Abstract
Terrorism is a global phenomenon that constantly challenges human survival. Based on the social structure, human beings adopt different strategies to overcome its negative consequences on their mind and behavior. Coping strategies and those processes essential for adjustment and survival illustrate how individuals perceive, consider, deal with, and realize a stressful situation in the era of terrorism. The study focuses on exploring coping strategies and avoidance of terrorism impacts. This research study was qualitatively designed to explore the coping strategies adaptation and their influence on the former FATA individuals during the wave of terrorism in the region. The study was undertaken in five districts of erstwhile FATA, including Dara Adam Khel, Orakzai Agency, Khyber Agency, and North and South Waziristan agency. A sample size of twenty-five (25) participants was purposively selected and interviewed, ten (10) focused group discussions (FGDs) were done from each district, and the other 50 participants were chosen for ten (10) FGDs. The collected data were analyzed via the thematic analysis technique. The findings revealed that coping strategies included four different phases: the welcome, resistance, acceptance, surrender, and flee phases for overcoming threats of terrorism. Furthermore, it was also found that fear of terrorism had strongly influenced the individuals’ physical, socio-economic, psychological, emotional stress and fear, education, and social integration. The study recommended that social integration and solidarity among the people, as well as their cooperation with the government, can eliminate the threat of terrorism.
-
Research funding: The authors received no financial support for this research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
-
Declaration of conflicting interests: The authors have no potential conflict of interest concerning this research, authorship, and/or publication.
Open-ended Interview Questions
Age ______________________________________
Occupation (Students, Teachers, Maliks, Politicians, Businessmen, and Mashran) ________________________________
Region or District _____________________________________
Economic Status ______________________________________
Question: Did you or any member of your family have faced/suffered or been affected by terrorism?
Question: What was the nature of your suffering?
Question: What were your strategies to overcome those effects?
Question: What were the demands of terrorists?
Question: How did you and other people respond to those demands?
Question: How did you and your community adjust to the fear-based environment?
Question: What were the major threats faced by those who challenged/resisted terrorists?
Question: Why do some people surrender before terrorists?
References
Abubakar Umar Kofar Naisa. (2018). Politics of exceptionalism terrorism in Nigeria; the Haram and Niger near East University. http://docs.neu.edu.tr/library/6689355198.pdfSearch in Google Scholar
Adnan, R. (2012). How bad governance led to conflict: The case of Swat. Munich Personal RePEc Archive. https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/id/eprint/35357Search in Google Scholar
Afridi, S. A., & Gul, S. (2018). Pakistan counterinsurgency in Swat: A critical review of literature. Central Asia Journal, 6(2), 146–151.Search in Google Scholar
Alam, J. (2021). Jirga system and its role in peacebuilding and development in Pakistan’s terrorism-affected pashtun “tribal” districts. Journal of Peacebuilding and Development, 16(3), 352–365. https://doi.org/10.1177/1542316620986138.Search in Google Scholar
Ali, G., Zar, M. A., & Khan, A. (2021). The identification of peace building contents in the Islamiat text book of class 10th in post conflict in district Swat. PalArch’s Journal of Archaeology of Egypt/Egyptology, 18(10), 2792–2811.Search in Google Scholar
Alonso-Tapia, J., Rodríguez-Rey, R., Garrido-Hernansaiz, H., Ruiz, M., & Nieto, C. (2019). Coping, personality and resilience: Prediction of subjective resilience from coping strategies and protective personality factors (pp. 375–389). Behavioral Psychology/Psicología Conductual. http://hdl.handle.net/10486/692055Search in Google Scholar
Altınsoy, F., & Aypay, A. (2021). A post-traumatic growth model: Psychological hardiness, happiness-increasing strategies, and problem-focused coping. Current Psychology, 1. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02466-0.Search in Google Scholar
Andersen, H., & Mayerl, J. (2018). Attitudes towards Muslims and fear of terrorism. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 41(15), 2634–2655. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2017.1413200.Search in Google Scholar
Attride-Stirling, J. (2001). Thematic networks: An analytic tool for qualitative research. Qualitative Research, 1(3), 385–405. https://doi.org/10.1177/146879410100100307.Search in Google Scholar
Bader, B., Suder, G., & Grosse, R. (2020). Terrorism as an external threat factor in global value chains. Thunderbird International Business Review, 62(2), 135–148. https://doi.org/10.1002/tie.22118.Search in Google Scholar
Bangash, S. (2012). Socio-economic conditions of post-conflict Swat: A critical appraisal. Tigah, A Journal of Peace and Development, 2, 66–79.Search in Google Scholar
Bell, E., & Bryman, A. (2005). Företagsekonomiska forskningsmetoder. Malmö: Liber Ekonomi.Search in Google Scholar
Ben-David, S. (2020). From victim to survivor to overcomer. In An international perspective on contemporary developments in victimology (pp. 21–30). Springer.10.1007/978-3-030-41622-5_2Search in Google Scholar
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa.Search in Google Scholar
Coca-Stefaniak, A., & Morrison, A. M. (2018). City tourism destinations and terrorism–a worrying trend for now, but could it get worse? International Journal of Tourism Cities, 4(4), 409–412. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijtc-12-2018-099.Search in Google Scholar
Cohen-Louck, K. (2019). Perception of the threat of terrorism. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(5), 887–911. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516646091.Search in Google Scholar
Cohen-Louck, K., & Ben-David, S. (2017). Coping with terrorism: Coping types and effectiveness. International Journal of Stress Management, 24(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1037/str0000016.Search in Google Scholar
Cohen-Louck, K., & Shechory-Bitton, M. (2019). Fear of terrorism, ethnicity and the acculturation process among immigrants. The Israeli case. Israel Journal of Psychiatry, 56(2), 3–10.Search in Google Scholar
Crelinsten, R. (2014). Perspectives on counterterrorism: From stovepipes to a comprehensive approach. Perspectives on Terrorism, 8(1), 2–15.Search in Google Scholar
Creswell, J. W. (2014). A concise introduction to mixed methods research. SAGE Publications.Search in Google Scholar
Crum, A. J., Jamieson, J. P., & Akinola, M. (2020). Optimizing stress: An integrated intervention for regulating stress responses. Emotion, 20(1), 120. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000670.Search in Google Scholar
De Clercq, D., Haq, I. U., & Azeem, M. U. (2017). Perceived threats of terrorism and job performance: The roles of job-related anxiety and religiousness. Journal of Business Research, 78, 23–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2017.04.013.Search in Google Scholar
Edriany, D., Sutatminingsih, R., & Siregar, R. H. (2021). The effect of resilience and gratitude on psychological well-being of male Afghanistan refugees in medan. International Journal of Progressive Sciences and Technologies, 24(1), 163–166.Search in Google Scholar
Ekici, N. (2010). The Dynamics of terrorist recruitment: The case of the revolutionary people’s liberation party/front (DHKP/C) and the Turkish Hezbollah. VDM Publishing.Search in Google Scholar
Ekici, N., & Akdogan, H. (2020). Structural equation modeling of terrorism perception. Perspectives on Terrorism, 14(5), 63–76.Search in Google Scholar
Ekici, N., Sozer, M., & Atak, S. (2010). The effect of ideology and organizational structure of terrorist groups on recruitment: Turkish Hizbullah and revolutionary people’s Liberation party front. International Journal of Security and Terrorism, 1, 37–58.Search in Google Scholar
Firdous, I. (2015). Under fire: Death chases the flock of mortals. Tribune. https://tribune.com.pk/story/951346/under-fire-death-chases-the-flock-ofSearch in Google Scholar
Friedland, N., & Merari, A. (1985). The psychological impact of terrorism: A double-edged sword. Political Psychology, 6(4), 591–604. https://doi.org/10.2307/3791018.Search in Google Scholar
Gidron, Y., Gal, R., & Zahavi, S. a. (1999). Bus commuters’ coping strategies and anxiety from terrorism: An example of the Israeli experience. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 12(1), 185–192. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1024762819880.10.1023/A:1024762819880Search in Google Scholar
Gil, S., Weinberg, M., Or-Chen, K., & Harel, H. (2015). Risk factors for DSM 5 PTSD symptoms in Israeli civilians during the Gaza war. Brain and Behavior, 5(4), e00316. https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.316.Search in Google Scholar
Guttmann, T. S., Gilboa, S., & Partouche-Sebban, J. (2021). “I live with terror inside me”: Exploring customers’ instinctive reactions to terror. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 92, 102734. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2020.102734.Search in Google Scholar
Haner, M., Sloan, M. M., Cullen, F. T., Kulig, T. C., & Lero Jonson, C. (2019). Public concern about terrorism: Fear, worry, and support for anti-Muslim policies. Socius, 5, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/2378023119856825.Search in Google Scholar
Huddy, L., Smirnov, O., Snider, K. L., & Perliger, A. (2021). Anger, anxiety, and selective exposure to terrorist violence. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 65(10), 1764–1790. https://doi.org/10.1177/00220027211014937.Search in Google Scholar
Ijaz, S., & Jafri, M. H. (2021). Mainstreaming Pakistan’s federally administered tribal areas challenges and future prospects. Pakistan Journal of International Affairs, 4(2).10.52337/pjia.v4i2.190Search in Google Scholar
Islam, Z., Adnan, M., & Talpur, M. A. (2020). Pakistan’s counter-terrorism strategy with viable recommendations. Progressive Research Journal of Arts and Humanities (PRJAH), 2(2), 156–167. https://doi.org/10.51872/prjah.vol2.iss2.45.Search in Google Scholar
Jalalzai, M. K. (2002). The holy terror: Islam, violence and terrorism in Pakistan. Dua Publ.Search in Google Scholar
Javadi, M., & Zarea, K. (2016). Understanding thematic analysis and its pitfall. Journal of Client Care, 1(1), 33–39. https://doi.org/10.15412/j.jcc.02010107.Search in Google Scholar
Jose, B., & Medie, P. A. (2015). Understanding why and how civilians resort to self-protection in armed conflict. International Studies Review, 17(4), 515–535. https://doi.org/10.1111/misr.12254.Search in Google Scholar
Keita, S., & Schewe, P. (2021). Out of sight, out of mind? Terror in the home country, family reunification options, and the well-being of refugees. World Development, 146, 105562. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105562.Search in Google Scholar
Khan, D., Israr, M., & Khan, Z. (2019). Pakhtun radicalization in fata: A qualitative approach for their effective integration in Pakistan. Journal of Law and Society, 1(75), 73–82.Search in Google Scholar
Koehler, D. (2020). Violent extremism, mental health and substance abuse among adolescents: Towards a trauma psychological perspective on violent radicalization and deradicalization. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology, 31(3), 455–472. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789949.2020.1758752.Search in Google Scholar
Kydd, A. H., & Walter, B. F. (2006). The strategies of terrorism. International Security, 31(1), 49–80. https://doi.org/10.1162/isec.2006.31.1.49.Search in Google Scholar
Lazarus, R. S. (2000). Toward better research on stress and coping. American Psychologist, 55(6), 665–673. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.6.665.Search in Google Scholar
Lee, C.-Y. (2022). Why do terrorists target the energy industry? A review of kidnapping, violence and attacks against energy infrastructure. Energy Research & Social Science, 87, 102459. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2021.102459.Search in Google Scholar
Lee, Heeuk, Reyns, B. W., Kim, D., & Maher, C. (2020). Fear of crime out west: Determinants of fear of property and violent crime in five states. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 64(12), 1299–1316. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624x20909238.Search in Google Scholar
Long, D. E. (1990). The anatomy of terrorism. Free Press. https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/anatomy-terrorism-0Search in Google Scholar
Ludin, J. (2022). Analysis: The current State of Affairs in Afghanistan. https://heartofasiasociety.orgSearch in Google Scholar
Mahmood, T., & Malik, M. T. (2022). Protracted social conflict in the globalized world: The case of newly merged tribal districts (NMTDs) in Pakistan. NUST Journal of International Peace & Stability, 3(2), 60–70. https://doi.org/10.37540/njips.v3i2.58.Search in Google Scholar
Malik, O. F., Abdullah, H., & Uli, J. A. (2014). The effects of terrorism on work attitudes and behaviors: A literature review and a proposed model. Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 6(3), 143–163. https://doi.org/10.1108/JACPR-04-2013-0012.Search in Google Scholar
Mazhar, U. (2021). Women empowerment and insecurity: Firm-level evidence. Business Economics, 56(1), 43–53. https://doi.org/10.1057/s11369-020-00187-z.Search in Google Scholar
Nellis, A. M. (2009). Gender differences in fear of terrorism. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 25(3), 322–340. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986209335012.Search in Google Scholar
Nowell, L. S., Norris, J. M., White, D. E., & Moules, N. J. (2017). Thematic analysis: Striving to meet the trustworthiness criteria. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 16(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406917733847.Search in Google Scholar
Nuttman-Shwartz, O., & Green, O. (2021). Resilience truths: Trauma resilience workers’ points of view toward resilience in continuous traumatic situations. International Journal of Stress Management, 28(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.1037/str0000223.Search in Google Scholar
Onapajo, H., & Ozden, K. (2020). Non-military approach against terrorism in Nigeria: Deradicalization strategies and challenges in countering Boko Haram. Security Journal, 33(3), 476–492. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41284-020-00238-2.Search in Google Scholar
Oppong (2013). The problem of sampling in qualitative research. Asian Journal of Management Sciences & Education, 2(2), 202–210.Search in Google Scholar
Oppong, S. (2014). A critique of the philosophical underpinnings of mainstream social science research. Academicus International Scientific Journal, 10, 242–254. https://doi.org/10.7336/academicus.2014.10.17.Search in Google Scholar
Palys, T. (2008). Basic research. The Sage Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods, 2, 58–60.Search in Google Scholar
Renard, T. (2021). Counter-terrorism as a public policy. Perspectives on Terrorism, 15(4), 2–10. https://doi.org/10.2307/27044231.Search in Google Scholar
Richard, W., & Drury, J. (2011). Personal and collective psychosocial resilience: Implications for children, young people and their families involved in war and disasters. In Children and armed conflict (pp. 57–75). Springer.10.1057/9780230307698_5Search in Google Scholar
Sanaullah (2021). An understanding of social violence: How insurgents use it as a strategy of control. Civil Wars, 23(1), 57–81. https://doi.org/10.1080/13698249.2021.1846350.Search in Google Scholar
Shah, S. A. A., Yezhuang, T., Shah, A. M., & Mamirkulova, G. (2022). The effectiveness of emotional intelligence in the face of terrorism fear and employees’ mental health strain. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 20, 1259–1272. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00440-8.Search in Google Scholar
Shahrabani, S., Rosenboim, M., Shavit, T., Benzion, U., & Arbiv, M. (2019). “Should I stay or should I go?” Risk perceptions, emotions, and the decision to stay in an attacked area. International Journal of Stress Management, 26(1), 57. https://doi.org/10.1037/str0000094.Search in Google Scholar
Shakirullah, Nawab, B., Nyborg, I., & Elahi, N. (2020). The underlying causes of violent conflict in the North Waziristan tribal areas of Pakistan. Civil Wars, 22(1), 114–136. https://doi.org/10.1080/13698249.2020.1730632.Search in Google Scholar
Shechory-Bitton, M., & Cohen-Louck, K. (2018). Does fear of terrorism differ from fear of crime and sexual assault: A question of geographical location and residential area. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 62(3), 806–826. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624x16658472.Search in Google Scholar
Shechory-Bitton, M., & Cohen-Louck, K. (2021). Spousal coping strategies in the shadow of terrorism. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(3–4), 1844–1864. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517744191.Search in Google Scholar
Shimelash Yasegnal, A. (2022). War related psycho-social Problems and mitigating strategies: A Time of crisis, A Time to act (pp. 101–119). Crisis & Loss.10.1177/10541373211073507Search in Google Scholar
Silke, A. (2019). Routledge handbook of terrorism and counterterrorism. Routledge. https://lccn.loc.gov/201704224510.4324/9781315744636-6Search in Google Scholar
Smith, N., & Barrett, E. C. (2019). Psychology, extreme environments, and counter-terrorism operations. Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression, 11(1), 48–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/19434472.2018.1551916.Search in Google Scholar
Stites, E. (2006). Movement as a livelihood and protective strategy in Northern Uganda. Humanitarian Exchange IDRC. CRDI, (36), Article 4.Search in Google Scholar
Tariq, M., Khan, M. S., Hussain, A., Zeb, M., Shah, A. A., Rizwan, M., & Qayum, H. (2020). A Critical analysis of the hurdles in the way of Peace and Stability in Afghanistan. International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change, 14(9), 844–456.Search in Google Scholar
Walters, G., Wallin, A., & Hartley, N. (2019). The threat of terrorism and tourist choice behavior. Journal of Travel Research, 58(3), 370–382. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287518755503.Search in Google Scholar
Ward, R. N., Brady, A. J., Jazdzewski, R., & Yalch, M. M. (2021). Stress, resilience, and coping. In Emotion, well-being, and resilience (pp. 3–14). Apple Academic Press. https://www.researchgate.netSearch in Google Scholar
Wolfe, S. E., & Tubi, A. (2019). Terror management theory and mortality awareness: A missing link in climate response studies? Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 10(2), e566. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.566.Search in Google Scholar
Wyant, B. R. (2008). Multilevel impacts of perceived incivilities and perceptions of crime risk on fear of crime: Isolating endogenous impacts. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 45(1), 39–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427807309440.Search in Google Scholar
Xin, T., Siponen, M., & Chen, S. (2021). Understanding the inward emotion-focused coping strategies of individual users in response to mobile malware threats. Behaviour & Information Technology, 41(13), 2835–2859. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/3754897.Search in Google Scholar
Yaden, D. B., & Haybron, D. M. (2022). The emotional state assessment tool: A brief, philosophically informed, and cross-culturally sensitive measure. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 17(2), 151–165. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2021.2016910.Search in Google Scholar
© 2022 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
