See Ren, X.S. and Amick, B.C., “Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Self-assessed Health Status: Evidence from the National Survey of Families and Households,” Ethnicity and Health 1 (1996): 293–303; Hubbell, F.A., Chavez, L.R., Mishra, S.I., and Valdez, R.B., “Differing Beliefs About Breast Cancer Among Latinas and Anglo Women,” Western Journal of Medicine 164 (1996): 405–09; Powe, B.D., “Fatalism Among Elderly African Americans: Effects on Colorectal Cancer Screening,” Cancer Nursing 18 (1995): 385–92; Weiner, D., “Health Beliefs About Cancer Among the Luiseno Indians of California,” Alaska Medicine 35 (1993): 285–96; Brown, C.M. and Segal, R., “Ethnic Differences in Temporal Orientation and its Implications for Hypertension Management,” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 37 (1996): 350–61; Hodes, R.M., “Cross-cultural Medicine and Diverse Health Beliefs: Ethiopians Abroad,” Western Journal of Medicine 196 (1997): 29–36; Suarez, M., Raffaelli, M., and O’Leary, A., “Use of Folk Healing Practices by HIV-infected His-panics Living in America,” AIDS Care 8 (1996): 683–90; Hopper, S.V., “The Influence of Ethnicity on the Health of Older Women,” Clinics in Geriatric Medicine 9 (1993): 231–59; Millet, P.E., Sullivan, B.F., Schwebel, A.I., and Myers, L. J., “Black Americans' and White Americans’ Views of the Etiology and Treatment of Mental Health Problems,” Community Mental Health Journal 32 (1996): 235–43; Uba, L., “Cultural Barriers to Health Care for Southeast Asian Refugees,” Public Health Reports 107 (1992): 544–48; Rosenblat, H. and Hong, P., “Coin Rolling Misdiagnosed as Child Abuse,” Canadian Medical Association Journal 140 (1989): 417.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

See Cornelison, A.H., “Cultural Barriers to Compassionate Care -Patients and Health Professionals’ Perspectives,” Bioethics Forum 17, no. 1 (2001): 7–14; Kawaga-Singer, M. and Blackhall, L.J., “Negotiating Cross-Cultural Issues at the End of Life: ‘You Got to Go Where He Lives,’” JAMA 286, no. 23 (2001): 2993–3001; Valle, R., “Cultural Assessment in Bioethical Advocacy – Toward Cultural Competency in Bioethical Practice,” Bioethics Forum 17, no. 1 (2001): 15–26.Google Scholar

Statistics Canada 2002 Census, available at <http://www12.stat-can.ca/english/census01/release/release4.cfm> (last visited July 28, 2004); Census Data United States of America, available at <http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/BasicFactsServlet> (last visited July 28, 2004).+(last+visited+July+28,+2004);+Census+Data+United+States+of+America,+available+at++(last+visited+July+28,+2004).>Google Scholar

See Snow, L.F., “Folk Medical Beliefs and Their Implications for the Care of Patients,” Annals of Internal Medicine 811 (1974): 374–79; Comaroff, J., “The Defectiveness of Symbols, or the Symbols of Defectiveness,” Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry 7 (1983): 3–20; Fox, R.C., “Essays in Medical Sociology: Journeys into the Field” in The Evolution of American Bioethics: A Sociological Perspective (New York: Wiley, 1979): 201–217; Gaines, A.D., “Definitions and Diagnosis,” Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry 34 (1979): 381–417; Young, A., “The Discourse of Stress and the Reproduction of Conventional Knowledge,” Social Science and Medicine 14b (1980): 131–46.Google Scholar

Reich, W.T., Encyclopedia of Bioethics (New York: The Free Press/Macmillan, 1995).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bowman, K.W., “Cultural Pluralism in Health Care: A South African-Canadian Comparison,” Annals of the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada 35, no. 2 (2002): 114–16.Google Scholar

Jecker, N.S., Carrese, J.A., and Pearlman, R.A., “Caring for Patients in aCross Cultural Setting,” Hastings Center Report 25, no. 1 (1995): 6–14; Kunstader, P., “Medical Ethics in Cross Cultural and Multicultural Perspectives,” Social Science and Medicine 1413 (1980): 289–96; Games, A.D. and Robert, A.H., “Physicians of Western Medicine: Five Cultural Studies,” Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry 63 (1982): 215–8; Gostin, L.O., “Informed Consent, Cultural Sensitivity, and Respect for Persons,” JAMA 274, no. 10 (1995): 844–45; Williams, J.R., Ethics in Cross-Cultural Health. Health and Cultures: Exploring the Relationships: Vol. 1: Policy Practice and Education (Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic Press, 1993): 255–70; Turner, L., “Bioethics and Anthropology: Bridges and Barriers to Transdisciplinary Research,” Monash Bioethics Review 22, no. 3 (2003):12–17.Google Scholar

Carrese, J.A. and Rhodes, L.A., “Western Bioethics on the Navajo Reservation,” JAMA 247, no. 10 (1995): 844–45; Blackhall, L.J., Murphy, S.T., Frank, G., Michel, V., and Azen, S., “Ethnicity and Attitudes Toward Patient Autonomy,” JAMA 274, no. 10 (1995): 820–25; Beauchamp, T.L., “A Defense of the Common Morality,” Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal13, no. 3 (2003): 259–74; Turner, L., “Bioethics in a Multicultural World: Medicine and Morality in Pluralistic Settings,” Health Care Analysis 11, no. 2 (2003): 99–117.Google Scholar

Hall, E.T., Beyond Culture (New York: Doubleday, 1981).Google Scholar

Kleinman, A.M., “Biomedical Practice and Anthropological Theory: Frameworks and Directions,” Annals of the Review of Anthropology 12 (1983): 305–33.Google Scholar

Rotter, J.B., ed., Locus of Control: Current Trends in Theory and Research, 2d ed. (New York: Wiley Press, 1966).Google Scholar

Hsieh, T., Shybut, J., and Lotsof, E., “Internal Versus External Control and Ethnic Group Membership: A Cross-cultural Comparison,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 33 (1969): 122–24; Battle, E. and Rotter, J., “Children’s Feelings of Personal Control as Related to Social Class and Ethnic Group,” Journal of Personality 31 (1963): 482–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

See Fox, , supra note 4.Google Scholar

See Beauchamp, , supra note 8; Fagan, A., “Challenging the Bioethical Application of the Autonomy Principle Within Multicultural Societies,” Journal of Applied Philosophy 21, no. 1 (2004): 15–31.Google Scholar

Barker, J.C., “Cultural Diversity – Changing the Context of Medical Practice,” Western Journal of Medicine 157 (special issue, “Cross-Cultural Medicine – A Decade Later”) (1992): 248–54.Google Scholar

Beyene, Y., “Medical Disclosure and Refugees: Telling Bad News to Ethiopian Patients,” Western Journal of Medicine 157 (1992): 328–32; Gordon, D.R., “Embodying Illness, Embodying Cancer,” Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry 14 (1990): 275–97; Muller, J.H. and Desmond, B., “Ethical Dilemmas in a Cross Cultural Context: A Chinese Example,” Western Journal of Medicine 157 (1992): 323–27; Tung, T.M., “Death, Dying, and Hospice: An Asian-American View,” The American Journal of Hospice and Palliative Care (1990): 23–25; see Caresse, and Rhodes, , supra note 8; Thomsen, O.O., Wulff, H.R., Martin, A., and Singer, P.A., “What do Gastroenterologists in Europe Tell Cancer Patients?” Lancet 341 (1993): 473–76; Caralis, P.V., Davis, B., Wright, K., and Marcial, E., “The Influence of Ethnicity and Race on Attitudes Toward Advance Directives, Life-Prolonging Treatments, and Euthanasia,” Journal of Clinical Ethics 4 (1993): 155–65; Asai, A., Fukuhara, S. and Lo, B., “Attitudes of Japanese and Japanese-American Physicians Towards Life-sustaining Treatment,” Lancet 346 (1995): 356–59; see Blackhall, et al., supra note 8; Ip, M., Gilligan, T., Koenig, B., and Raffin, T.A., “Ethical Decision-making in Critical Care in Hong Kong,” Critical Care Medicine 26 (1998): 447–51; Hui, E., Ho, S.C., Tsang, J., Lee, S.H., and Woo, J., “Attitudes Toward Life-Sustaining Treatment of Older Persons in Hong Kong,” Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 45 (1997): 1232–36; Feldman, M.D., Zhang, J., and Cummings, S.R., “Chinese and U.S. Internists Adhere to Different Ethical Standards,” Journal of General Internal Medicine, 14 (1999): 469–73; Liu, J.M., On, W.C., Chen, W.M., Wu, H.W., Yao, N.S., Chen, L.T., and Whang-Peng, J., “The Status of the Do-not-resuscitate Order in Chinese Clinical Trial Patients in a Cancer Centre,” Journal of Medical Ethics 25 (1999): 309–14.Google Scholar

Bowman, K.W., Singer, P.A., and Richard, S.A., “Chinese Seniors’ Perspectives on Truth Telling,” International Journal of Ethics (in press, Hauppauge, New York).Google Scholar

See Blackhall, et al., supra note 8.Google Scholar

See Carrese, and Rhodes, , supra note 8.Google Scholar

Kleinman, A.M., Patients and Healers in the Context of Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

See Ip, et al., supra note 16; Hui, et al., supra note 16; Feldman, et al., supra note 16.Google Scholar

See Kleinman, , supra note 20.Google Scholar

Tanida, N., “Japanese Religious Organizations View on Terminal Care,” Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 10 (2000): 34–37.Google Scholar

Armstrong, K., Buddha (New York: Penguin Books, 2001): at 27.Google Scholar

Ohnuki-Tierney, E., Illness and Culture in Contemporary Japan: an Anthropological View (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984): at 32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fujita, S., Seito Shi No Mirai (Tokyo: Ashai Shimbun-sha, 1980): at 6.Google Scholar

Yonemoto, S., Baioeshikkusu (Bioethics) (Tokyo: Kodan Sha, Gendai Shinsho: 1985): at 113.Google Scholar

Namihira, E., Noshi Zoki Ishoku Gan Kokuchi (Brain Death, Transplantation, and Revealing a Diagnosis of Cancer) (Tokyo: Fukutake Shoten, 1988): at 122.Google Scholar

Emory, M., Native America Calling, at <http://www.nativeamericacalling.com> (last visited Aug. 20, 2004).+(last+visited+Aug.+20,+2004).>Google Scholar

Ikels, C., “Kidney Failure and Transplantation in China,” Social Science and Medicine 44 (1997): 1271–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Scorsone, S., “Christianity and the Significance of the Human Body,” Transplantation Proceedings 22 (1990): 943–44.Google Scholar

Locke, M., “Reaching Consensus About Death: Heart Transplant and Cultural Identity in Japan” Social Science Perspectives On Medical Ethics (Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1990): 99–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Meleis, A.L. and Jonsen, A.R., “Ethical Crises and Cultural Differences (Medicine in Perspective),” Western Journal of Medicine 138 (1983): 889–93.Google Scholar