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A Cross-cultural and Buddhist-Friendly Interpretation of the Typology Exclusivism-Inclusivism-Pluralism

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Abstract

This article develops a new and expanded interpretation of the typology exclusivism, inclusivism, pluralism. The proposal refines the categories of what was originally a Christian typology in order to provide a truly cross-cultural and interreligious framework to better understand and compare the most common views of religious diversity found not only in Christianity, but also in Buddhism and other religions. Although building upon Schmidt-Leukel's logical reinterpretation of the typology, the article substantially modifies his framework and understands the typology, not as a comprehensive classification of possible attitudes toward other religions, but rather as an open-ended framework to clarify the nature of the most common theologies of religions that exist in reality. The new interpretation provides a more precise definition of inclusivism that does not conflate inclusivism with the affirmation of a singular maximum, thus distinguishing between absolutistic and non-absolutistic forms of inclusivism. The new interpretation introduces an intermediate position between inclusivism and pluralism called pluralistic inclusivism. The article challenges David Ray Griffin's concept of generic pluralism and proposes a new understanding of pluralism indebted to Raimundo Panikkar.

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Notes

  1. Exclusivism rejects the existence of salvation in other religions; inclusivism accepts the existence of salvation in other religions, but mediated by Christ alone; pluralism recognizes several independently valid religions, that is, there is salvation in other religions without the necessary mediation of Christ. For a useful historical account of Christian attitudes toward the existence of salvation in other religions, see Alan Race, Christians and Religious Pluralism (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1983).

  2. A summary of different critiques to the typology can be found in Perry Schmidt-Leukel, ‘Exclusivism, Inclusivism, Pluralism: The Tripolar Typology—Clarified and Reaffirmed,’ in The Myth of Religious Superiority: A Multifaith Exploration, edited by Paul F. Knitter (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 2005).

  3. For a brief discussion of the most recent alternative typologies, see Paul Hedges, ‘A Reflection on Typologies: Negotiating a Fast-Moving Discussion,’ in Christian Approaches to other Faiths, edited by Paul Hedges and Alan Race (London: SCM Press, 2008), 23–26.

  4. Ibid., 27

  5. For a brief discussion of recent alternative typologies, see Paul Hedges, ‘A Reflection on Typologies: Negotiating a Fast-Moving Discussion,’ in Christian Approaches to other Faiths, edited by Paul Hedges and Alan Race (London: SCM Press, 2008), 23–26.

  6. Ibid., 17.

  7. Perry Schmidt-Leukel, ‘Exclusivism, Inclusivism, Pluralism: The Tripolar Typology—Clarified and Reaffirmed,’ in The Myth of Religious Superiority: A Multifaith Exploration, edited by Paul F. Knitter (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 2005), 18. See also his Theologie der Religionen:Probleme, Optionen, Argumente (Ars Una: Neuried,1997), 65–97.

  8. Ibid., 19.

  9. Ibid., 19.

  10. Perry Schmidt-Leukel, ‘Pluralisms’ in Christian Approaches to other Faiths, edited by Paul Hedges and Alan Race (London: SCM Press, 2008), 87.

  11. I write Dharma with a capital letter and nirvana and the other concepts in lowercase because they can all be interpreted as instantiations or representations of the Dharma. While nirvana can be subsumed under the four noble truths and the Dharma, the Dharma cannot be subsumed under any other concept, not even under dependent origination. On the contrary, dependent origination can be subsumed under the Dharma. However, other interpreters may prefer to write all the concepts that may stand for P with capital letters.

  12. Christopher Ives, ‘Liberating Truth: A Buddhist Approach to Religious Pluralism,’ in Deep Religious Pluralism, edited by David Ray Griffin (Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005), 179.

  13. H.H. XIV Dalai Lama, The Buddhism of Tibet. Translated and edited by Jeffrey Hopkins (Ithaca, New York: Snow Lion Publications, 1975, third edition 2002), 77.

  14. See for instance (Majjhima Nikāya.I.22-3).

  15. See for instance David Kalupahana’s interpretation of nirvana in History of Buddhist Philosophy: Continuities and Discontinuities (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1992).

  16. ‘God is neither a person nor a thing, but is the transcendent reality which is conceived and experienced by different human mentalities in both personal and nonpersonal ways.’ John Hick, God Has Many Names, (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1982), 91.

  17. In Buddhist Inclusivism: Attitudes Toward Religious Others (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2005), Kristin Beise Kiblinger understands inclusivism as a form of syncretism and combines this meaning with the standard meaning of inclusivism in theology of religions. However, in a later writing she states that overall she agrees with Perry Schmidt-Leukel’s framework, and acknowledges that ‘this is somehow different from my previous use of the term inclusivism in my book on Buddhist inclusivism.’ ‘Buddhist Stances toward Others: Types, Examples, Considerations,’ in Buddhist Attitudes to Other Religions, edited by Perry Schmidt-Leukel (Germany: Editions of St.Ottilien, 2008), 25.

  18. See for instance the story of the leaves in ( Nikāya.V.438).

  19. (Dīgha Nikāya.II.151).

  20. Not even in early Buddhism are all liberated beings alike. Buddhas (sammasambuddha) excel other enlightened beings in some regards. The specific nature of these regards differs from tradition to tradition.

  21. We are indebted to Shubert M. Ogden for this distinction, though we do not endorse his understanding of these concepts in Is there Only One True Religion or Are There Many? (Dallas, Texas: Southern Methodist University Press, 1992), 85ff.

  22. ( Nikāya.II.25).

  23. ‘Buddhist Stances toward Others: Types, Examples, Considerations,’ in Buddhist Attitudes to Other Religions, edited by Perry Schmidt-Leukel (Germany: Editions of St.Ottilien, 2008), 24–25.

  24. Perry Schmidt-Leukel,‘Pluralisms’ in Christian Approaches to other Faiths, edited by Paul Hedges and Alan Race (London: SCM Press, 2008), 100.

  25. ‘The Jordan, the Tiber, and the Ganges: Three Kairological Moments of Christic Self-Consciousness.’ In The Myth of Christian Uniqueness: Toward a Pluralistic Theology of Religions, edited by John Hick and Paul F. Knitter (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1987), 111.

  26. Paul Knitter, Introducing Theologies of Religions (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 2002), 13–27.

  27. Paul Hedges, ‘Particularities’ in Christian Approaches to other Faiths, edited by Paul Hedges and Alan Race (London: SCM Press, 2008), 112–135.

  28. Ibid., 112.

  29. Identist pluralism speaks about one salvation and one ultimate reality common to diverse religions. The pluralism of John Hick, Paul Knitter, and Wilfred Cantwell Smith is identist. David Ray Griffin, ‘Religious Pluralism: Generic, Identist, and Deep,’ in Deep Religious Pluralism, edited by David Ray Griffin (Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005).

  30. Differential pluralism does not speak necessarily of one and the same salvation or about one and the same ultimate reality. The pluralism of John B. Cobb and Raimundo Panikkar is differential. David Ray Griffin, ‘Religious Pluralism: Generic, Identist, and Deep,’ in Deep Religious Pluralism, edited by David Ray Griffin (Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005).

  31. For the concept of open inclusivism see Paul J. Griffiths, Problems of Religious Diversity (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2001) 60–64.

  32. Jacques Dupuis, Christianity and the Religions: From Confrontation to Dialogue, (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 2002), 257.

  33. Ibid., 90.

  34. Ibid., 131.

  35. Ibid., 258.

  36. Ibid., 257.

  37. Ibid., 229.

  38. Paul Knitter, Introducing Theologies of Religions (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 2002), 103.

  39. David Ray Griffin, ‘Religious Pluralism: Generic, Identist, and Deep,’ in Deep Religious Pluralism, edited by David Ray Griffin (Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005), 3.

  40. ( Nikāya. II. 105–6).

  41. ( Nikāya. II. 25).

  42. Mark S. Heim, Salvations: Truth and Difference in Religion, (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1995), 129. Quoted by David Ray Griffin, ‘Religious Pluralism: Generic, Identist, and Deep,’ in Deep Religious Pluralism, edited by David Ray Griffin (Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005), 27.

  43. For an illuminating discussion of the differences between Karl Rahner and Raimundo Panikkar see Jacques Dupuis, Christianity and the Religions: From Confrontation to Dialogue, (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 2002), 52–59.

  44. Mark Heim, Salvations: Truth and Difference in Religion (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1995), 167.

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Correspondence to Abraham Vélez de Cea.

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Vélez de Cea, A. A Cross-cultural and Buddhist-Friendly Interpretation of the Typology Exclusivism-Inclusivism-Pluralism. SOPHIA 50, 453–480 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11841-011-0242-8

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