About this topic
Summary The term "psychopathology" is used in a variety of contexts in philosophy of psychiatry. Broadly put, it refers to the philosophical and scientific study of mental disorders. It is also used, however, to denote behaviors or symptoms that are indicative of mental illness, such as hallucinations.
Key works Maibom 2008 Graham 1999 Poland et al 1994
Introductions Poland et al 1994
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  1. Somatics and phenomenological psychopathology: a mental health proposal.Camilo Sánchez Sánchez - forthcoming - Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics:1-30.
    This work begins with a brief review – from the _physical education_ movement that began in ancient Greece and is deeply rooted in 19th century Europe, to the _somatics_ movement alive today. The review captures primary historical and conceptual references, relevant to the therapeutic-embodied exploratory work. Then, G. Stanghellini’s mental health care model [ 2 ] is reviewed. This model is considered within reflexive self-awareness and spoken dialogue: the main vehicles in relation with alterity and its consequences in the realm (...)
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  2. Group Therapeutic Resourcing Interventions for the Treatment of Trauma.Julien Tempone Wiltshire - forthcoming - Psychotherapy and Counselling Today.
    Group therapies possess a great number of benefits for trauma survivors, yet there exists a lack of clarity in the literature surrounding the application of trauma principles in group settings, or an awareness of the role of mindfulness-embodiment technologies for resourcing individuals prior to trauma processing. This article explores the value of structured-format auxiliary groups for trauma treatments that orient towards resourcing participants. We utilise the example of mindfulness and embodiment-based resourcing technologies, as illustrative of top-down and bottom-up approaches to (...)
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  3. Embodied higher cognition: insights from Merleau-Ponty’s interpretation of motor intentionality.Jan Halák - 2023 - Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences 22 (2):369-397.
    This paper clarifies Merleau-Ponty’s original account of “higher-order” cognition as fundamentally embodied and enacted. Merleau-Ponty’s philosophy inspired theories that deemphasize overlaps between conceptual knowledge and motor intentionality or, on the contrary, focus exclusively on abstract thought. In contrast, this paper explores the link between Merleau-Ponty’s account of motor intentionality and his interpretations of our capacity to understand and interact productively with cultural symbolic systems. I develop my interpretation based on Merleau-Ponty’s analysis of two neuropathological modifications of motor intentionality, the case (...)
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  4. Schizophrenic Thought Insertion and Self-Experience.Darryl Mathieson - forthcoming - Review of Philosophy and Psychology:1-17.
    In contemporary philosophy of mind and psychiatry, schizophrenic thought insertion is often used as a validating or invalidating counterexample in various theories about how we experience ourselves. Recent work has taken cases of thought insertion to provide an invalidating counterexample to the Humean denial of self-experience, arguing that deficiencies of agency in thought insertion suggest that we normally experience ourselves as the agent of our thoughts. In this paper, I argue that appealing to a breakdown in the sense of agency (...)
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  5. What’s the Linguistic Meaning of Delusional Utterances? Speech Act Theory as a Tool for Understanding Delusions.Julian Hofmann, Pablo Hubacher Haerle & Anke Maatz - 2023 - Philosophical Psychology.
    Delusions have traditionally been considered the hallmark of mental illness, and their conception, diagnosis and treatment raise many of the fundamental conceptual and practical questions of psychopathology. One of these fundamental questions is whether delusions are understandable. In this paper, we propose to consider the question of understandability of delusions from a philosophy of language perspective. For this purpose, we frame the question of how delusions can be understood as a question about the meaning of delusional utterances. Accordingly, we ask: (...)
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  6. Philosophy's Role in Theorizing Psychopathology.Quinn Hiroshi Gibson - forthcoming - Philosophy, Psychiatry, & Psychology.
    It is a mistake to think that any philosophical contribution to the study of psychopathology is otiose. I identify three non-exhaustive roles that philosophy can and does occupy in the study of mental disorder, which I call the agenda-setting role, the synthetic role, and the regulative role. The three roles are illustrated via consideration of the importance of Jaspers’ notion of understanding and its application to specific examples of mental disorder, including delusions of reference, Capgras delusion and other monothematic delusions, (...)
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  7. Benign and Pathological Religious Experience.José Eduardo Porcher - 2022 - Psicopatologia Fenomenológica Contemporânea 11 (1):44-61.
    In this paper, I draw on phenomenological analyses of religious voice-hearing and related experiences to elucidate the role of phenomenology in discerning benign from pathological religious experience. First, I present phenomenological discontinuities between cases of benign and pathological voice-hearing by drawing on a study of first-person accounts of voice-hearers within the Pentecostal movement which evinces that voice-hearing is not inherently pathological. Second, I introduce the epidemiological continuity of psychotic-like phenomena by drawing on a study of the contextual and responsive differences (...)
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  8. Preface to the EAWE Portuguese version: A case for a new era of phenomenological psychopathology in psychiatry and clinical psychology.Elizabeth Pienkos & Guilherme Messas - 2018 - Psicopatologia Fenomenológica Contemporânea 7 (2).
    This special issue presents a Portuguese translation of the EAWE: Examination of Anomalous World Experience (Sass et al., this issue; original publication Sass et al., 2017). The EAWE is a semi-structured, phenomenologically-oriented interview designed to elicit descriptions of changes in the lived world, particularly those that may be more commonly found in schizophrenia spectrum disorders (though it may also be used to study disorders outside the schizophrenia spectrum). The EAWE represents an important trend in psychiatric research and practice: a growing (...)
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  9. The Triadic Structure of the Human Psychism – between Psychopathology and Theology.Valeriu Gabriel Dimitriu - 2015 - Psicopatologia Fenomenológica Contemporânea 4 (1).
    The aim of this work is to present the triontic theory of the normal and pathological human psychism, elaborated by the Romanian psychiatrist Eduard Pamfil, and to highlight its deep connection with the Holy Trinity model of God. The main idea of the work is that mental illness, considered from a wider anthropo-phenomenological perspective, appears as the result of a deficit within interpersonal communication and, in a deeper way, of the lack of communion between human persons. According to Pamfil, the (...)
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  10. Psychopathology of addictions.Gilberto Di Petta - 2014 - Psicopatologia Fenomenológica Contemporânea 3 (2).
    This paper intends to examine, both from a psychopathological and a phenomenological perspective, the state of “being-at-the-world”, which is common in drug addicted people. Past abuse, as well as present abuse, are crucial in the modification of the psychiatric impact in the history of drug abuse. The former drug lifestyle characterized by the use of heroin led to a form of psychosis which is known with the symptomatological expression as basic psychosis. On the other hand, the contemporary poly-abuse of NPS (...)
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  11. Philosophical psychopathology: philosophy without thought experiments.Garry Young - 2013 - New York: Palgrave-Macmillan.
    This book uses rare pathologies to inform questions on topics such as consciousness and rationality. Rather than trying to answer these by inventing far-fetched scenario or 'thought experiments', it is better to utilize a rich but under-used clinical resource.
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  12. Classificatory challenges in psychopathology.Harold Kincaid - 2016 - In Miriam Solomon, Jeremy R. Simon & Harold Kincaid (eds.), The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Medicine. Routledge.
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  13. Nontraditional pathways to the development of a scientific mind : examples from the domain of psychopathology.Stephen P. Hinshaw - 2019 - In Jan Visser & Muriel Visser (eds.), Seeking Understanding: The Lifelong Pursuit to Build the Scientific Mind. Brill | Sense.
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  14. Il problema della classificazione dei disturbi mentali.Elisabetta Lalumera - 2019 - In Rossella Guerini & Massimo Marraffa (eds.), Psicopatologia e scienze della mente. Roma RM, Italia: pp. 53-62.
    Le controversie nosologiche in psichiatria siano orientate da ragioni sia epistemiche che non epistemiche, da questioni di evidenza ma anche di etica e sociologia della scienza, data la presenza di vari programmi di ricerca, di metodologie e anche di agenti differenti che si focalizzano sul problema del disturbo mentale. I due casi qui brevemente considerati, quello della Disposofobia e quello del Disturbo di personalità narcisistica mostrano, assieme al ruolo dell’evidenza empirica, da un lato il peso delle ragioni etiche dei gruppi (...)
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  15. With and beyond Jaspers: intersections between contemporary approaches in phenomenologically informed psychopathology.Victor Portugal - 2019 - Psicopatologia Fenomenológica Contemporânea 2 (8):01-22.
    Karl Jaspers was influential in the phenomenological psychopathology movement. Contemporary phenomenological scholarship provides fruitful propositions in psychopathology as well as renewed recognition of Jaspers’ pioneering works. This paper is an attempt to give a more general account on how Jaspers’ oeuvre stands in face of contemporary phenomenological scholarship, outlining the intersections between them. Both poles critic the reductionism of consciousness, affirm the necessary relationship with the sciences and philosophy as well as the training and effort that the field demands. Disagreements (...)
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  16. Remembering ‘Ellen West’: What a tragic case reveals about contemporary phenomenological psychopathology.Elizabeth Pienkos - forthcoming - Philosophical Psychology.
    This paper returns to a seminal case in the historical of phenomenological psychopathology, Ludwig Binswanger’s discussion of “Ellen West A woman with a long history of melancholia and disordered eating, Ellen West was treated at Binswanger’s Bellevue sanatorium in 1921, a two-and-a-half month-long stay that resulted in a diagnosis of schizophrenia and Ellen West’s suicide. Binswanger relied on West’s personal writings and clinical history to develop and apply an original approach to case analysis, Daseinsanalyse or “existential analysis.” This paper takes (...)
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  17. Identity, narratives and psychopathology : a critical perspective.Pietro Perconti - 2021 - In Valentina Cardella & Amelia Gangemi (eds.), Psychopathology and Philosophy of Mind: What Mental Disorders Can Tell Us About Our Minds. Routledge.
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  18. The distinction between altruistic and deontological guilt feelings : insights from psychopathology.Francesco Mancini, Guyonne Rogier & Amelia Gangemi - 2021 - In Valentina Cardella & Amelia Gangemi (eds.), Psychopathology and Philosophy of Mind: What Mental Disorders Can Tell Us About Our Minds. Routledge.
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  19. Chapter 4. Doing Without "Disorder" in the Study of Psychopathology.Harold Kincaid - 2021 - In Luc Faucher & Denis Forest (eds.), Defining Mental Disorders: Jerome Wakefield and his Critics. MIT Press.
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  20. “Become yourself the prey”. Field perspective and emerging self in psychopathology and psychotherapy.Gianni Francesetti, Michela Gecele & Jan Roubal - 2022 - Studi di Estetica 23.
    Therapist’s and client’s experience in the session are emerging from the field forc-es in play; these forces are the intrinsic tensions of the emerging field. We propose an understanding of the therapeutic process as a field phenomenon: the process of change is made by the forces already active in the field and the therapist has just to let them move on without interfering, or sometimes to support them. Psy-chopathology is then the emerging absence, and therapy becomes the art of presence.
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  21. Kant’s Opus postumum and Schelling’s Naturphilosophie: The Very Idea.Terrence Thomson - 2022 - Epoché: A Journal for the History of Philosophy 27 (1):97-117.
    This paper is about Kant’s late unfinished manuscript, Opus postumum (1796–1803) and some of the resonances it has with Schelling’s early Naturphiloso­phie (1797–1800). Most of the secondary literature on Opus postumum investigates its relation to the rest of Kant’s corpus, often framing the drafts as an attempt to fill a so-called “gap” in the Critical philosophy whilst ignoring the relationship it has to the wider landscape of late eighteenth century German philosophy. Whether Opus postumum may provide grounds for reviewing the (...)
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  22. Of Moral Extinction and the Collapse of the World: Schelling and the Commitments of Freedom.Virgilio Rivas - 2019 - Philosophia: International Journal of Philosophy (Philippine e-journal) 20 (1):39-59.
    In his earlier work on the System of Transcendental Idealism, which combined Naturphilosophie and transcendental philosophy, Schelling argued that it is only by becoming-art that philosophy can complete itself as a discipline. He proposed this formulation in response to Kant’s critical inventory of reason offering to reclaim philosophy from its entanglement in pre-critical or dogmatic traditions. But Kant avoided to ground reason in the notion of externality, the in-itself, which, owing to its pre-critical derivation, must give way to the a (...)
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  23. Schelling F.W.J. [Psychological Scheme].P. V. Rezvykh - 2019 - RUDN Journal of Philosophy 23 (4):471-475.
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  24. Intelligible Character and Revelation of Person: F.W.J. Schelling “Psychological Scheme”.P. V. Rezvykh - 2019 - RUDN Journal of Philosophy 23 (4):461-470.
    This article focuses on analysis of a handwritten fragment by F. W. J. Schelling “Psychological scheme”, which is a study of main principles of philosophical anthropology. The article reconstructs the circumstances of creating the mentioned text, which are connected with the trusting relationship between Schelling and Bavarian Crown Prince Maximilian; it also highlights the parallels between the text and the earlier Schelling's works exploring philosophical-anthropological problematic: “Philosophical Investigations into the Essence of Human Freedom” and “Stuttgart Seminars”. In the course of (...)
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  25. Freedom, low and imagination the lectures of F.w.J. Schelling in 1800-1810s.P. V. Rezvykh - 2019 - RUDN Journal of Philosophy 23 (1):7-18.
    The gives the detailed analysis of the ratio of freedom and imagination in an unpublished manuscript written by F.V.Y. Schelling, which contains the materials for the lecture course read at Erlangen University in 1820-1821. The author focuses on the question of imagination as a condition for the possibility to unfold the modal differences that provide the hierarchy of predicative definitions. The article shows that both the draft philosophy of mythology and the philosophy of revelation are a direct continuation of the (...)
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  26. Descriptive psychopathology.J. Cutting - 2003 - In S. R. Hirsch & D. R. Weinberger (eds.), Schizophrenia. Blackwell Science. pp. 15–24.
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  27. The Depths of Temporal Desynchronization in Grief.Emily Hughes - 2022 - Psychopathology 55.
    Introduction: The experience of disconnection is common in first-person accounts of grief. One way in which this feeling of estrangement can manifest is through the splintering apart of the time of the mourner and the time of the world. Supplementing and extending Thomas Fuchs' influential idea of temporal desynchronization, my aim in this article is to give an account of the heterogeneous ways in which grief can disturb time. -/- Method: I organize these manifold experiences of temporal disruption according to (...)
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  28. From class origins to individual psychopathology: Spousal murder according to state socialist Czechoslovak criminology.Kateřina Lišková & Lucia Moravanská - 2022 - History of the Human Sciences 35 (3-4):237-259.
    Over the course of 40 years of state socialism, the explanation that Czechoslovak criminologists gave for spousal murder changed significantly. Initially attributing offences to the perpetrator's class origins, remnants of his bourgeois way of life, and the lack of positive influence from the collective in the long 1950s, criminologists then refocused their attention solely on the individual's psychopathology during the period known as ‘Normalization’, which encompassed the last two decades of state socialism. Based on an analysis of archival sources, including (...)
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  29. Young Foucault: The Lille Manuscripts on Psychopathology, Phenomenology, and Anthropology, 1952–1955.Elisabetta Basso - 2022 - New York: Columbia University Press.
    In the 1950s, long before his ascent to international renown, Michel Foucault published a scant few works. His early writings on psychology, psychopathology, and anthropology have been dismissed as immature. However, recently discovered manuscripts from the mid-1950s, when Foucault was a lecturer at the University of Lille, testify to the significance of the work that the philosopher produced in the years leading up to the “archaeological” project he launched with History of Madness. Elisabetta Basso offers a groundbreaking and in-depth analysis (...)
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  30. Phenomenological explanation: towards a methodological integration in phenomenological psychopathology.Michela Summa - forthcoming - Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences:1-23.
    Whether, and in what sense, research in phenomenology and phenomenological psychopathology has—in addition to its descriptive and hermeneutic value—explanatory power is somewhat controversial. This paper shows why it is legitimate to recognize such explanatory power. To this end, the paper analyzes two central concerns underlying the debate about explanation in phenomenology: the warning against reductionism, which is implicit in a conception of causal explanation exclusively based on models of natural/physical causation; and the warning against top-down generalizations, which neglect the specificity (...)
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  31. The "Flower of Happiness". Phenomenology, Psychopathology, and Clinical Psychiatry.Roberta Guccinelli - 2022 - Comprendre. Archive International Pour L’Anthropologie, la Psychopathologie Et la Psychothérapie Phénoménologiques 34 (31-34):216-235.
    This paper deals with a classical issue that remains at the core of the contemporary philosophical debate: the fact that the meaning of life is interlaced—in both negative and positive ways, with respect to morality—with happiness. On some historical conceptions, individual happiness must be sacrificed for the moral (universal, objective) good of a life, where the good fundamentally coincides with the meaning of life. On other approaches, happiness and flourishing (where flourishing is understood in terms of life’s meaningfulness) consist in (...)
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  32. Book review for "Psychopathology and Philosophy of Mind", edited by Valentina Cardella and Amelia Gangemi. [REVIEW]Juliette Vazard - forthcoming - Philosophical Psychology.
    By manifesting dysfunctions of fundamental psychological mechanisms such as emotions, reasoning, and language, symptoms of mental disorders can inform us on their nature and functions. In this volume, Valentina Cardella and Amelia Gangemi bring together a collection of articles which draw from psychopathology in order to further our study of the human mind. Contributors include philosophers of mind and language, clinical psychologists, and a historian, all applying their respective methodological tools with the aim of learning from mental disorders about the (...)
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  33. Medard Boss.Francesca Brencio - 2020 - In G. Stanghellini A. Molano (ed.), Storia della fenomenologia clinica. Torino TO, Italia: pp. 171-188.
  34. Viktor E. von Gebsattel.Francesca Brencio - 2020 - In G. Stanghellini A. Moralo (ed.), Storia della fenomenologia clinica. Torino TO, Italia: pp. 85-102.
  35. Fenomenología y psicopatología.Francesca Brencio - 2021 - In César Moreno Márquez (ed.), En torno a la Inquietud. Consideraciones fenomenologicas. Barcellona, Spagna: pp. 345-363.
  36. Disposition: the “pathic” dimension of existence and its relevance in affective disorders and schizophrenia.Francesca Brencio - 2018 - Thaumàzein. Rivista di Filosofia 6:138-157.
  37. The World as "‘Representation": Scheler’s Philosophy of Psychopathology.Roberta Guccinelli - 2022 - In Susan Gottlöber (ed.), Max Scheler in Dialogue. Cham, Svizzera: pp. 63-100.
    Max Scheler’s Formalism – and other of his essays on the philosophy of psychology, such as The Idols of Self-Knowledge and Ressentiment – continues to be in dialogue with contemporary philosophers of mind, psychiatrists and neuroscientists. Moving essentially from Formalism and essays from the same period, this paper provides an outline of a genuine Schelerian philosophy of psychopathology, investigating the close connection between “identity” and “freedom”. Not only did Scheler contribute to phenomenological psychology, but he also took an original approach (...)
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  38. Psychopathology and Philosophy of Mind: What Mental Disorders Can Tell Us About Our Minds.Valentina Cardella & Amelia Gangemi (eds.) - 2021 - New York, NY: Routledge.
    This book explores how the human mind works through the lens of psychological disorders, challenging many existing theoretical constructs, especially in the fields of psychology, psychiatry and philosophy of mind. Drawing on the expertise of leading academics, the book discusses how psychopathology can be used to inform our understanding of the human mind. The book argues that studying mental disorders can deepen the understanding of psychological mechanisms such as reasoning, emotions, and beliefs alongside fundamental philosophical questions, including the nature of (...)
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  39. Psychopathology and psychotherapy of the Leib in schizophrenia.Cecilia Maria Esposito & Giuseppe Salerno - forthcoming - Phenomenology and Mind:100.
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  40. Karl Jaspers’ Philosophy and Psychopathology.Thomas Fuchs, Thiemo Breyer & Christoph Mundt (eds.) - 2013 - Springer.
    This book is based on a congress evaluating Jaspers' basic psychopathological concepts and their anthropological roots in light of modern research paradigms. It provides a definition of delusion, his concept of "limit situation" so much challenged by trauma research, and his methodological debate. We are approaching the anniversary of Jaspers seminal work General Psychopathology in 1913. The Centre of Psychosocial Medicine of the University with its Psychiatric Hospital where Jaspers wrote this influential volume as a 29 year old clinical assistant (...)
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  41. Discipline Filosofiche (2018-2): Philosophical Perspectives on Affective Experience and Psychopathology.Anna Bortolan & Alessandro Salice (eds.) - 2018 - Quodlibet.
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  42. Comprehensive Handbook of Psychopathology.P. B. Sutker & H. E. Adams (eds.) - 2001 - Springer.
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  43. Childhood maltreatment as a transdiagnostic risk factor for psychopathology.Sabrina Boger - unknown
    Over the last decades, childhood maltreatment has emerged as a major risk factor for the development and maintenance of transdiagnostic psychopathology. Notably, higher prevalence rates of maltreatment have been found for nearly all mental disorders, with particularly high numbers for post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, borderline personality disorder and anxiety disorders. Furthermore, childhood maltreatment has been associated with an earlier onset of mental disorders, a more severe and chronic course of disease as well as reduced rates of psychological treatment benefit. However, (...)
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  44. Introduction.Giovanni Stanghellini, Matthew Broome, Anthony Vincent Fernandez, Paolo Fusar-Poli, Andrea Raballo & René Rosfort - 2019 - In Giovanni Stanghellini, Matthew Broome, Anthony Vincent Fernandez, Paolo Fusar-Poli, Andrea Raballo & René Rosfort (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Phenomenological Psychopathology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  45. Phenomenology, Psychopathology, and Pre-Reflective Experience.Anthony Vincent Fernandez - forthcoming - In J. Robert Thompson (ed.), Routledge Handbook of Philosophy and Implicit Cognition. Routledge.
    In this chapter, I introduce phenomenology and phenomenological psychopathology by clarifying the kind of implicit experiences that phenomenologists are concerned with. In section one, I introduce the phenomenological concept of pre-reflective experience, focusing especially on its relation to the concept of implicit experience. In section two, I introduce the structure of pre-reflective self-consciousness, which has been studied extensively by both classical phenomenologists and contemporary phenomenological psychopathologists. In section three, I show how phenomenological psychopathologists rely on an account of pre-reflective self-consciousness (...)
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  46. Function, Dysfunction, and the Concept of Mental Disorder.Jonathan Y. Tsou - 2021 - Philosophy, Psychiatry, and Psychology 28 (4):371-375.
    Naturalistic accounts of mental disorder aim to identify an objective basis for attributions of mental disorder. This goal is important for demarcating genuine mental disorders from artificial or socially constructed disorders. The articulation of a demarcation criterion provides a means for assuring that attributions of 'mental disorder' are not merely pathologizing different forms of social deviance. The most influential naturalistic and hybrid definitions of mental disorder identify biological dysfunction as the objective basis of mental disorders: genuine mental...
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  47. Ancient Psychopathology: Sources, Historiography and Perspectives.Gwenaëlle Le Person - 2010 - Gesnerus 67 (1).
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  48. Correction to: Methods of data collection in psychopathology: the role of semi-structured, phenomenological interviews.Mads Gram Henriksen, Magnus Englander & Julie Nordgaard - 2021 - Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences 21 (1):31-32.
    Research in psychopathology is booming in an unprecedented way, at least, in terms of increasing number of publications. Yet, a few questions arise: Does quantity also give us quality? Are the collected data generally of sound quality? How are data typically collected in psychopathology? Are the applied methods of data collection appropriate for this particular field of study? This article explores three different methods of data collection in psychopathology, namely self-rating scales, structured interviews, and semi-structured, phenomenological interviews. To identify the (...)
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  49. Methods of data collection in psychopathology: the role of semi-structured, phenomenological interviews.Mads Gram Henriksen, Magnus Englander & Julie Nordgaard - 2021 - Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences 21 (1):9-30.
    Research in psychopathology is booming in an unprecedented way, at least, in terms of increasing number of publications. Yet, a few questions arise: Does quantity also give us quality? Are the collected data generally of sound quality? How are data typically collected in psychopathology? Are the applied methods of data collection appropriate for this particular field of study? This article explores three different methods of data collection in psychopathology, namely self-rating scales, structured interviews, and semi-structured, phenomenological interviews. To identify the (...)
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  50. Psychosis and Intelligibility.Sofia Jeppsson - 2021 - Philosophy, Psychiatry, and Psychology 28 (3):233-249.
    When interacting with other people, we assume that they have their reasons for what they do and believe, and experience recognizable feelings and emotions. When people act from weakness of will or are otherwise irrational, what they do can still be comprehensible to us, since we know what it is like to fall for temptation and act against one’s better judgment. Still, when someone’s experiences, feelings and way of thinking is vastly different from our own, understanding them becomes increasingly difficult. (...)
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