A four-part working bibliography of neuroethics: part 2 – neuroscientific studies of morality and ethics

Abstract

Background

Moral philosophy and psychology have sought to define the nature of right and wrong, and good and evil. The industrial turn of the twentieth century fostered increasingly technological approaches that conjoined philosophy to psychology, and psychology to the natural sciences. Thus, moral philosophy and psychology became ever more vested to investigations of the anatomic structures and physiologic processes involved in cognition, emotion and behavior - ultimately falling under the rubric of the neurosciences. Since 2002, neuroscientific studies of moral thought, emotions and behaviors have become known as – and a part of – the relatively new discipline of neuroethics. Herein we present Part 2 of a bibliography of neuroethics from 2002–2013 addressing the “neuroscience of ethics” – studies of putative neural substrates and mechanisms involved in cognitive, emotional and behavioral processes of morality and ethics.

Methods

A systematic survey of the neuroethics literature was undertaken. Bibliographic searches were performed by accessing 11 databases, 8 literature depositories, and 4 individual journal searches, and employed indexing language for National Library of Medicine (NLM) Medical Subject Heading databases. All bibliographic searches were conducted using the RefWorks citation management program.

Results

This bibliography lists 397 articles, 65 books, and 52 book chapters that present (1) empirical/experimental studies, overviews, and reviews of neural substrates and mechanisms involved in morality and ethics, and/or (2) reflections upon such studies and their implications. These works present resources offering iterative descriptions, definitions and criticisms of neural processes involved in moral cognition and behaviors, and also provide a historical view of this field, and insights to its developing canon.

Introduction and background

Throughout much of recorded history, humans have sought to define the nature of right and wrong, and good and evil. Since antiquity, such questions have been the focus of moral philosophy. However, empirical and experimental movements of the late nineteenth century drew scientific attention to philosophical questions, and the queries of moral philosophy became the focus of the then nascent discipline of psychology. The industrial turn of the twentieth century fostered increasingly technological approaches that conjoined psychology to the natural sciences. Philosophical speculation, and psychological observation and experimentation became ever more rooted in, and vested to investigations of the anatomic structures and physiologic processes involved in cognition, emotion and behavior. Thus, studies of moral philosophy and moral psychology became the province of brain research, ultimately falling under the rubric of the neurosciences, which became firmly established as a titular field in the middle-to-late 1970s [1]. Important contributory literature from the 1960s through early 2000s is provided below.

Important contributory literature from the 1960s through early 2000s

Journal Articles

• Allison T: Neuroscience and morality. Neuroscientist 2001, 7(5):360-364.

• Callahan D: Ethical responsibility in science in the face of uncertain consequences. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1976, 265:1-12.

• Changeux JP: [Reflections of a neurobiologist on the origin of ethics.] CR Seances Soc Biol Fil 1998, 192(6):1041-1049.

• Churchland PS: The significance of neuroscience for philosophy. Trends Neurosci 1988, 11(7): 304-307

• Damasio H, Grabowski T, Frank R, Galaburda AM, Damasio AR: The return of Phineas Gage: clues about the brain from the skull of a famous patient. Science 1994, 264(5162): 1102-1105.

• Dolan RJ: On the neurology of morals. Nat Neurosci 1999, 2(11):927-929.

• Eslinger PJ, Damasio AR: Severe disturbance of higher cognition after bilateral frontal lobe ablation: patient EVR. Neurology 1985, 35(12):1731-1741.

• Greene JD, Sommerville RB, Nystrom LE, Darley JM, Cohen JD: An fMRI investigation of emotional engagement in moral judgment. Science 2001, 293(5537): 2105-2108.

• Helmuth L: Cognitive neuroscience. Moral reasoning relies on emotion. Science 2001, 293(5537):1971-1972.

• Laplane D. [Epistemological remarks on the question of cerebral organization.] Rev Neurol 1994, 150(8-9):555-563.

• Medinnus GR: Behavioral and cognitive measures of conscience development.  J Genet Psychol 1966, 109(1):147-150.

• Scoville WB, Milner B: Loss of recent memory after bilateral hippocampal lesions. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiat 1957, 20:11-21.

• Strawson G: The impossibility of moral responsibility. Philos Stud 1994, 75(1/2): 5-24.

Books

• Bratman M: Intention, Plans, and Practical Reason. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press 1987.

• Brentano F: Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint. New York: Humanities Press 1973 (1874).

• Churchland PM: The Engine of Reason, the Seat of the Soul: A Philosophical Journey into the Brain. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press 1995.

• Clark A: Being There: Putting Brain, Body and World Together Again. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press 1997.

• Crick F: The Astonishing Hypothesis: The Scientific Search for the Soul. New York: Touchstone 1994.

• Damasio AR: Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason and the Human Brain. New York: Putnam 1994.

• Damasio AR: The Feeling of What Happens: Body and Emotion in the Making of Consciousness. New York: Harcourt Brace 1999.

• Dewey J. Human Nature and Conduct: An Introduction to Social Psychology. New York: Carlton House 1922.

• Fodor JA: The Language of Thought. New York: Crowell 1975.

• Habermas J, Dews P: Autonomy and Solidarity: Interviews with Jürgen Habermas. London: Verso 1986.

• Harrington A: Medicine, Mind, and the Double Brain: A Study in Nineteenth-Century Thought. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1987.

• Huber G: Cerveau et Psychisme Humains: Quelle Ethique? [Human Brain: Which Ethics?] Paris: Association Decartes and J. Libbey Eurotext 1996.

• Kane R: The Significance of Free Will. New York: Oxford University Press 1996.

• Luria AR: The Man with a Shattered World: The History of a Brain Wound. New York: Basic Books 1972.

• Minsky M: The Society of Mind. New York: Simon and Schuster 1986.

• Nagel T: Equality and Partiality. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press 1991.

• Pylyshyn ZW: Computation and Cognition: Toward a Foundation for Cognitive Science. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press 1984.

• Rolls ET: The Brain and Emotion. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1999.

• Taylor C: Sources of the Self: The Making of Modern Identity. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1989.

Since 2002, neuroscientific studies of moral thought, emotions and behaviors have become known as – and a part of – the relatively new discipline of neuroethics [2]. As a field, neuroethics’ focus is not limited to studies of neural bases of morality, but also centers upon those ethical issues that are fostered by neuroscientific research and its various implications and applications in clinical medicine and the public sphere. Thus, as the tools and techniques of neuroscience become more sophisticated and precise, the questions raised by neuroscience and neuroethics may be equally, or even more pressing as those answered [3]. How can –and will–the brain sciences inform concepts of morality, ethics and law? Will understanding the structure and functions of brain networks and processes involved in social interactions, emotions and behaviors alter constructs of “free will,” culpability, and responsibility? Can neuroscientific information provide a basis for guiding how we should behave, either as individuals or as actors-in-community? Will the brain sciences foster a “new ethics” of neuroethics, and if so, how might these new ideas–and perhaps ideals–comport with long held traditions and norms of morality and ethics on an ever more pluralistic world stage?

The late William Safire concluded his introductory remarks to the 2002 Dana Foundation conference “Neuroethics –Mapping the Field” by congratulating the attendees for tackling “…the challenge of carving out a new territory for an old philosophical discipline” [4] by examining the neural mechanisms of morality. The following bibliography reflects this challenging “new territory”, as presented in published works from 2002–2013. These works are experimental, empirical, and/or hypothetical. In some cases the position is inquisitive, in others speculative, and in others a critical perspective is taken (of approaches used to exemplify and study ethical dilemmas, of the prior and current descriptions of psychological processes of human relations, and of concepts of morality and ethics, more generally).

Methods

Methods for systematically searching relevant literature devoted to neuroethics are identical to those utilized in Part 1 of this bibliography [5]. Search strategies utilizing MeSH (Medical Subject Headings: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mesh/) indexing terms were used for generating bibliographies from PubMed and National Library of Medicine (NLM) Catalog. MeSH includes ethics-related terms developed for BIOETHICSLINE, a specialty database devoted to bioethical issues produced for NLM by the Kennedy Institute of Ethics from 1975–2000. Other databases were searched using descriptors specific to those databases. The searches were limited to work published from 2002 to 2013.

The following databases were searched to produce this bibliography:

• 1) PubMed (http://pubmed.gov):

  Search Strategy: (morals[majr:noexp] AND (neurosciences/ethics[majr:noexp] OR cognitive science/ethics[majr] OR brain[majr:noexp]))

• 2) The NLM Catalog (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nlmcatalog):

  Search Strategy: (morals [majr:noexp] AND (neurosciences/ethics[majr:noexp] OR cognitive science/ethics[majr] OR brain[majr:noexp]))

• 3) Academic Search Premier:

  Search Strategy: TX morality AND SU neurosciences AND SU philosophy

• 4) Proquest Research Library:

  Search Strategy: su (morality) AND su (neurosciences)

• 5) JSTOR:

  Search Strategy: ab:(moral) AND ab:(neuroscience)

• 6) WorldCat (http://www.worldcat.org).:

  Search Strategy: “cognitive neuroscience” and “moral and ethical aspects” (as subject phrases)

• 7) Philosopher's Index:

  Search Strategy: su(moral) AND su(neuroscience)

• 8) Embase:

  Search Strategy: neuroscience:de AND morality:de

• 9) BELIT (http://www.drze.de/belit/).:

  Search Strategy: neurosciences* [subject keywords] and morality*[subject keywords]

• 10) Web of Knowledge/Web of Science (WoS):

  Search Strategy: [topic] morality neurosciences

• 11) Digital Public Library of America (DPLA) (http://dp.la/):

  Search Strategy: brain moral

• 12) Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ) (http://www.doaj.org/):

  Search Strategy: [search all] moral neurosciences

• 13) Hathi Trust Digital Library (http://www.hathitrust.org/):

  [any of these words] morality moral in Subject AND

  [any of these words] neurosciences brain cognitive in Subject

• 14) European Library (http://www.theeuropeanlibrary.org/tel4/):

  Search Strategy: [subject] moral AND [subject] brain

• 15) Internet Archive (http://archive.org/):

  Search Strategy: morality AND brain

• 16) Globethics.net (http://www.globethics.net/):

  Search Strategy: [keywords] moral AND neurosciences

• 17) Neuroethics-Wikiography (https://teamweb.uni-mainz.de/fb05/Neuroethics):

  Search Strategy: moral

As previously noted [5], open access bioethics’ journals not contained in the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ) were individually accessed and searched; these included:

• 1) Journal of Ethics and Social Philosophy from the University of Southern California http://www.jesp.org/);

• 2) Journal of Mental Health Ethics from McMaster University (http://www.jemh.ca/);

• 3) Journal of Practical Ethics (http://www.jpe.ox.ac.uk/) from the Oxford Uehiro Centre for Practical Ethics at the University of Oxford; and

• 4) Philosophers’ Imprint from the University of Michigan (http://www.philosophersimprint.org/).

As in Part 1 of this bibliography [5], the RefWorks citation manager program was utilized to eliminate duplicate reference citations.

Results

The following reference citations provide a listing of 397 articles, 65 books, and 52 book chapters that afford (1) empirical/experimental studies, overviews, and reviews of neural substrates and mechanisms involved in morality and ethics, and/or (2) reflections upon such studies and their implications.

• Abend G: Thick concepts and the moral brain. Euro J Soc 2011, 52(1):143–172. doi:10.1017/s0003975611000051.

• Abend G: What the science of morality doesn’t say about morality. Philos Soc Sci 2013, 43(2):157–200. doi:10.1177/0048393112440597.

• Adolphs R: The social brain: neural basis of social knowledge. Annu Rev Psychol 2009, 60: 693:716. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163514.

• Adolphs R: Cognitive neuroscience of human social behaviour. Nat Rev Neurosci 2003, 4(3): 165–178. doi:10.1038/nrn1056.

• Agar N: Still afraid of needy post-persons. J Med Ethics 2013, 39(2):81–83. doi:10.1136/medethics-2012-101095.

• Agar N: Why is it possible to enhance moral status and why doing so is wrong? J Med Ethics 2013, 39(2):67–74. doi:10.1136/medethics-2012-100597.

• Ainslie G: Précis of breakdown of will. Behav Brain Sci 2005, 28(5):635–673. doi:10.1017/S0140525X05000117.

• Al-Delaimy WK: Ethical concepts and future challenges of neuroimaging: an Islamic perspective. Sci Eng Ethics 2012, 18(3):509–518. doi:10.1007/s11948-012-9386-3.

• Árnason G: Neuroscience, free will and moral responsibility. TRAMES-J Humanit Soc 2011, 15(2):147–155. doi:10.3176/tr.2011.2.03.

• Árnason G: Neuroimaging, uncertainty, and the problem of dispositions. Camb Q Healthc Ethics 2010, 19(2):188–195. doi:10.1017/S0963180109990454.

• Avram M et al.: Neurofunctional correlates of esthetic and moral judgments. Neurosci Lett 2013, 534:128–132. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2012.11.053.

• Azzone GF: The biological foundations of culture and morality. Rendiconti Lincei 2008, 19 (2):189–204.doi:10.1007/s12210-008-0011-y.

• Baertschi B: Neurosciences et neuroéthique: qui se ressemble s’assemble. Rev Med Suisse 2005, 1(34):2225–2229.

• Baertschi B: Neurosciences et responsabilité morale: un argument en faveur du compatibilisme. Revue de Theologie et de Philosophie 2011, 143(3):257–272.

• Bahnemann M et al.: Sociotopy in the temporoparietal cortex: common versus distinct processes. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2010, 5(1):48–58. doi:10.1093/scan/nsp045.

• Banja J: Virtue essentialism, prototypes, and the moral conservative opposition to enhancement technologies: a neuroethical critique. AJOB Neurosci 2011, 2(2):31–38. doi:10.1080/21507740.2011.556918.

• Barandiaran X, Ruiz-Mirazo K: Modelling autonomy: simulating the essence of life and cognition. Introduction. Biosystems 2008, 91(2):295–304. doi:10.1016/j.biosystems.2007.07.001.

• Barbey AK, Krueger F, Grafman J. An evolutionarily adaptive neural architecture for social reasoning. Trends Neurosci 2009, 32(12):603–610. doi:10.1016/j.tins.2009.09.001.

• Barraza JA, McCullough ME, Ahmadi S, Zak PJ: Oxytocin infusion increases charitable donations regardless of monetary resources. Horm Behav 2011, 60(2):148–151. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.04.008.

• Bartels DM: Principled moral sentiment and the flexibility of moral judgment and decision making. Cognition 2008, 108(2):381–417. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2008.03.001.

• Basile B et al.: Deontological and altruistic guilt: evidence for distinct neurobiological substrates. Hum Brain Mapp 2011, 32(2):229–239. doi:10.1002/hbm.21009.

• Bellino RM: Free will in the eye of neuroscientific reductionism: the need for a philosophical foundation of moral neuropsychology. History & Philosophy of Psychology 2009, 11(1):12–16.

• Benedetti F et al.: Neural and genetic correlates of antidepressant response to sleep deprivation: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of moral valence decision in bipolar depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2007, 64(2):179–187. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.64.2.179.

• Berker S: The normative insignificance of neuroscience. Philos Public Aff 2009, 37(4):293–329. doi:10.1111/j.1088-4963.2009.01164.x.

• Berns GS, Atran S: The biology of cultural conflict. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2012, 367(1589):633–639. doi:10.1098/rstb.2011.0307.

• Berns GS et al.: Neurobiological correlates of social conformity and independence during mental rotation. Biol Psychiatry 2005, 58(3):245–253. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.04.012.

• Berns GS et al.: The price of your soul: neural evidence for the non-utilitarian representation of sacred values. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2012, 367(1589):754–762. doi:10.1098/rstb.2011.0262.

• Berthoz S et al.: Affective response to one’s own moral violations. Neuroimage 2006, 31(2):945–950. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.12.039.

• Berthoz S, Armony JL, Blair RJ, Dolan RJ: An fMRI study of intentional and unintentional (embarrassing) violations of social norms. Brain 2002, 125 (Pt. 8):1696–1708. doi:10.1093/brain/awf190.

• Bertschinger N, Olbrich E, Ay N, Jost J: Autonomy: an information theoretic perspective. Biosystems 2008, 91(2):331–345.doi:10.1016/j.biosystems.2007.05.018.

• Bird S: Ethics on the brain. Science & Spirit 2006, 17(4):65–67.

• Blair RJR: The amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex in morality and psychopathy. Trends Cogn Sci 2007, 11(9):387–392. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2007.07.003.

• Blair J et al.: Neuro-cognitive systems involved in morality. Philosophical Explorations: An International Journal for the Philosophy of Mind and Action 2006, 9(1):13–27. doi:10.1080/13869790500492359.

• Boden MA: Autonomy: what is it? Introduction. Biosystems 2008, 91(2):305–308. doi:10.1016/j.biosystems.2007.07.003.

• Bok H: The implications of advances in neuroscience for freedom of the will. Neurotherapeutics 2007, 4(3):555–559. doi:10.1016/j.nurt.2007.04.001.

• Bonete E: Neuroethics in Spain: neurological determinism or moral freedom? Neuroethics 2013, 6(1):225–232. doi:10.1007/s12152-012-9151-y.

• Borg JS et al.: Consequences, action, and intention as factors in moral judgments: an fMRI investigation. J Cogn Neurosci 2006, 18(5):803–817. doi:10.1162/jocn.2006.18.5.803.

• Borg JS, Sinnott-Armstrong W, Calhoun VD, Kiehl KA: Neural basis of moral verdict and moral deliberation. Soc Neurosci 2011, 6(4):398–413. doi:10.1080/17470919.2011.559363.

• Borg JS, Lieberman D, Kiehl KA: Infection, incest, and iniquity: investigating the neural correlates of disgust and morality. J Cogn Neurosci 2008, 20(9):1529–1546. doi:10.1162/jocn.2008.20109.

• Boyd GW: The body, its emotions, the self, and consciousness. Perspect Biol Med 2012, 55(3):362–377. doi:10.1353/pbm.2012.0031.

• Brosch T, Sander D: Neurocognitive mechanisms underlying value-based decision-making: from core values to economic value. Front Hum Neurosci 2013, 7:398. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00398.

• Brosnan SF: An evolutionary perspective on morality. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 2011, 77(1):23–30. doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2010.04.008.

• Bruni T: Ventromedial prefrontal cortex lesions and motivational internalism. AJOB Neurosci 2012, 3(3):19–23. doi:10.1080/21507740.2012.694389.

• Bruni T: Neuroscience and moral reliability. AJOB Neurosci 2011, 2(2):15–17. doi:10.1080/21507740.2011.559913.

• Buford C, Allhoff F: Neuroscience and metaphysics. Am J Bioeth 2005, 5(2):34–36. doi:10.1080/15265160590960258.

• Buford C, Allhoff F: Neuroscience and metaphysics (redux). Am J Bioeth 2007, 7(1):58–60. doi:10.1080/15265160601064272.

• Buller T: Morality in a blur. Am J Bioeth 2008, 8(5):21–23. doi:10.1080/15265160802180018.

• Buller T: Rationality, responsibility, and brain function. Camb Q Healthc Ethics 2010, 19(2):196–204. doi:10.1017/S0963180109990466.

• Burgdorf J, Pankseep J: The neurobiology of positive emotions. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2006, 30(2):173–187. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.06.001.

• Burns K, Bechara A: Decision making and free will: a neuroscience perspective. Behav Sci Law 2007, 25(2):263–80. doi:10.1002/bsl.751.

• Bzdok D et al.: Parsing the neural correlates of moral cognition: ALE meta-analysis on morality, theory of mind, and empathy. Brain Struct Funct 2012, 217(4):783–796. doi:10.1007/s00429-012-0380-y.

• Cáceda R et al.: Mode of effective connectivity within a putative neural network differentiates moral cognitions related to care and justice ethics. PLoS One 2011, 6(2):e14730. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0014730.

• Cacioppo JT et al. Just because you're imaging the brain doesn't mean you can stop using your head: a primer and set of first principles. J Pers Soc Psychol 2003, 85(4):650–661. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.4.650.

• Camps V: Neuronas y valores. Rev Neurol 2013, 57(5):230–234.

• Canli T, Amin Z: Neuroimaging of emotion and personality: scientific evidence and ethical considerations. Brain Cogn 2002, 50(3):414–431.

• Casebeer WD: Moral cognition and its neural constituents. Nat Rev Neurosci 2003, 4(10):840–846. doi:10.1038/nrn1223.

• Casebeer WD, Churchland PS: The neural mechanisms of moral cognition: a multiple-aspect approach to moral judgment and decision-making. Biol Philos 2003, 18(1):169–194. doi:10.1023/A:1023380907603.

• Caspers S et al.: Moral concepts set decision strategies to abstract values. PLoS One 2011, 6(4):e18451. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0018451.

• Chambon V et al.: An online neural substrate for a sense of agency. Cereb Cortex 2013, 23(5):1031–1037. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhs059.

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• Charmetant E: Contemporary naturalism and human ontology: towards a different essentialism. Forum Philosophicum: International Journal for Philosophy 2011, 16(1):59–72.

• Check E: Ethicists urge caution over emotive power of brain scans. Nature 2005, 435(7040):254–255. doi:10.1038/435254a.

• Cheshire WP: The origami brain: from neural folds to neuroethics. Ethics Med 2011, 27(2):79–83.

• Cheshire WP: Can grey voxels resolve neuroethical dilemmas? Ethics Med 2007, 23(3):135–140.

• Chiong W: The self: from philosophy to cognitive neuroscience. Neurocase 2011, 17(3):190–200. doi:10.1080/13554794.2010.532808.

• Christensen JF, Gomila A: Moral dilemmas in cognitive neuroscience of moral decision-making: a principled review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2012, 36(4):1249–1264. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.02.008.

• Churchland PM: Into the brain: where philosophy should go from here. Topoi-Int Rev Philos 2006, 25(1–2):29–32. doi:10.1007/s11245-006-0024-z.

• Churchland PS: The impact of neuroscience on philosophy. Neuron 2008, 60(3):409–411. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2008.10.023.

• Churchland PS: Neurophilosophy: the early years and new directions. Funct Neurol 2007, 22(4):185–195.

• Churchland PS: Free will matters. AJOB Neurosci 2011, 2(3):1–2. doi:10.1080/21507740.2011.588905.

• Ciaramelli E, di Pellegrino G: Ventromedial prefrontal cortex and the future of morality. Emotion Review 2011, 3(3):308–309. doi:10.1177/1754073911402381.

• Ciaramelli E, Sperotto RG, Mattioli F, di Pellegrino G: Damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex reduces interpersonal disgust. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2013, 8(2):171–180. doi:10.1093/scan/nss087.

• Ciaramidaro A, et al.: The intentional network: how the brain reads varieties of intentions. Neuropsychologia 2007, 45(13):3105–3113. doi:10.1016/j. neuropsychologia.2007.05.011.

• Cikara M, Farnsworth RA, Harris LT, Fiske ST: On the wrong side of the trolley track: neural correlates of relative social valuation. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2010, 5(4):404–413. doi:10.1093/scan/nsq011.

• Claes SJ: The free brain? Tijdschr Psychiatr 2011, 53(7):389–391.

• Clark TW: Holding mechanisms responsible. Med Ethics (Burlingt Mass) 2006, 13(3):10–11.

• Cole Wright J, Cullum J, Schwab N: The cognitive and affective dimensions of moral conviction: implications for attitudinal and behavioral measures of interpersonal tolerance. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 2008, 34(11):1461–1476. doi:10.1177/0146167208322557.

• Conway P, Gawronski B: Deontological and utilitarian inclinations in moral decision making: a process dissociation approach. J Pers Soc Psychol 2013, 104(2):216–235. doi:10.1037/a0031021.

• Cosmides L, Tooby J, Fiddick L, Bryant GA: Detecting cheaters. Trends Cogn Sci 2005, 9(11):505–506. doi:10.1109/msp.2011.28.

• Costa AN: Images of difficulty. IIOAB Journal 2013, 4(3):3–8.

• Crockett MJ, Clark L, Hauser MD et al.: Serotonin selectively influences moral judgment and behavior through effects on harm aversion. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2010, 107(40):17433–17438. doi:10.1073/pnas.1009396107.

• Cromby J, Newton T, Williams SJ: Neuroscience and subjectivity. Subjectivity 2011, 4:215–226. doi:10.1057/sub.2011.13.

• Culotta E: Neuroscience. Brain stimulation sparks ‘Machiavellian’ choices. Science 2013, 342(6154):25. doi:10.1126/science.342.6154.25.

• Cushman F, Knobe J, Sinnott-Armstrong W: Moral appraisals affect doing/allowing judgments. Cognition 2008, 108(1):281–289. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2008.02.005.

• Cushman F: Action, outcome, and value: a dual-system for morality. Pers Soc Psychol Rev 2013, 17(3):273–292. doi:10.1177/1088868313495594.

• Cushman F, Young L, Hauser M: The role of conscious reasoning and intuition in moral judgment: testing three principles of harm. Psychol Sci 2006, 17(12):1082–1089. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01834.x.

• Cushman F, Greene JD: Finding faults: how moral dilemmas illuminate cognitive structure. Soc Neurosci 2012, 7(3):269–279. doi:10.1080/17470919.2011.614000.

• Damasio A: Neuroscience and ethics: intersections. Am J Bioeth 2007, 7(1):3–7. doi:10.1080/1526516060103910.

• da Rocha AF, Rocha FT, Massad E: Moral dilemma judgment revisited: a Loreta analysis. J Behav Brain Sci 2013, 3(8):624–640. doi:10.4236/jbbs.2013.38066.

• da Rocha AC, Bergareche AM: Wired for autonomy. Am J Bioeth 2008, 8(5):23–25. doi:10.1080/15265160802180042.

• Dawes CT et al.: Neural basis of egalitarian behavior. Proc Natl Acad Sci 2012, 109(17):6479–6483. doi:10.1073/pnas.1118653109.

• de Achával D et al.: Activation of brain areas concerned with social cognition during moral decisions is abnormal in schizophrenia patients and unaffected siblings. J Psychiatr Res 2013, 47(6):774–782. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.12.018.

• Dean R: Does neuroscience undermine deontological theory? Neuroethics 2010, 3(1):43–60. doi:10.1007/s12152-009-9052-x.

• Decety J, Michalska KJ, Kinzler KD: The developmental neuroscience of moral sensitivity. Emot Rev 2011, 3(3):305–307. doi:10.1177/1754073911402373.

• Decety J, Howard LH: The role of affect in the neurodevelopment of morality. Child Dev Perspect 2013, 7(1):49–54. doi:10.1111/cdep.12020.

• Decety J, Cacioppo S: The speed of morality: a high-density electrical neuroimaging study. J Neurophysiol 2012, 108(11):3068–3072. doi:10.1152/jn.00473.2012.

• Decety J, Michalska, KJ: Neurodevelopmental changes in the circuits underlying empathy and sympathy from childhood to adulthood. Dev Sci 2010, 13(6):886–899. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00940.x.

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• Clayton P, Schloss J: (Eds): Evolution and Ethics: Human Morality in Biological and Religious Perspective. Grand Rapids, Mich.: W. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company; 2004.

• Decety J, Ickes W: (Eds): The Social Neuroscience of Empathy. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press; 2009.

• DiSilvestro R: Human Capacities and Moral Status. Dordrecht: Springer; 2010.

• Ebstein R, Shamay-Tsoory S, Chew SH: (Eds): From DNA to Social Cognition. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley-Blackwell; 2011.

• Engels EM, Hildt E: Neurowissenschaften und Menschenbild. Paderborn: Mentis; 2005.

• Franks DD: Neurosociology: The Nexus between Neuroscience and Social Psychology. New York: Springer; 2010.

• Gallagher S: How the Body Shapes the Mind. Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon Press; 2005.

• Gazzaniga, MS: The Ethical Brain: The Science of Our Moral Dilemmas. New York: Harper Perennial; 2005.

• Gazzaniga, MS: Wann ist der Mensch ein Mensch? Antworten der Neurowissenschaft auf ethische Fragen. Düsseldorf: Patmos-Verl; 2007.

• Gazzaniga MS: El Cerebro Ético. Barcelona: Paidós; 2006.

• Geyer C: Hirnforschung und Willensfreiheit: zur Deutung der neuesten Experimente. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp; 2004.

• Gillett G: Subjectivity and Being Somebody: Human Identity and Neuroethics. Exeter, UK: Imprint Academic; 2008.

• Giménez Amaya JM, Sánchez-Migallón Granados S. De la Neurociencia a la Neurología: Narrativa Científica y Reflexión Filosófica. Pamplona: Eunsa; 2010.

• Glimcher PW: Decisions, Uncertainty, and the Brain: The Science of Neuroeconomics. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press; 2003.

• Gluchman V: (Ed): Morality: Reasoning on Different Approaches. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2013.

• Greene JD: Moral Tribes: Emotion, Reason, and the Gap Between Us and Them. New York: The Penguin Press; 2013.

• Hagner M: Geniale Gehirne: Zur Geschichte der Elitegehirnforschung. Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag; 2004.

• Harris S: The Moral Landscape: How Science Can Determine Human Values. New York: Free Press; 2010.

• Hauser MD: Moral Minds: How Nature Designed Our Universal Sense of Right and Wrong. New York: Ecco; 2006.

• Heintel P, Broer K: Hirnforschung als dialektische Sozialwissenschaft. Münster: Wien Lit; 2005.

• Jackson F, Pettit P, Smith M: Mind, Morality, and Explanation: Selected Collaborations. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press; 2004.

• Legrenzi P, Umiltà C: Neuromania: On the Limits of Brain Science. Translated by Frances Anderson. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press; 2011.

• Lehrer J: How We Decide. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt; 2009.

• Metzinger T: The Ego Tunnel: The Science of the Mind and the Myth of the Self. New York: Basic Books; 2009.

• Murphy NC, Ellis GFR, O’Connor T: Downward Causation and the Neurobiology of Free Will. Berlin: Springer Verlag; 2009.

• Noë A: Out of Our Heads: Why You Are Not Your Brain, and Other Lessons from the Biology of Consciousness. New York: Hill and Wang; 2009.

• Pfaff DW: The Neuroscience of Fair Play: Why We (Usually) Follow the Golden Rule. New York: Dana Press; 2007.

• Prinz JJ. The Emotional Construction of Morals. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press; 2007.

• Quartz SR, Sejnowski TJ: Liars, Lovers and Heroes: What the New Brain Science Reveals About How We Become Who We Are. New York: William Morrow; 2002.

• Rees DA, Rose SPR: The New Brain Sciences: Perils and Prospects. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2004.

• Reuter-Lorenz PA, Baynes K, Mangun GR, Phelps EA: (Eds). The Cognitive Neuroscience of Mind: A Tribute to Michael S. Gazzaniga. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2010.

• Rolls ET: Memory, Attention, and Decision-Making: A Unifying Computational Neuroscience Approach. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press; 2008.

• Scharifi G: Brauchen Brauchen wir eine neue Ethik?: Herausforderungen der Ethik durch die Neurowissenschaft. Paderborn: Mentis; 2011.

• Schroeder P, Roskies AL, Nichols S: Moral Motivation. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press; 2010.

• Severino SK: Behold Our Moral Body. Psychiatry, Duns Scotus, and Neuroscience. Berlin: De Gruyter; 2013.

• Sinnott-Armstrong W: (Ed): Moral Psychology, Volume 1: The Evolution of Morality—Adaptations and Innateness. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press; 2007.

• Sinnott-Armstrong W: (Ed): Moral Psychology, Volume 2: The Cognitive Science of Morality: Intuition and Diversity. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press; 2008.

• Sinnott-Armstrong W: (Ed): Moral Psychology, Volume 3: The Neuroscience of Morality: Emotion, Brain Disorders, and Development. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press; 2008.

• Smith R: Free Will and the Human Sciences in Britain, 1870–1910. London: Pickering & Chatto; 2013.

• Sternberg EJ: My Brain Made Me Do It: The Rise of Neuroscience and the Threat to Moral Responsibility. Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books; 2010.

• Szasz TS: The Meaning of Mind: Language, Morality, and Neuroscience. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press; 2002.

• Tancredi LR: Hardwired Behavior: What Neuroscience Reveals about Morality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2005.

• Taylor KE: The Brain Supremacy: Notes from the Frontiers of Neuroscience. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press; 2012.

• Thiele LP: The Heart of Judgment: Practical Wisdom, Neuroscience, and Narrative. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2006.

• Thompson E: Mind in Life: Biology, Phenomenology, and the Sciences of Mind. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press; 2007.

• Tracy JL, Robins RW, Tangney JP: (Eds): The Self-Conscious Emotions: Theory and Research. New York: Guilford Press; 2007.

• Verplaetse J, De Schrijver J, Vanneste S, Braeckman, J: (Eds): The Moral Brain: Essays on the Evolutionary and Neuroscientific Aspects of Morality. New York: Springer; 2009.

• Verplaetse J: Localizing the Moral Sense: Neuroscience and the Search for the Cerebral Seat of Morality, 1800–1930. Dordrecht: Springer; 2009.

• Verplaetse J: Het Morele Brein: Een Geschiedenis Over de Plaats van de Moraal in Onze Hersenen. Antwerp: Garant; 2006.

• Vilarroya O, i Argimon FF: (Eds): Social Brain Matters: Stances on the Neurobiology of Social Cognition. Amsterdam: Rodopi; 2007.

• Volavka J: Neurobiology of Violence. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2002.

Book chapters

• Ackerman S: Neuroscience and morality. In her Hard Science, Hard Choices: Facts, Ethics, and Policies Guiding Brain Science Today. New York: Dana Press; 2006:17–20.

• Ackerman S: Moral decision making in the brain. In her Hard Science, Hard Choices: Facts, Ethics, and Policies Guiding Brain Science Today. New York: Dana Press; 2006:48–51.

• Appiah A: The varieties of moral experience. In his Experiments in Ethics. Boston: Harvard University Press; 2008:121–163.

• Au C: Eine zwei-quellen-theorie der Moral: spekulative Gedanken vor dem hintergrund einer neurologischen Fallstudie. In Zeithorizonte des Ethischen: zur Bedeutung der Temporalität in der Fundamental- und Bioethik. Edited by Georg Pfleiderer; Christoph Rehmann-Sutter (Hrsg.). [… Forschungssymposium “Zeithorizonte des Ethischen”, das wir im Landgut Castelen bei Kaiseraugust vom 16. bis 18. Oktober 2003 organisiert hatten]. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer; 2006:191–200.

• Blair RJ: Contributions of neuroscience to the understanding of moral reasoning and its development. In Developmental Social Cognitive Neuroscience. Edited by Philip D. Zelazo, Michael Chandler, Eveline Crone. New York: Psychology Press; 2010:269–288.

• Buller S: Brains, lies, and psychological explanations. In Neuroethics: Defining the Issues in Theory, Practice, and Policy. Edited by Judy Illes. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press; 2006:51–60.

• Casebeer WD: Moral cognition and its neural constituents. In Defining Right and Wrong in Brain Science: Essential Readings in Neuroethics. Edited by Walter Glannon. New York: Dana Press; 2007:206–220.

• Churchland PM: Toward a cognitive neurobiology of the moral virtues. In Scientific and Philosophical Perspectives in Neuroethics. Edited by James Giordano, Bert Gordijn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2010:146–171.

• Churchland PS: Neuroscience: reflections on the neural basis of morality. In Defining Right and Wrong in Brain Science: Essential Readings in Neuroethics. Edited by Walter Glannon. New York: Dana Press; 2007:179–182.

• Churchland PS: Moral decision making and the brain. In Neuroethics: Defining the Issues in Theory, Practice, and Policy. Edited by Judy Illes. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press; 2006:3–16.

• Churchland PS: Inference to the best decision. In The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy and Neuroscience. Edited by John Bickle. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press; 2009:419–430.

• Churchland PS: Human dignity from a neurophilosophical perspective. In Human Dignity and Bioethics: Essays Commissioned by the President's Council on Bioethics. Washington, DC: President’s Council on Bioethics; 2008:99–121.

• Damasio A: The neural basis of social behavior: ethical implications. In Defining Right and Wrong in Brain Science: Essential Readings in Neuroethics. Edited by Walter Glannon. New York: Dana Press; 2007:175–178.

• Decety J, Howard LH: A neurodevelopmental perspective on morality. In Handbook of Moral Development. Edited by Melanie Killen, Judith G. Smetana. New York: Psychology Press; 2013:454–474.

• Decety J, Batson CD. Empathy and morality: integrating social and neuroscience approaches. In The Moral Brain: Essays on the Evolutionary and Neuroscientific Aspects of Morality. Edited by Jan Verplaetse, Jelle De Schrijver, Sven Vanneste, Johan Braeckman. Netherlands: Springer; 2009:109–127.

• Donald MW: The definition of human nature. In The New Brain Sciences: Perils and Prospects. Edited by Dai Rees, Steven Rose. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2004:34–58.

• Farah MJ, Heberlein AS: Personhood: an illusion rooted in brain function? In Neuroethics: An Introduction with Readings. Edited by Martha J. Farah. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; 2010:321–338.

• Gazzaniga MS: The brain produces a poor autobiography. In his The Ethical Brain: The Science of Our Moral Dilemmas. New York: Harper Perennial; 2006:120–144.

• Gazzaniga M: My brain made me do it. In Defining Right and Wrong in Brain Science: Essential Readings in Neuroethics. Edited by Walter Glannon. New York: Dana Press; 2007: 183–194.

• Gillett G: The moral subject. In his Subjectivity and Being Somebody: Human Identity and Neuroethics. Charlottesville: Imprint Academic; 2008:84–106.

• Gillet G: On method in moral science. In his Subjectivity and Being Somebody: Human Identity and Neuroethics. Charlottesville: Imprint Academic; 2008:253–255.

• Glannon W: Brain, body, and self. In his Bioethics and the Brain. New York: Oxford University Press; 2007:13–44.

• Glannon W: Our brains are not us. In his Brain, Body, and Mind: Neuroethics with a Human Face. New York: Oxford University Press; 2011:11–40.

• Glannon W: Neuroscience, free will, and moral responsibility. 41(31); In his Brain, Body, and Mind: Neuroethics with a Human Face. New York: Oxford University Press; 2011:41–71.

• Glannon W: Neuroscience and moral reasoning. In his Brain, Body, and Mind: Neuroethics with a Human Face. New York: Oxford University Press; 2011:93–114.

• Greene J: From neural ‘is’ to moral ‘ought’: what are the moral implications of neuroscientific moral psychology? In Defining Right and Wrong in Brain Science: Essential Readings in Neuroethics. Edited by Walter Glannon. New York: Dana Press; 2007:221–236.

• Greene J: Cognitive nuroscience and the structure of the moral mind. In The Innate Mind, Vol. 1. Edited by Peter Carruthers, Stephen Laurence, Stephen Stich. New York: Oxford University Press; 2005:338–352.

• Greene JD: The secret joke of Kant’s soul. In Moral Psychology, Vol. 3: The Neuroscience of Morality: Emotion, Disease, and Development. Edited by W. Sinnott-Armstrong. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press; 2007:35–80.

• Greene JD: The cognitive neuroscience of moral judgment. In The Cognitive Neurosciences. Edited by Michael S. Gazzaniga et al. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press; 2009:987–1002.

• Haggard P: Neuroethics of free will. In The Oxford Handbook of Neuroethics. Edited by Judy Illes, Barbara J. Sahakian. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press; 2013:219–226.

• Haidt J: The moral emotions. In Handbook of Affective Sciences. Edited by Richard J. Davidson, Klaus R. Scherer, and H. Hill Goldsmith. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press; 2003:852–870.

• Joyce R: What neuroscience can (and cannot) contribute to metaethics. In Moral Psychology, Vol. 3: The Neuroscience of Morality: Emotion, Disease, and Development. Edited by W Sinnott-Armstrong. Singapore: Wiley-Blackwell; 2007:371–394.

• Koenigs M: Emotion and moral cognition. In From DNA to Social Cognition. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley-Blackwell; 2012:111–122.

• Kollek R: Mind metaphors, neurosciences and ethics. In The New Brain Sciences: Perils and Prospects. Edited by Dai Rees, Steven Rose. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2004:71–87.

• Landreth A: The emerging theory of motivation. In The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy and Neuroscience. Edited by John Bickle. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press; 2009:381–418.

• Levy N: The neuroscience of free will. In his Neuroethics: Challenges for the 21st Century. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2007:222–257.

• Meilaender G: Commentary on Churchland. In Human Dignity and Bioethics: Essays Commissioned by the President's Council on Bioethics. Washington, DC: President’s Council on Bioethics; 2008: 122–125.

• Mele A: Free will and neuroscience. In his Free Will and Luck. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2006:30–48.

• Midgley M: Do we ever really act? In The New Brain Sciences: Perils and Prospects. Edited by Dai Rees, Steven Rose. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2004:17–33.

• Moll J, de Oliveira-Souza R, Zahn R: Neuroscience and morality: moral judgments, sentiments, and values. In Personality, Identity, and Character. Edited by Darcia Narvaez, Daniel K. Lapsley. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2009:106–135.

• Nesse RM: How can evolution and neuroscience help us understand moral capacities? In The Moral Brain: Essays on the Evolutionary and Neuroscientific Aspects of Morality. Edited by Jan Verplaetse, Jelle De Schrijver, Sven Vanneste, Johan Braeckman. Netherlands: Springer; 2009 New York: Springer; 2009:201–209.

• Rose H: Consciousness and the limits of neurobiology. In The New Brain Sciences: Perils and Prospects. Edited by Dai Rees, Steven Rose. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2004:59–70.

• Rose S: Having a brain, being a mind. In his The Future of the Brain: The Promise and Perils of Tomorrow's Neuroscience. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press; 2006:137–168.

• Roskies A: What’s “neu” in neuroethics. In The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy and Neuroscience. Edited by John Bickle. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press; 2009:454–472.

• Roskies A: A case study in neuroethics: the nature of moral judgment. In Neuroethics: Defining the Issues in Theory, Practice, and Policy. Edited by Judy Illes. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press; 2006:17–32.

• Schleim S: Über einen möglichen normativen beitrag der Moralphysiologie. In: Brauchen wir eine neue Moral?: Herausforderungen der Ethik durch die Neurowissenschaft. Edited by Gilbert Scharifi. Paderborn: Mentis; 2011:181–198.

• Suhler C, Churchland PS: The neurobiological basis of morality. In The Oxford Handbook of Neuroethics. Edited by Judy Illes, Barbara J. Sahakian. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press; 2013:33–58.

• Tancredi L: Neuroscience and morality. In his Hardwired Behavior: What Neuroscience Reveals about Morality. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2005:1–11.

• Tancredi L: Morality and the mind. In his Hardwired Behavior: What Neuroscience Reveals about Morality. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2005:12–24.

• Tancredi L: The moral brain. In his Hardwired Behavior: What Neuroscience Reveals about Morality. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2005:34–45.

• Tancredi L: Creating a moral brain. In Hardwired Behavior: What Neuroscience Reveals about Morality. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2005:162–176.

• Tancredi LR: The bad brain: biology of moral thinking. In The Variables of Moral Capacity. Edited by David C. Thomasma and David N. Weisstub. Dordrecht: Kluwer; 2004:235–257.

• Zoloth L: Being in the world: neuroscience and the ethical agent. In Neuroethics: Defining the Issues in Theory, Practice, and Policy. Edited by Judy Illes. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press; 2006:61–74.

Discussion and conclusions

Despite our best efforts to amass as complete a bibliography of the past 10 years’ neuroethics literature as possible, automated indexing and other technical issues can affect the retrieval of documents. However, this need not constrain the capability of this document to provide a valuable nexus in, and for the discipline. As consistent with Part 1 of this series, we conceive of this bibliography as a participatory endeavor, and request that the readership contribute to this effort by adding any missing citations to the online comments section of this bibliography. Citations also can be emailed directly to the bibliographic manager at: bioethics@georgetown.edu for subsequent inclusion as commentary/addenda to this work.

To be sure, with advances in neuroscientific capabilities and expanding use of neuroscientific techniques and technologies in medicine, arguments are being made to address ethical issues generated by brain research [6], prompting elaboration of neuroethics as the “ethics of neuroscience” [2,7]. Indeed, it is (perhaps most) important to ask if such approaches to studying (moral) cognition and actions are technically apt, valid, and therefore of any real value [3,8]. Will necessary review, oversight and guidance be developed to direct and regulate if and how such research should or should not be conducted and translated into clinical treatments? Might studies of the putative neural bases of moral thought and action establish trends to engage these substrates and mechanisms in the clinical practices of neurology and psychiatry, and/or establish a basis for boutique, socially-, legally-, or politically-oriented interventions aimed at altering moral cognition and behaviors? Part 3 of this series will present a current bibliography of these and other neuroethical issues germane to clinical medicine.

In addition to implications for clinical care, neuroscientific studies of cognition, emotion and behavior can be – and are increasingly – leveraged in legal and social contexts, which must be considered on an international scale [9,10]. How, for example, might neuroscientific insights to the concept of free will incur consequences for questions of legal culpability? Can neuroscience provide metrics for, and standards of psychosocial “normality” and “abnormality” that are valid and viable within and across cultures? How will neuroscience and neurotechnologies be employed upon the twenty first century world stage to affect human health and capability, and evoke economic and political balances of power? Literature addressing these issues and questions will be presented in Part 4 of this bibliographic series. When taken together, we hope that this bibliography will elucidate the literature that is representative of the first ten years of this field, provide a historical view of this discipline’s growth, and afford insight to its developing canon.