at On Habits, op. cir., note 16, p. 18, Galen credits Hippocrates and Erasistratus for basing thei~ ~ccounts of the disposition of t~abits not to what is found by word, but what is learned from the things tbat are visibly apparel~t. ~hKflhn text, op. cir., note 11, II.609 ~See Anatomical Procedures II.611 I2. At the begbming of book XV, Galen also uses the taste test to distinguish bone marrow from the substance of the brain and spinai cord, Duckworth ~VFor an excellent overview of the ancient Rationafist-gtnpiricfist discussion see Frede's introduction in R. Walzer and M. Frede, Galen: Ti~ee Treatises on the Natur~ of Scienc~ (indianapolis: Hackett Publisifing Company, 1985), I explore how this discussion influences Galen's approach to anatomy in Cosans, 1997, op, cit,, note 1. The Experimental Foundations of Galen's Tdeology 71 In studying the Anatomical Proce&tres, Michael Frarnpton and i followed its directions for mot~key dissection on a Macaca Mulatta. When used as a laboratory manual, it becomes clear that Galen intended for this book to be read not in an armchair, but at the workbench. The very language of the Procedures draws upon the body. Galen refers to mauy parts not with simple names but with long clauses that would be obscure or unintelligible if one does not have personal anatomical experience of the body. What Gray's Anatomy dubs the 'median vein of foreat~',3~ Gal6n calls the vein 'extending along the middle of much of the forearm near the limb's surface and then meeting at the wrist with/he artery that has an obvious pulse'.~9 This expression relies not only on what dissection reveals in the depths of a monkey arm, but also upon the activity of the physician feeling his living patient's wrist. Such phrases thus assume anatomical practice to acquire their full meaning. When directing !he student on how to expose' the heart of a living organism, Galen tells .the reader to use the cadavar of another animal in determining where he should cut;4° a book in the modern tradition of Gray's would refer to a picture. His desire to report procedures as exactly as possible influences the very way in which Galen sings his epic. Galen tells the reader that he dictates his detailed anatomical observations and dh'ectinns 'with the animal placed in front of me, while I sm looking at the things about which I am talking'.4~ This wedding of the student's act of learning with the tralued biologist's observations allows scientific discovery to take on a timeless dimension and become a never ending process of inquiry. Because no two bodies are exactly alike, the student must be ever prepared to see something new, and even different from what the book records. Structures will not always appear exactly as Galen describes. If tbe student sees something different from the text, Galen implores: 'it is necessary you do not condemn the things written by us until you yourself, just as we, have seen many bodies'.4z Since patients vary just like cadavers, an awareness of the possible ways a structure can vary from individual to individual enables the clinician to properly treat his particular patient's body. In a 20th century effm't to advance a phihisophy of medicine that incorporates stone insights from the ancient Greek physicians, Pellegrino and Thomasma call the problem of 'how theoretical knowledge can be applied to concrete, individual body-persons with ~STh~rty-sevenlh edition, P, L. Wiliiams, "R. Warwick, M. Dyson, and L. H. Balmister (eds) (London: Churchill Livingstone, I989), p. 806. ~gGarofalo text, op cir. note 32, II.365. 4°See Anatomical Procedures II.506 and r1.639. 41Duckwor ti~ translation, op. cir., note 12, p. I08. The Anatomical Procedures thus ~lot oniy plays the role of a 20th cent m~j student text, but also that of the research scientist's laboratory notebook. More than a m~llennium after they were fccst spoke~, Galen's words could thus contribute to the renaissance of Wgster~l science that occurred in the 16tb century after they were trm~slated into Latin. ~Gm'ofalo text, op. cit,, note 32, Ii.278.  72 Studies in Historp and Philosophy of Science therapeutic resuIts' medicine's 'critical question'.43 in responding to this basic epistemological problem, Galen urges unreienting practice on as many particular bodies as possible. He te~s an anecdote of how after observing an unusual nerve in a monkey al-m, he was able to testify for a fellow physician in a law suit by explaining the possibility that the patient's injury resulted from a similar variant nerve. In order to be ready for whatever variants might appear in the clinic, and avoid harming the patient in the first place, Galen advises the physician that'a monkey arm must be dissected carefully by you often'.44 Anatomical knowledge does not consist of a written record of nmnes and fixed places, but involves an active process of exploring the many ways the body appears in nature. Any claims of an anatomy book must be carefully considered in light of direct haspection of the body. From Galen's hands-on approach to bio!ogy, bodies and not books get the last word. Given his skepticism towards writren reports, Galen's experimental philosophy is more empirical than the Empiricists' approach to the body. The Empiricists ground medical practice in personal-observatiõc~+~cog~u, their technical term for an individual's memory that a particular treat~nent works frequently. In order to pass on new discoveries to future generations, Empiricists would make a written record which they call history/iõo9~c~. Any future Empiricist could then study the records of history so he could treat conditions based upon his predecessors' experience. In Outline nfEmpiricism, Galen argues that 'it is necessary for us not to trust simply all the things written by our predecessors, but to establish them for ottrselves before use'.45 In a conmaentm2¢ abrupt Hippocrates, Galen puts if bluntly: 'because those disagreeing write on their own paper just as they wish, truth will be unclear to those inexperienced in anatomy'.46 While the Empiricists seem to have given a repeated personal-observation the status of empirical certainty once it enters their record of history, Galen continues to subject scientific reports to verification by each new generation. The stories handed down fi-om previous generations only serve as a guide for obtaining personal experience. Galen's method of the Anatomical Procedures follows from this epistemological confidence in personal-observation over historical narratives. In his account of Empiricism, he expresses his own particular view of personal-observation. While earlier Empixicists considered personal-observation be an apprehension/ yvchg,g, Galen argues that it is an activity/~vkoYetu47 Since activities exist in the very process of science, they cannot be fully captured within the confines 4~E. Pellegrino al~d D. TI~omasma, A Philosophical Bus,is oJ'Medical Practice (New York: Oxford University Press, I981), p. 85. 44Gardi'alo text, op eit., note 32, I1.396. 4SOalen, An Outline of Empiricism, in Karl Deichgr~ber (trans, and ed.) Die grieehiche Empiritc~rschule (Ber~ã: Weidunannsche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1964), pp. 42 90, see p. 65. 46Commentary on Hippocrates' Nature of Man, 5a C. G. Kilbn (ed.), Galeni Opera Omnia, 47See Outline ofEmpirielsm, p. 47. The Experimental Foundations of Galen's Teleology 73 of dusty old books. In contrast to many cookbook procedures of modern textbook science, a proper Galenic experiment never ends. Galen's commitment to every student learning anatomy from the body itseff leads him to one of his most im~amous and criticized methods. Student physicians, he believes, should prepare for their surgical procedures on humans by dissecting monkeys. Before Galen, the Empiricists had established the practice of learning human anatomy strictly by examining wouuds on human patients. Galen argues, however, that monkey dissections can make an important supplement to such human sources of knowledge: dead monkeys squirm much less than wounded hmnans. Even if men and monkeys display some differences, 'the monkey is the most similar to man of all animals with respect to viscera, muscles, arteries, veins, and nerves'.4~ Galen argues that the opportunities to observe wounds, as well as the occasional human dissection, establish the similarity of men and monkeys empirically.4~ When referring to his more theoretical analysis in Usefulness of the Parts, he concludes from this similarity 'that the monkey is a humorous imitation of man'.~o In the last book of Anatomical Procedures, Galen suggests that such anatomical SilNlarity between different species 'is evident and clear proof that it is thiough the operation of a single source of wisdom, which concerned itself with them, that all the bodily parts of animals have been built up and created'.5~ Wlaile this passage echoes his earlier philosophy of nature in the Usefulness of the Parts, which we will discuss below, throughout the Procedures Galen stresses empirically observed similarities as the ultimate justification for the use ofnmnkeys to study the human body. Rather than using the theory of his earlier work to ground iris anatomical method, Galen seems to be quite careful to write the Procedures so as to provide an experimental foundation for liis theory. Although he mentions the possibility of dissecting humans, such opportunities seem too rare for either mastering typical anatomy or learning variations.~ In discussing an opportunity that he had to dissect a German soldier, he notes that knowing monkey anatomy helps a great deal in observing human cadavers. Galen defends the use of monkeys by telling the reader that 'I want you to have practiced much on them, so that if you ever happen upon a dissection of a human body, you will be prepared to lay bare each of the parts',s~ The occasional dissection of human bodies, which were much less available in ~SGarofalo text, op. cir., note 32, 11.219.   . 4VAt Anatomical Procedures II.385 6 Gale~ discusses the use of wounds, and the dissection of criminals and exposed children to verify the similarity between man and monkey. ~°Garofdio text, op. cir., note 32, II.416. For interesting analysis on Galen's comparative anatomy see Garofalo, 'The Six Classes of Animals in Galen', in J. A. L6pez F~rez (ed.), Galeno: Obra, pensami~nto e Influ~ncia (Madrid: Universidad Nacional de Edncacion a Distancia., 1988), pp. 73~7. ~Duckworth translation, op. cir., note 12, p. 228. ~Von Staden, op. cir., note 10, provides excellent analysis on the cultural difficulties ~vhich prevented extensive human dissection ix~ the Roman Empire. ~3Garofalo text, op. cir., not~ 32, II.384~5. "74 Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Galen's time than monkey cadavers, would be entirely inadequate for studying the body from Galen's hands-on approach. In modern times Galen has crone reader criticism for basing the Anatomical Procedures, an introductory anatomical handbook, on monkey and not human anatomy. In his De Humani Corpons Fabrica, Vesalius, for example, provides the reader with an illustrated textbook that allows him to study the anatomical structure of the entire human body while not once dirtying the reader's fingers with either monkey or bureau cadavers, indeed, the Epitome of this work introduces the student to the parts of the body by having him cut out, color, and manipulate pictures from a book.s~ Today, many people hail Vesalius' work as the begitzming of nmdern 'empixical' biology and medicine. Yet, hi an important way, it oilers a less empirical approach to anatomy than Galen. With the modern approach students might learn anatolhy by reading words and looking at pictures that have been mechanically reproduced by printing presses. The naturally variable cadavers are thus displaced by neatly ordered book accounts of how the body should look. By contrast, Galen would have every student ground his anatomical understanding by first dissecting many monkeys and vivisecting other animals for himself, and then observing patients and the rare human cadaver. In a peculiar way, Galen's wariness of the represeutations found in books, fits with his favorite philosopher's approach to learning,ss In the Republic, Plato's Socrates portrays the representations of poets and painters as being morn remote from reality than even sensible objects.~ If the realm of the body imitates the Forms, then the pictorial and linguistic represei~tations of modern books are imitations of imitations. Even if they are imitations in flesh, monkey bodies help one inquire into the human body's nature without becoming further removed from the world in which we live and lemn. While animals and humans may differ, they have much more in common than either has with a two dimensional sheet of paper. In the Phaedrus, Socrate~ warns that reading books cannot substitute for the philosophical conversation between two living individuals, and that written speech can only be 'a reminding/6=op~v'71cym to him knowing that about which they were written'.~v At best, books can serve as a catalyst for a student's inquiry with his instructor. In his work on his own books, Galen refers to his writings as memoranda/t~ogv~]~to.zu to his friends and-students of conversations they have shared.~ He opens the Procedures by S4A, Vesalius, The Anatomical Drawings ofAndreas Vesalius (1543), edited and translated by J, Saunders and C, O'Malley (New York: Bonanza Books, 1982), p. 220. 55For Plato's specific approach to anatomy see Cosãxs, 1995, op. eit. note 1. ~Plato, Eutgyphro, Apology, Crito, Phaedo, Phaedrus, edited Greek text with translation by H. N. Fowler (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982), 275d. ~See On My Own Boolcs XIX.I0. Galen explicitly refers to the Phaedrus' account of speech at Commentary On Hippocrates' Nature of Man XV,5, and On the Doctrines of Nippoe~tes and Plato The Experimental Four, clarions of Galen's Teleology 75 specifically referring to it as memoranda for experiments he had performed with colleagues, which will enable them and others repeat the activities. Although he writes the Procedures, Galen thus seeks to go beyond th~ paper and to stimulate his reader's active expe;amentation with nature,s~ Philosophy with a Scalpel Galen sees anatomy not as a mere technique for cutting up the body, but as a way to practice philosophy. Writing at a time before science split off from the other areas of inquiry, he advances anatomical experimentation as an important method for grounding philosophical understanding.6° In considering basic questions about the soul; life, or nature, what firmer place could a philosopher begin? Galen builds up theoretical analysis from the foundation of dissection and vivisection extensively in the Anatomical Procedures' companion work the . Usefulnegs of the Parts.~ Of the many lessons he draws from anatomical inquiry concerning the body, none stands out nmre than reverence for nature. As he rummages around the body, the philosopher witnesses countless structures fitting and working together in the most intricate fashion. Each instance drives home the case for nature's splendor: For no one is so maperceptive/~valcy0q~og, that observing the proportioned place where bone has been carved out for the tendon about to pass by, he still inquires, kicks around, or põaders whether nature plans for the safety of the parts.~a The fine detail of the body's organization provides mahifest proof of nature's ski~. to any unbiased observer, although perhaps not to the materialistic 'enemies of nature'.6~ By advancing experimental philosophy, Galen confronts the materialist directly with the sweep of nature's purpose so that 'he loses sleep searching in order to criticize SOl~aething that he has seen'.~4 One such enemy of nature is the first century materialist Asclepiades of Bithynia, who describes 'the principles of everything that comes-to-be as s~Of course actively perfolarfixlg dissections and vivisections need not exclude also reading and discussing mõe tlaeoretical hooks on anatomy. After outliuing the contents of tbe Anatomical Procedures as giving the necessary begianing of anatomical study, Galen describes at length a vet~ large book that he wrote on Marinus' anatomical texts at On My Own Bool¢s XIX. 25 30. ~°At On Fetal Formation, in C. G, Ktlhn led), GaIeni @era Omnia (Hildesheim, 1965), IV,676-677, Galen criticizes the Stoics failing to give a proper demonstration about tlae heart because they did not 'make the beginnings of demonstration from the things tbat are visibly 61M. May, Galen On the Usefulness of the Farts of the Body (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, *~Galen De Usu Partium, G. Helntreich led.) (Lipsiae: In Aedibus B. Teubner, 1907), III.118. 6~Galen De Usu Parlium, George Hehnreich led.) (Lipsiae: In Aedibus B. Teubner, 1909), 76 Studies in History and Philosophy of Science reducing to masses/6~/~oug and void',s~ In one case, Asclepiades. disparages nature for the puzzling structure of the pulmonary vessels, and claims that it supports his metaphysical theory 1bat all aspects of the body can be explained as the result of mechanical interactions of unintelligent particles. Since ancinut biologists identified arteries/@-c~lp~m (literally air holders) as the vessels that carry pneuma, they dubbed the thin vessel that goes between the hings and tfie left ventricle tfie venous artery (our 'puhnonary vein'); while they called the thick vessel that carries dark red blood from the right ventricle to the lungs the arterial vein (our 'pulmonary artery'). Asclepiãtes attributes these vessels" unusual character to the mechanidal effects of the lungs' motion on their wails. Ascleplades assumes that the venous artery and its branches pulse like every other vessel coming off the left ventricle while the arterial vein would have no vascular pulsation. The additional exercise from respiratory activity causes the arterial veins to obtain thick artery-like walls; but the venous arteries, which already strain with the motion of pneuma, are simply worn out by the second motion and 'toiling excessively they m'e made very thin'.~ Thus, the mere coincidence that they encounter the special motion of the lungs causes the arterial vehi and venous artery to have their nnique character. In this case the bodily parts seem to respond to their unusual circumstances in a rather undirected and mechanical fashion. After quoting Asclepiades' account, Galen claims that the rednctioulst explanation overlooks more significant purposive and even material/.c~iv õov +~t~c~iv causation in favor of 'causation according to coincidence or from dissection reveals that the venous artery is thinner than the ones coming off the aorta because it lacks the inner tunic found in other arteries, while the arterial vein has the three tunics normally found in arteries. Since the vessels have these properties in the newborns and fetuses dissected or vivisected in utero before the lungs begin moving, their special character nmst result from some processes natural to the organism, and not from the mecfi~nical motion of breathing.~ 65 e  Gal n, off. c~t., note 62, IIL474. AIthough none of Asclep ades works are extent, J T. Vallance (1990) uses references to him in order to offer a rich reconstruction ofAsc ep ades' theory, The Lost Theory ~fAscl¢piad~s of Bithynia (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), Vallar~ce arg~aes that Asclepiades' 6y~o are divisible, and tbat his approaeb to the body draws m~ch more from Erasisnatus than Epicurus. ~Gaien, op. cit,, note 62, III,467. Ib d., iIh466 Hank nson nterprets Ga en s cr t c sm bern as smlp y that Asc ep ades oflhrs a materialistic account tbat gets the direction of explaamtion wrong. He clahns Galen believes that the venous arteries 'are not thin because they labor hard, but labor hard because they are thin' (op. cit,, note 27, p. 1853). Yet, Galen also uses anatomical observation to beat the Inaterialist at his own game with a more accurate account of tbe body's structure. Strictly speaking, 15tom Galen's perspective the venous arteries do not labor much at all, but are passively eomwessed and expmaded witia the lungs (see Usefulness of the Parts' III,~49). F~rthelanore, at Anatomical Procedures IhG00, Galen reports that it is not anatombcally determinable whether or not the venous artery has a pMse like the other arteries. 6~See Usefulness of the Parts 1Ii.474. The Experimental Foundations of Galen's Teleology 77 Furthermore, other organs, like the heart, that also move constantly do not have venous arteries and arterial veins as Asclepiades' theory would predict. Galen argues that the puhnonary vessels have their speciM strt~ctm-e because it better enables them to fulfill their usefulness to the whole orgãfism. In Galenic physiology the arterial vein delivers vigorous spirited blood that would burst ordinary trim veh~s from the right ventricle to the l~gs, and must be thick and strong enough to resist compression from the lungs. On the other hand, the venous artery m~st be thin enough bot~ to take ~ pne~a from the air on inhMation and to aBow the lungs to push this pneuma into the left ventricle wfien they collapse with e~alation.~9 When observed in anatomical practice, the structure of the pulmonary vessels thus shows that 'there is pu~ose arranging and ordering MI these, not masses of bodies cringing to one another automatically/võ ~[v 6 ~dvz~ ~m~mv ~. ~ã ~õv, õ Us@Ness of Ne Parts, GMen uses Nrther det~s reveNed about phenomena from experhnental anatomy to turn a reducfionist's example of the body's blindness into a case of nature's craft. Galen's reverence for nature takes on ethical dimensions.7~ After considering someone who held that it would have been better if the urethra opened in the foot so that he could urinate mthout getting the rest of his bog out of bed, Galen sermonizes: What then do you suppose this persot~ feels or does alone?, or how does he treat with insolence all the orifices of his body?, or how has he both insulted and lost the most beautiful aspect of his soul, by which alone man is naturally able to witness t~ath, having made its divine power crippled and altogether blind, while making great, strong, and insatiate of wrongful pleasures the most brutal power lhat unjustly tyrannizes the weak?~ Galen thus traces disrespect for nature to a beastly urge for material fi~xury. In his moral psychology, he accepts the Platonic analysis of the human soul into ~gBecause it is somewhat different from oar current conception of circulation, Galen's cardiovãculã physiology seems e~igmatic to lbe 20th century ruin4. Recog~rizing the valves of the heart and great vessels, Galen balieves that blood flows fi'om the let~t ventriale into tl~e lungs, and that any excessive blood continues through microscopic connectloils between the veins gild arteries, and ultimately into the right ventNcle (see Usefulness of the Ports III.444~57). Unlike 2gth century biologists, however, he seems to believe that most of the blood that passed to the lungs from the right ventricle is consumed by tbe lungs as noufisl~nent. Nonetheless, May thinks that we can credit Galen with 'a very rudimentary conception c~ a puknonary circulation', op cir., note 61, p. 30I. Althougi~ biology has rejected pneuma theory, it slill agrees with Galen that the different vesseI tlrickãess serves a purpose. The puhnonãy ãtery needs to be thick enough to withstand the high pressured blood pumped out of the right ventricle, while the pulmonary vein needs to be thin enough to receive low pressure blood from the lungs. V~For a general account of the close relation between ettrics at~d science in antiquity see Lloyd, op. cir., note 8. ~. Cosans, 'Anatomy, Metaphysics, an Values: the Ape Brain Debate Reconsidered', Biology and Philosophy 9 (1994),129 165, offers a case study of the extent to which even modem anatomy is inextricably linked with values. 78 Studies in History and F'hilosophy of Science the three aspects: the rational centered at the brain; the passionate centered in the heart, and the desiderative soul the* emanates from the liver.73 In an allusion to the Phaedrus, Galen holds that 'if one has strength and science/ ~rc~*~/bt~/v, reason entirely rules over passion and the charioteer the horse'.74 Since the irratim~al lower psyches are very powerfut in children, one must try to strengthen the rational soul through education in order to become a good person. Hence the knowledge obtained by experimental biology can take on an almost sacred dimension. Indeed, Galen explicitly contrasts bds experiments with temple animal sacrifices, and claims he most truly worships our creator 'if l would learn myself :f*rst, and then show the way to others, what is his wisdom, power, and uprightness',v5 Experimental anatomy allows the unbiased observers to ~vitness a divine presence amidst our very flesh. In a careful theoretical study, Hanldoson uses Galen's elementapy acconnt of the elephant's trunk to analyze his teleology in theistic terms.V~ Throughout his study, Hankinson refers to Galen's object of praise as the 'Creator', following May's translation of craftsman/8~lp.tocpTdg although Galen sometimes uses this term interchangeably with nature/~ptotg. Hankinson portrays Galen as emhracing an undiluted teleology: For Galen, it is strictly and literally true that Nature does nothing in vain: and any refusal to accept the implications of that claim, and any attempts to dilute the teleology to make it more palatable, ax-e admissions of wealcmindedness, and blemishes on the body of natural scie~ce,v7 Hankinson argues that Galen has a'fundamentalist reading of Plato's Timaeus story, and advocates an even stronger version of teleology than Aristotle. He claims that Galen focuses on the perfection of the body in order to make a theological point that long ago the body's parts 'were conscionsly arranged like that by an intelligent, benevolent Creator'.% On this view, Galen applies reason to anatomical observations in order to draw inferences about events that occurred iong before human experience. Although Hankinson concludes that Akademie Vndag, 1978), V.303. ~tSee both R. J. H~k~son, 'Galen Explains the Elephant', in M. Martben and B, Linsky (eds), Pbilosopby and Biology (Calgary: T~e University of Calgary Press, 1988), pp. !35 157, and R. J. allows him to %11ow up tbe much more detailed accomUs in the book's main body, which assume imagination: The trunk example th~s draws upon the reader's practical acquaintance with less VTHankinson, op, cit.,1989, p. 206. 7~Ibi&, p. 216. The Experimental Foundations of Galen's Teleology 79 Galen makes the strongest argument possible in the context of ancient philosophy, he qualifies Galen's attack on materialism as only working 'in default of sotnething like a theory of natural selection, or ha more general terms a cybernetic account of self-regulating mechanisms that exhibit patterns of positive feedback',v9 Although Hankinson provides excertent theoretical analysis, he sells Galen short in one important respect. Galen's case for nature's purpose works on a much more empirica! level than a theologian's logic. In responding to the disputes between Rationalist and Empipicist sects of his time, Galen uses experimental anatomy as part of a critical realism that rejects indulgence in theoretical speculations.8° In this realism, classical texts are read with an eye for ways in which they touch upon the truth. While Galen does consider how the body might have been first constructed by a craftsman in the Tituaeus mold, more often Galen simply describes how nature crafts each individual's body in the course of development here and now. Insofar as he interprets Plato's craftsman as another way of referring to Aristotle's nature, Galen moves beyond a theism which focuses upon the divinity's action in distant supernatural events, to a pantheism that embodies purpose everywhere. If nature acts with a purpose here and now, one need not rely entirely upon a likely story of past events to support teleology. Hence, Galen takes the epistemological stance throughout the Anatotuical Procedures and Usefulness of the Parts that one can directly perceive nature's purpose by touching, seeing, and even tasting the body in anatomical manipulations.~ Galen thus warns the reader against taking anatomy at his word: anatomical practice 'alone would be sufficient to make known both the forethought and the marvelous art of the craftsman'.~ Hence the lengths to whiett Galen goes to show that Ascl~piades' analysis of the lung's venous artery rests on an observational error, and to anchor even his general conclusion with the specific example of the elephant's trunk. Adding 79Hmakinson, op. cit,, 1988, pp. 139M0. Although it is fashionable to assert modern biologists have done away with teleology fully, some scholarship in the history and pl~!osophy of biology questions this assumption. J. Cornall, 'Newton of the Grassblade? Darwh~ and the Problem of Organic Teleology', Isis 77 (1986), 405~421, examines why Darwin's theory does not explain away teleology, while L. Nissen (1993) explains why neither behaviorism, natural selection, metaphor, nor feedback successfully efiminote mind from teleology in 'Four Ways of Eliminating Mind from Teleology', Studies b~ the History and PhiIosopby of Science Z4 (1993), 27~8. In Cosans, op. cit., note 71, I argue that anatomists must use teleology as an inescapable aspect of the human perspective, ~°See Cosans, 1997, op. cir., note 1. At Cõnmentary on Hippocrates' Nature of Mort, op. cit,, note 45, XV.133, Galen draws a sharp contrast between what is perceived in anatomy and inferred in demonstration/duo8 ~t~tg. UlSuch a grounding of theology h~ experience fits well with Galen's m~ti-speculative philosophy. M. Frede titus notes that Galen refused to take a positiõ on many metaphysical questions inclulling 'the essence of God', 'On Galen's Epistemology', in V. Nutton led.), Galen: Problems and Prospects (London: Wetlcome Institute for the History of Medicine, 198I), pp. 65-85, see p. 84, Given his ever presence, the Deraiurge appears in Galen's exploration of the difference between willed and ~aParal movements, Larrin, op, etl., note 23, see pp. 181-182. 80 Studies in History and Philosophy ~ :" Science more characters to the materialist's story, be they NaturN Selection or crocodiles, only makes the theory more distant from human experience. Galen objects to materialists not because their interpretation of nmure lacks theoretical sophistication, but because they are simpiy uuperceptive/ dVC~YÕ]~Og.83 Galen writes the Procedures in order not ~o rest the case for teleology entirely on speech, but to enable the student of nature to observe nature's purposiveness at the workbench. His approach fits well with what some recent historians and philosophers of science teach as about the epistemology of expernnents. Galen pens his accounts not as self-sufficient linguistic descriptions, but to help his readers reproduce and witness the effects of t~s'procedures with manipulations of their own. Gooding provides an excellent account of expenmentM scaence's reliance upon such active manipulation on the part of the student. In addffior. to linguistic ~d mental theoriz~g, he argues that a scientist also 'construes visual ~d sensorimotor experience by ordering spatio-teraporally discrete'~4 objects and actions. These construMs yield 'practical facts'as which depend on ~e emboNed context of action. Although scientific texts themselves ~e fing~stic represeutatidns, they thus rely upon materiM manip~afions of nature that the scientNc~y trained reader must follow and perform In his case for scientific realism, HacNng further suggests that scientists must come to believe in the reality of the entities that they experimentMly manlp~ate:6 From GMen's point of view, if the philosopher of natm-e enters into the cogNtive state of actively operating upon organic bodies, he will no longer question whe~er nature generates the parts of animals with purpose. The anatorMst moves beyond theoretical analysis, and puts teleologicM philosophy on an experimental foundation. Acknowl:dgements--I would like to thank the many people ~vho have discussed tile wrlous ideas of this paper. R. J. Hankinson, R. Richaxds, E. Asmis, A. Schoe~er, E. Langston M. Mahowald E. Sageng, N. Maistreltis, D. Millett, L. Daston. W. Wh~lsatt, M. Forster, an anonymous referee from this journal, and A. Cosans have read previous drafts and offered many helpful suggestions I am especially indebted to my colleague Mike Frampton, with whom I followed ~alen's directions for monkey dissection in the Anatomical Procedures on a Maeaco Mulana. S3In On Puzzling Movements, Galen criticizes those who either fail to grasp the importance of perception or tlae fact ~hat nature does nothing in vain as not being properly educated in sclel~ce Larrin, op. cir., note 23, p. 189.