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  1. Automated legal reasoning with discretion to act using s(LAW).Joaquín Arias, Mar Moreno-Rebato, Jose A. Rodriguez-García & Sascha Ossowski - 2024 - Artificial Intelligence and Law 32 (4):1141-1164.
    Automated legal reasoning and its application in smart contracts and automated decisions are increasingly attracting interest. In this context, ethical and legal concerns make it necessary for automated reasoners to justify in human-understandable terms the advice given. Logic Programming, specially Answer Set Programming, has a rich semantics and has been used to very concisely express complex knowledge. However, modelling discretionality to act and other vague concepts such as ambiguity cannot be expressed in top-down execution models based on Prolog, and in (...)
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  2. King, Fuller and Dworkin natural law and hard cases.Muhammad Mustafa Rashid - 2020 - Economic and Social Thought.
    The debate between natural law and positivist law has been received much attention. Ronald Dworkin exposes the limitation of positivist law through the argument of hard cases. This argument is furthered strengthened when we apply the interpretation of Martin Luther King Jr and the voluntarist natural law tradition, and Lon Fuller’s ‘procedural view’ and the application of the ‘principles of legality’.
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  3. Methodenfrage der Rechtswissenschaft in China: Rückblick und Ausblick.Wei Feng - 2016 - In Yuanshi Bu (ed.), Juristische Methodenlehre in China und Ostasien. Mohr Siebeck. pp. 45-75.
    Die Disziplin, die als „Juristische Methodenlehre“ bezeichnet wird, ist gegenwärtig chinesischen Juristen nicht fremd, sie stammt aber ursprünglich aus dem deutschen Sprachraum. In der Literatur finden sich auch verwandte Ausdrücke wie „Juristische Methodologie“, „Juristische Methodik“ bzw.„Methodenlehre der Rechtswissenschaft“. Seit Anfang des 21. Jahrhunderts wurde ihre Rezeption in China durch zwei Übersetzungen gekennzeichnet, nämlich die „rechtswissenschaftliche Methodenlehre“ (faxue fangfalun) und die „rechtliche Methodenlehre“ (falü fangfalun). Neben der herkömmlichen Methodenlehre entwickelte sich auch eine jüngere Theorie der juristischen Argumentation, die die weltweite Aufmerksamkeit (...)
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  4. Book Review: Pamela N. Gray Artificial Legal Intelligence, Darmouth, Aldershot, England, 1997. [REVIEW]Arno R. Lodder - 2004 - Artificial Intelligence and Law 12 (3):231-238.
  5. Legal Reasoning: Arguments from Comparison.Thomas Coendet - 2016 - Archiv Fuer Rechts Und Sozialphilosphie 102 (4):476-507.
    Referring to foreign legal systems for the sake of producing a convincing judicial argument has been a custom in judicial decision-making for more than a century. However, a generally accepted theoretical framework for this kind of reasoning is yet to be established. The article suggests that such a framework must answer at least the following three fundamental questions: first, what is the normative relationship, as a matter of principle, between domestic and foreign law?; second, what is the primary motive and (...)
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  6. The Forward-Looking Requirement of Formal Justice: Neil MacCormick on Consequential Reasoning.Maksymilian Del Mar - 2015 - Jurisprudence 6 (3):429-450.
    This paper discusses a much-neglected aspect of Neil MacCormick's theory of legal reasoning, namely what he calls ‘consequential reasoning’. For MacCormick, consequential reasoning is both an omnipresent feature of legal reasoning in England and Scotland, as well as being a valuable one. MacCormick articulates the value of consequential reasoning by seeing it as contributing to the forward-looking requirement of formal justice, ie, of deciding the instant case on grounds that one is willing to adopt when deciding future similar cases. This (...)
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  7. Legal formalism and instrumentalism - a pathological study.David Lyons - 1993 - In . Cambridge University Press.
    Compares formalism and instrumentalism and evaluates their general claims. “Part of what is meant by formalism is this: The law provides sufficient basis for deciding any case that arises. There are no “gaps” within the law, and there is but one sound legal decision for each case.” The formalist also holds that law is traceable to an authoritative source. “…sound legal decisions can be justified as the conclusions of valid deductive syllogisms. Because law is believed to be complete and univocal, (...)
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  8. Logic for Lawyers: A Guide to Clear Legal Thinking.Ruggero J. Aldisert - 1989
    This book tackles the basics of legal reasoning in twelve chapters, including the principles of classic logic, deductive and inductive reasoning, application of the Socratic method to legal reasoning, and formal and material fallacies.
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  9. (1 other version)The Use of Logical Models in Legal Problem Solving.Marek Sergot Robert Kowalski - 1990 - Ratio Juris 3 (2):201-218.
    The authors describe a logic programming approach to the representation of legislative texts. They consider the potential uses of simple systems which incorporate a single, fixed interpretation of a text. These include assisting in the routine administration of complex areas of the law. The authors also consider the possibility of constructing more complex systems which incorporate several, possibly conflicting interpretations. Such systems are needed for dealing with ambiguity and vagueness in the law. Moreover, they are more suitable than single interpretation (...)
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  10. Formal aspects of Legal reasoning.A. Soeteman - 1995 - Argumentation 9 (5):731-746.
    This paper discusses the functions of deductive justification in ideal reconstructions of judicial reasoning. It departs from the point of judicial reasoning: explaining and justifying the judicial decision. It argues that deductive validity is not enough for good judicial argument. On the other hand, deductive justification is necessary, not only for easy cases but for hard cases as well. It draws some consequences for the concept of ‘jumps’ in legal reasoning and for the traditional distinction between internal and external justification.
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  11. A framework for the extraction and modeling of fact-finding reasoning from legal decisions: lessons from the Vaccine/Injury Project Corpus. [REVIEW]Vern R. Walker, Nathaniel Carie, Courtney C. DeWitt & Eric Lesh - 2011 - Artificial Intelligence and Law 19 (4):291-331.
    This article describes the Vaccine/Injury Project Corpus, a collection of legal decisions awarding or denying compensation for health injuries allegedly due to vaccinations, together with models of the logical structure of the reasoning of the factfinders in those cases. This unique corpus provides useful data for formal and informal logic theory, for natural-language research in linguistics, and for artificial intelligence research. More importantly, the article discusses lessons learned from developing protocols for manually extracting the logical structure and generating the logic (...)
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  12. A model of juridical acts: part 1: the world of law. [REVIEW]Jaap Hage - 2011 - Artificial Intelligence and Law 19 (1):23-48.
    This paper aims at providing an account of juridical acts that forms a suitable starting point for the creation of computational systems that deal with juridical acts. The paper is divided into two parts. Because juridical acts will be analyzed as intentional changes in the world of law, the ‘furniture’ of this world, that consists broadly speaking of entities, facts and rules, plays a central role in the analysis. This first part of the paper deals with this furniture and its (...)
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  13. Relating Carneades with abstract argumentation via the ASPIC+ framework for structured argumentation.Bas van Gijzel & Henry Prakken - 2012 - Argument and Computation 3 (1):21 - 47.
    Carneades is a recently proposed formalism for structured argumentation with varying proof standards, inspired by legal reasoning, but more generally applicable. Its distinctive feature is that each statement can be given its own proof standard, which is claimed to allow a more natural account of reasoning under burden of proof than existing formalisms for structured argumentation, in which proof standards are defined globally. In this article, the two formalisms are formally related by translating Carneades into the ASPIC+ framework for structured (...)
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  14. An Argument Game.Ronald Loui - unknown
    This game3 was designed to investigate protocols and strategies for resourcebounded disputation. The rules presented here correspond very closely to the problem of controlling search in an actual program. The computer program on which the game is based is LMNOP. It is a LISP system designed to produce arguments and counterarguments from a set of statutory rules and a corpus of precedents, and applied to legal and quasi-legal reasoning. LMNOP was co-designed by a researcher in AI knowledge representation and by (...)
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  15. Modeling the Evolution of Legal Discretion. An Artificial Intelligence Approach.Ruth Kannai, Uri Schild & John Zeleznikow - 2007 - Ratio Juris 20 (4):530-558.
    Much legal research focuses on understanding how judicial decision-makers exercise their discretion. In this paper we examine the notion of legal or judicial discretion, and weaker and stronger forms of discretion. At all times our goal is to build cognitive models of the exercise of discretion, with a view to building computer software to model and primarily support decision-making. We observe that discretionary decision-making can best be modeled using three independent axes: bounded and unbounded, defined and undefined, and binary and (...)
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  16. Rules, Principles, Algorithms and the Description of Legal Systems.Stephen Utz - 1992 - Ratio Juris 5 (1):23-45.
    Abstract.Although the Hart/Dworkin debate has as much to do with Dworkin's affirmative theory of judicial discretion as with Hart's more comprehensive theory of law, the starting point was of course Dworkin's attempt to demolish the “model of rules,” Hart's alleged analysis of legal systems as collections of conclusive reasons for specified legal consequences. The continuing relevance of this attack for the prospects for any theory of law is the subject of the present essay.
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  17. The Juristic Study of Law's Formal Character.Robert S. Summers - 1995 - Ratio Juris 8 (3):237-247.
    .The author summarizes the essential elements of a general theory he is developing which he calls “The Formal Character of Law.” He explains that law's formal character is a potentially major branch of legal theory that is still relatively unexplored. In his view, it is possible to identify formal attributes in legal rules, other basic legal constructs such as interpretive method, the principles of stare decisis, legal reasons, and legislative and adjudicative processes, and a legal system viewed as a whole. (...)
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  18. An Automated System for Argument Invention in Law Using Argumentation and Heuristic Search Procedures.Douglas Walton - 2005 - Ratio Juris 18 (4):434-463.
    . A heuristic search procedure for inventing legal arguments is built on two tools already widely in use in argumentation. Argumentation schemes are forms of argument representing premise‐conclusion and inference structures of common types of arguments. Schemes especially useful in law represent defeasible arguments, like argument from expert opinion. Argument diagramming is a visualization tool used to display a chain of connected arguments linked together. One such tool, Araucaria, available free at , helps a user display an argument on the (...)
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  19. (2 other versions)The formal bases of law.Giorgio Del Vecchio - 1914 - New York,: A. M. Kelley. Edited by John Lisle, Hans Friedrich Reichel & Joseph Louis Paul Segond.
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  20. Automatically classifying case texts and predicting outcomes.Kevin D. Ashley & Stefanie Brüninghaus - 2009 - Artificial Intelligence and Law 17 (2):125-165.
    Work on a computer program called SMILE + IBP (SMart Index Learner Plus Issue-Based Prediction) bridges case-based reasoning and extracting information from texts. The program addresses a technologically challenging task that is also very relevant from a legal viewpoint: to extract information from textual descriptions of the facts of decided cases and apply that information to predict the outcomes of new cases. The program attempts to automatically classify textual descriptions of the facts of legal problems in terms of Factors, a (...)
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  21. Improving legal information retrieval using an ontological framework.M. Saravanan, B. Ravindran & S. Raman - 2009 - Artificial Intelligence and Law 17 (2):101-124.
    A variety of legal documents are increasingly being made available in electronic format. Automatic Information Search and Retrieval algorithms play a key role in enabling efficient access to such digitized documents. Although keyword-based search is the traditional method used for text retrieval, they perform poorly when literal term matching is done for query processing, due to synonymy and ambivalence of words. To overcome these drawbacks, an ontological framework to enhance the user’s query for retrieval of truly relevant legal judgments has (...)
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  22. Preserving our heritage: Protecting law library core missions through updated library quality assessment standards.Sarah Hooke Lee - unknown
    Professor Lee argues that traditional quality criteria for judging law libraries are now inadequate because they no longer computer the vital multiple missions of today's libraries. She suggests ways that law librarians can begin to develop indicia of quality that can adequately evaluate the contemporary law school library and preserve its core missions.
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  23. Formal models of coherence and legal epistemology.Amalia Amaya - 2007 - Artificial Intelligence and Law 15 (4):429-447.
    This paper argues that formal models of coherence are useful for constructing a legal epistemology. Two main formal approaches to coherence are examined: coherence-based models of belief revision and the theory of coherence as constraint satisfaction. It is shown that these approaches shed light on central aspects of a coherentist legal epistemology, such as the concept of coherence, the dynamics of coherentist justification in law, and the mechanisms whereby coherence may be built in the course of legal decision-making.
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  24. PARMENIDES: Facilitating deliberation in democracies. [REVIEW]Katie Atkinson, Trevor Bench-Capon & Peter McBurney - 2006 - Artificial Intelligence and Law 14 (4):261-275.
    Governments and other groups interested in the views of citizens require the means to present justifications of proposed actions, and the means to solicit public opinion concerning these justifications. Although Internet technologies provide the means for such dialogues, system designers usually face a choice between allowing unstructured dialogues, through, for example, bulletin boards, or requiring citizens to acquire a knowledge of some argumentation schema or theory, as in, for example, ZENO. Both of these options present usability problems. In this paper, (...)
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  25. Legal ontology of sales law application to ecommerce.John Bagby & Tracy Mullen - 2007 - Artificial Intelligence and Law 15 (2):155-170.
    Legal codes, such as the Uniform Commercial Code (UCC) examined in this article, are good points of entry for AI and ontology work because of their more straightforward adaptability to relationship linking and rules-based encoding. However, approaches relying on encoding solely on formal code structure are incomplete, missing the rich experience of practitioner expertise that identifies key relationships and decision criteria often supplied by experienced practitioners and process experts from various disciplines (e.g., sociology, political economics, logistics, operations research). This research (...)
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  26. Uncertain reasoning about agents' beliefs and reasoning.John A. Barnden - 2001 - Artificial Intelligence and Law 9 (2-3):115-152.
    Reasoning about mental states and processes is important in various subareas of the legal domain. A trial lawyer might need to reason and the beliefs, reasoning and other mental states and processes of members of a jury; a police officer might need to reason about the conjectured beliefs and reasoning of perpetrators; a judge may need to consider a defendant's mental states and processes for the purposes of sentencing and so on. Further, the mental states in question may themselves be (...)
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  27. Developing negotiation decision support systems that support mediators: A case study of the family_winner system. [REVIEW]Emilia Bellucci & John Zeleznikow - 2005 - Artificial Intelligence and Law 13 (2):233-271.
    Negotiation Support Systems have traditionally modelled the process of negotiation. They often rely on mathematical optimisation techniques and ignore heuristics and other methods derived from practice. Our goal is to develop systems capable of decision support to help resolve a given dispute. A system we have constructed, Family_Winner, uses empirical evidence to dynamically modify initial preferences throughout the negotiation process. It sequentially allocates issues using trade-offs and compensation opportunities inherent in the dispute.
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  28. Acting in concert or going it alone: Game theory and the law.Theodore M. Benditt - 2004 - Law and Philosophy 23 (6):615 - 630.
    In recent years a number of writers have maintained that law can usefully be illuminated by game theory. Some believe that game theory can provide guidance in formulating rules for dealing with specific problems. Others advance the philosophically ambitious contention that we can gain a better understanding and/or appreciation of law by seeing it in terms of game-theoretic ideas. My purpose in this article is to examine some claims of the latter sort, and in particular to ask how distant law (...)
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  29. Isomorphism and legal knowledge based systems.T. J. M. Bench-Capon & F. P. Coenen - 1992 - Artificial Intelligence and Law 1 (1):65-86.
    This paper discusses some engineering considerations that should be taken into account when building a knowledge based system, and recommends isomorphism, the well defined correspondence of the knowledge base to the source texts, as a basic principle of system construction in the legal domain. Isomorphism, as it has been used in the field of legal knowledge based systems, is characterised and the benefits which stem from its use are described. Some objections to and limitations of the approach are discussed. The (...)
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  30. The missing link revisited: The role of teleology in representing legal argument. [REVIEW]T. J. M. Bench-Capon - 2002 - Artificial Intelligence and Law 10 (1-3):79-94.
    In this paper I recapitulate the ideas of Berman and Hafner (1993) regarding the role of teleology in legal argument. I show how these ideas can be used to address some issues arising from more recent work on legal argument, and how this relates to ideas associated with the New Rhetoric of Perelman. I illustrate the points with a discussion of the classic problem of which vehicles should be allowed in parks.
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  31. ARPO-2: An expert system for legal advice on the breach of building contracts. [REVIEW]Jesús Cardeñosa & Pilar Lasala - 1996 - Artificial Intelligence and Law 4 (2):133-156.
    Although Berman and Hafner [Berman 1989, pp. 928–938] presented the possibility to adapt the model of reasoning of development of an expert system for medical diagnosis to the reasoning of a judge when he/she sentences criminals does not resemble the reasoning found in the decisions of physicians, mathematicians or statisticians.When a lawyer reasons, he/she not only looks for the solution of a case; he/she simultaneously looks for the bases on which his/her reasoning can rest [Galindo 1992, pp. 363–367]. That is (...)
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  32. (1 other version)LaBEO: A knowledge-based expert system for the “animation” of legal texts.Costantino Ciampi - 1987 - Theoria 3 (1):341-362.
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  33. Rule-based XML.Go Eguchi & Laurence L. Leff - 2002 - Artificial Intelligence and Law 10 (4):283-294.
    Legal contracts and litigation documents common to the American legal system were encoded in the eXtensible Markup Language (XML). XML also represents rules about the contracts and litigation procedure. In addition to an expert system tool that allows one to make inferences with that engine, a Graphical User Interface (GUI) generates the XML representing the rules. A rulebase is developed by marking up examples of the XML to be interpreted and the XML to be generated, analogously to Query By Example. (...)
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  34. A dialogical theory of legal discussions:Pragma-dialectical analysis and evaluation of legalargumentation.Eveline T. Feteris - 2000 - Artificial Intelligence and Law 8 (2-3):115-135.
    In this paper, the author describes a dialogical approach tolegal argumentation from the perspective of argumentationtheory. In a pragma-dialectical approach of legalargumentation, the argumentation is considered to be part of acritical discussion aimed at the rational resolution of thedispute. The author describes how a pragma-dialecticalanalysis and evaluation of legal argumentation can be carriedout.
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  35. The rational reconstruction of weighing and balancing on the basis of teleological-evaluative considerations in the justification of judicial decisions.Eveline T. Feteris - 2008 - Ratio Juris 21 (4):481-495.
    In this contribution the author develops an argumentation model for the reconstruction of weighing and balancing on the basis of teleological-evaluative considerations. The model is intended as a heuristic and critical tool for the rational reconstruction of the justification of judicial decisions. From the perspective of a rational discussion, it makes explicit the choices underlying the weighing and balancing on the basis of goals and values so that they can be made explicit and submitted to rational critique.
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  36. Representing and using legal knowledge in integrated decision support systems: Datalex workstations. [REVIEW]Graham Greenleaf, Andrew Mowbray & Peter Dijk - 1995 - Artificial Intelligence and Law 3 (1-2):97-142.
    There is more to legal knowledge representation than knowledge-bases. It is valuable to look at legal knowledge representation and its implementation across the entire domain of computerisation of law, rather than focussing on sub-domains such as legal expert systems. The DataLex WorkStation software and applications developed using it are used to provide examples. Effective integration of inferencing, hypertext and text retrieval can overcome some of the limitations of these current paradigms of legal computerisation which are apparent when they are used (...)
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  37. Introduction. Papers from the jurix '95 conference.Jaap Hage - 1997 - Artificial Intelligence and Law 5 (4):243-248.
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  38. A formal representation of declaration-related legal relations.Sven Ove Hansson - 1990 - Law and Philosophy 9 (4):399 - 416.
    A formal language is introduced that contains expressions for the dependency of a legal relation on the claims that the concerned individuals make and on the permissions that they grant. It is used for a classification of legal relations into six major categories: categorical obligation, categorical permission, claimable obligation, grantable permission, claim-dependent obligation and grant-dependent permission. Legal rights may belong to any of these six categories, but the characteristics of a right-holder are shown to be different in each of the (...)
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  39. Commonsense causal explanation in a legal domain.Rinke Hoekstra & Joost Breuker - 2007 - Artificial Intelligence and Law 15 (3):281-299.
    In this paper, we present an approach to commonsense causal explanation of stories that can be used for automatically determining the liable party in legal case descriptions. The approach is based on, a core ontology for law that takes a commonsense perspective. Aside from our thesis that in the legal domain many terms still have a strong commonsense flavour, the descriptions of events in legal cases, as e.g. presented at judicial trials, are cast in commonsense terms as well. We present (...)
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  40. The strategic use of formal argumentation in legal decisions.Harm Kloosterhuis - 2008 - Ratio Juris 21 (4):496-506.
    In legal decisions standpoints can be supported by formal and also by substantive interpretative arguments. Formal arguments consist of reasons the weight or force of which is essentially dependent on the authoritativeness that the reasons may also have: In this connection one may think of linguistic and systemic arguments. On the other hand, substantive arguments are not backed up by authority, but consist of a direct invocation of moral, political, economic, or other social considerations. Formal arguments can be analyzed as (...)
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  41. Using NLP techniques to identify legal ontology components: Concepts and relations. [REVIEW]Guiraude Lame - 2004 - Artificial Intelligence and Law 12 (4):379-396.
    A method to identify ontology components is presented in this article. The method relies on Natural Language Processing (NLP) techniques to extract concepts and relations among these concepts. This method is applied in the legal field to build an ontology dedicated to information retrieval. Legal texts on which the method is performed are carefully chosen as describing and conceptualizing the legal domain. We suggest that this method can help legal ontology designers and may be used while building ontologies dedicated to (...)
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  42. Technology report: Building legal practice systems with today's commercial authoring tools. [REVIEW]Marc Lauritsen - 1992 - Artificial Intelligence and Law 1 (1):87-102.
    Document assembly and other substantive legal practice applications are the most knowledge-intense forms of software now widely available in the legal technology marketplace. This article provides an illustrative look at two contemporary practice system engines-CAPS and Scrivener-and examines their relevance for AI-and-law researchers.
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  43. Technology report: Work product retrieval systems in today's law offices. [REVIEW]Marc Lauritsen - 1995 - Artificial Intelligence and Law 3 (4):287-304.
    Contemporary law offices use many different technologies for storing and retrieving documents produced in the course of legal work. This article examines two approaches in detail: document management, as exemplified by SoftSolutions, and electronic publishing, as exemplified by Folio VIEWS. Some other approaches are reviewed, and the pragmatics, politics, economics, and legalities of legal work product retrieval are discussed.
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  44. Cultural elements in the practice of law in mexico: Informal networks in a formal system.Larissa Adler Lomnitz & Rodrigo Salazar - 2002 - In Yves Dezalay & Bryant G. Garth (eds.), Global prescriptions: the production, exportation, and importation of a new legal orthodoxy. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
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  45. Introduction: On proof. [REVIEW]Antonio A. Martino - 2001 - Artificial Intelligence and Law 9 (2-3):95-98.
  46. A task-based interface to legal databases.Luuk Matthijssen - 1998 - Artificial Intelligence and Law 6 (1):81-103.
    This paper addresses the problems that lawyers experience retrieving information from legal-text databases. Traditional access mechanisms of text databases require users to know how information is stored. We propose a method for index organisation which shields lawyers from the internal storage structures and which allows them to address the legal databases in their own legal terms. The proposed index is based on a model of legal tasks as opposed to traditional database indexes which represent the contents of the database. We (...)
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  47. Marie-Francine moens, automatic indexing and abstracting of document texts, the kluwer international series on information retrieval vol.Luuk Matthijssen - 2000 - Artificial Intelligence and Law 8 (4):343-347.
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  48. Games that agents play: A formal framework for dialogues between autonomous agents. [REVIEW]Peter McBurney & Simon Parsons - 2002 - Journal of Logic, Language and Information 11 (3):315-334.
    We present a logic-based formalism for modeling ofdialogues between intelligent and autonomous software agents,building on a theory of abstract dialogue games which we present.The formalism enables representation of complex dialogues assequences of moves in a combination of dialogue games, and allowsdialogues to be embedded inside one another. The formalism iscomputational and its modular nature enables different types ofdialogues to be represented.
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  49. Ownership: A case study in the representation of legal concepts. [REVIEW]L. Thorne McCarty - 2002 - Artificial Intelligence and Law 10 (1-3):173-190.
    This article is an exercise in computational jurisprudence. It seems clear thatthe field of AI and Law should draw upon the insights of legal philosophers,whenever possible. But can the computational perspective offer anything inreturn? I will explore this question by focusing on the concept of OWNERSHIP,which has been debated in the jurisprudential literature for centuries. Althoughthe intellectual currents here flow mostly in one direction – from legal philosophy to AI – I will show that there are also some insights to (...)
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  50. Innovative techniques for legal text retrieval.Marie-Francine Moens - 2001 - Artificial Intelligence and Law 9 (1):29-57.
    Legal text retrieval traditionally relies upon external knowledge sources such as thesauri and classification schemes, and an accurate indexing of the documents is often manually done. As a result not all legal documents can be effectively retrieved. However a number of current artificial intelligence techniques are promising for legal text retrieval. They sustain the acquisition of knowledge and the knowledge-rich processing of the content of document texts and information need, and of their matching. Currently, techniques for learning information needs, learning (...)
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