Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Wallace, Darwin, and the Practice of Natural History

  • Published:
Journal of the History of Biology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

There is a pervasive contrast in the early natural history writings of the co-discoverers of natural selection, Alfred Russel Wallace and Charles Darwin. In his writings from South America and the Malay Archipelago (1848–1852, 1854–1862), Wallace consistently emphasized species and genera, and separated these descriptions from his rarer and briefer discussions of individual organisms. In contrast, Darwin’s writings during the Beagle voyage (1831–1836) emphasized individual organisms, and mingled descriptions of individuals and groups. The contrast is explained by the different practices of the two naturalists in the field. Wallace and Darwin went to the field with different educational experiences and social connections, constrained by different responsibilities and theoretical interests. These in turn resulted in different natural history practices; i.e., different habits and working routines in the field. Wallace’s intense collecting activities aimed at a complete inventory of different species and their distributions at many localities. Darwin’s less intense collecting practice focused on detailed observations of individual organisms. These different practices resulted in different material, textual and conceptual products. Placing natural history practices at the center of analysis reveals connections among these diverse products, and throws light on Wallace and Darwin’s respective treatment of individuals and groups in natural history. In particular, this approach clarifies the relation between individuals and groups in Wallace’s theory of natural selection, and provides an integrative starting point for further investigations of the broader social factors that shaped Victorian natural history practices and their scientific products.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

Manuscript Sources:

  • Malay archipelago journals, 4 notebooks (13 June 1856–4 May 1861). Linnean Society, Archives (Ms. 178a-d) (cited as MJa-d)

  • Natural history notebook, 1855–1859. Linnean Society, Archives (Ms. 180)

  • Zoology notebook, chiefly entomological. 1855–1858. Linnean Society, Archives (Ms 179)

Published Sources:

  • Allen D.E. 1976. The Naturalist in Britain. Harmondsworth: Penguin

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen D.E. 2001. Naturalists and Society. Aldershot: Ashgate

    Google Scholar 

  • Barrett P.H., Gautry P.J., Herbert S., Kohn D., Smith S. (eds.). 1987. Charles Darwin’s Notebooks, 1836–1844. Ithaca: Cornell University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Bates H.W. 1863. The Naturalist on the River Amazons. London: John Murray

    Google Scholar 

  • Beddall B.G. 1968. Wallace, Darwin, and the Theory of Natural Selection. Journal of the History of Biology 1: 261–323

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beddall B.G. 1988. Darwin and Divergence: the Wallace Connection. Journal of the History of Biology 21: 1–68

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowler P.J. 1976. Alfred Russel Wallace’s Concepts of Variation. Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 31: 17–29

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brackman A.C. 1980. A Delicate Arrangement: The Strange Case of Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace. New York: Times Books

    Google Scholar 

  • Brooks J.L. 1984. Just Before the Origin: Alfred Russel Wallace’s Theory of Evolution. New York: Columbia University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Browne J. 1980. Darwin’s Botanical Arithmetic and the “Principle of Divergence,” 1854–1858. Journal of the History of Biology 13(1): 53–89

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Browne J. 1992. A Science of Empire: British Biogeography Before Darwin. Revue of Historical Sciences 45(4): 453–475

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Browne J. 1995. Charles Darwin: Voyaging, Vol. 1. Princeton: Princeton University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Browne J. 2003. Charles Darwin: The Power of Place, Vol. 2. New York: Alfred A. Knopf

    Google Scholar 

  • Bulmer M. 2005. The Theory of Natural Selection of Alfred Russel Wallace FRS. Notes & Records of the Royal Society 59: 125–136

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burkhardt F., Smith S. (eds.). 1985. The Correspondence of Charles Darwin, Volumes I, II, VII (1821–1859). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (cited as CCD)

    Google Scholar 

  • Camerini J.R. 1996. Wallace in the Field. Osiris 11: 44–65. (2nd series)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Camerini J.R. 1997. Remains of the Day: Early Victorians in the Field. In: Lightman B. (ed.) Victorian Science in Context. Chicago: Chicago University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Camerini J.R. (ed.). 2002. The Alfred Russel Wallace Reader: a Selection of Writings from the Field. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • [Chambers, Robert.] 1994 [1844]. Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation. Reprint: Secord, J.A. (ed.). Chicago, University of Chicago Press

  • Darwin, Charles. 1987 [1839]. Journal of Researches in Geology and Natural History. New York: New York University Press. [Volumes 2 and 3 of the works of Charles Darwin, edited by Paul H. Barrett and R. B. Freeman.]

  • —— 1987 [1842–1844]. Barrett, P.H., and Freeman, R.B. (eds.). The Works of Charles Darwin, Volume 10: The Foundations of the Origin of Species. New York: New York University Press

  • Darwin, Charles, and Wallace, Alfred Russel. 1959 [1858]. “On the Tendency of Species to Form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection.” Journal of the Linnean Society 3: 45–62. Lowenberg, Bert James (Chairman, Darwin Anniversary Committee) Darwin, Wallace and the Theory of Natural Selection. Cambridge: Arlington Books

    Google Scholar 

  • Darwin, Charles. 1968 [1859]. The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. London: Penguin Books

  • Darwin C. 1871. The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex. London: John Murray

    Google Scholar 

  • —— 1998 [1872]. The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, 3rd ed. (P.␣Ekman, ed.). New York: Oxford University Press, 1998 (1st edition 1872)

  • Darwin F., Seward A.C. (eds.). 1903. More Letters of Charles Darwin. London: John Murray

    Google Scholar 

  • de Beer G. (ed.). 1960. Darwin’s Notebooks on the Transmutation of Species. London: British Museum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Desmond A., Moore J. 1991. Darwin: the Life of a Tormented Evolutionist. New York: Warner Books

    Google Scholar 

  • Farber P.L. 2000. Finding Order in Nature: the Naturalist Tradition from Linnaeus to E.O. Wilson. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Fichman M. 2004. An Elusive Victorian: The Evolution of Alfred Russel Wallace. Chicago: University of Chicago Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Gayon J. 1998. Darwinism’s Struggle for Survival. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • George W. 1979. Alfred Russel Wallace, the Gentle Trader: Collecting in Amazonia and the Malay Archipelago 1848–1862. Journal of the Society for the Bibliography of Natural History 9: 503–514

    Google Scholar 

  • Ghiselin M.T. 1997. Metaphysics and the Origin of Species. Albany: State University of New York Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Gould S.J. 1980. Wallace’s Fatal Flaw. Natural History 89: 26–40

    Google Scholar 

  • Gould S.J. 2002. The Structure of Evolutionary Theory. Cambridge: Harvard University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Gruber H.E. 1985. Going the Limit: Toward the Construction of Darwin’s Theory.␣In: Kohn D. (ed.). The Darwinian Heritage. Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 9–34

    Google Scholar 

  • Herbert S. (ed.). 1980. The Red Notebook of Charles Darwin. Ithaca and London: British Museum (Natural History) and Cornell University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Herbert S. 2005. Charles Darwin, Geologist. Ithaca: Cornell University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Hull D.L. 1989. The Metaphysics of Evolution. Albany: State University of New York Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Hull D.L. 2005. Deconstructing Darwin: Evolutionary Theory in Context. Journal of History of Biology 38: 137–152

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones G. 2002. Alfred Russel Wallace, Robert Owen and the Theory of Natural Selection. British Journal of History of Science 35: 73–96

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keynes R.D. (ed.). 1988. Charles Darwin’s Beagle Diary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Keynes R.D. (ed.). 2000. Charles Darwin’s Zoology Notes and Specimen Lists from H.M.S. Beagle. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Keynes R.D. 2003. Fossils, Finches, and Fuegians: Darwin’s Adventures and Discoveries on the Beagle. Oxford: Oxford University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Kleiner S.A. 1985. Darwin’s and Wallace’s Revolutionary Research Programme. British Journal of Philosophy of Science 36: 367–392

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kohn D. (ed.). 1985. The Darwinian Heritage. Princeton: Princeton University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Kottler M.J. 1985. Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace: Two Decades of Debate Over Natural Selection. In: Kohn D. (ed.). The Darwinian Heritage. Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 367–432

    Google Scholar 

  • Larsen A. 1996. Equipment for the Field. In: Jardine N., Secord J.A., Spary E.C. (eds.). Cultures of Natural History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 358–377

    Google Scholar 

  • Love A.C. 2002. Darwin and Cirripedia Prior to 1846: Exploring the Origins of the Barnacle Research. Journal of the History of Biology 35: 251–289

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lowenberg, Bert James (Chairman, Darwin Anniversary Committee). 1959. Darwin, Wallace and the Theory of Natural Selection. Cambridge: Arlington Books

  • Marchant J. 1916. Alfred Russel Wallace: Letters and Reminiscences. New York: Harper & Bros

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayr E. 1982. The Growth of Biological Thought. Cambridge: Harvard University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • McKinney H.L. 1972. Wallace and Natural Selection. New Haven: Yale University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • McOuat G. 1996. Species, Rules and Meaning: The Politics of Language and the Ends of Definitions in 19th Century Natural History. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 27: 473–519

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McOuat G. 2001. Cataloguing Power: Delineating ‚Competent Naturalists’ and the Meaning of Species in the British Museum. British Journal of the History of Science 34: 1–28

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore J. 1997. Wallace’s Malthusian Moment: the Common Context Revisited. In: Lightman B. (ed.). Victorian Science in Context. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 290–311

    Google Scholar 

  • Osborn H.F. 1894. From the Greeks to Darwin: an Outline of the Evolution Idea. New York: Columbia University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Ospovat D. 1981. The Development of Darwin’s Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Raby P. 2001. Alfred Russel Wallace: A Life. London: Chatto and Windus

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruse M. 1980. Charles Darwin and Group Selection. Annals of Science 37: 615–630

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruse M. 1999. The Darwinian Revolution, 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press (1st ed. 1979)

    Google Scholar 

  • Shermer M. 2002. In Darwin’s Shadow: The Life and Science of Alfred Russel Wallace. New York: Oxford University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Sloan P.R. 1985. Darwin’s Invertebrate Program 1826–1836: Preconditions for Transformism. In: Kohn D. (ed.). The Darwinian Heritage. Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 71–120

    Google Scholar 

  • Slotten R.A. 2004. The Heretic in Darwin’s Court: The Life of Alfred Russel Wallace. New York: Columbia University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith C.H. (ed.). 1991. Alfred Russel Wallace: an Anthology of His Shorter Writings. Oxford: Oxford University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Stauffer R.C. (ed.). 1975. Charles Darwin’s Natural Selection: Being the Second Part of His Big Species Book Written from 1856 to 1858. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Stott R. 2003. Darwin and the Barnacle (1st American edition). New York: Norton & Company

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, Alfred Russel. 1849. Journey to Explore the Province of Parà (Letter to Stevens, written October 1848) Annals and Magazine of Natural History, vol. 13 (2nd series), January 1849, pp. 74–75

  • —— 1850a. Journey to Explore the Natural History of South America (Letter to Stevens, written September 12, 1849, Santarem). Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Volume 26 (2nd series), February 1850, pp 156–157

  • —— 1850b. Journey to Explore the Natural History of the Amazon River. Extract from a Letter to Stevens, November 15, 1849 Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Volume 6 (2nd series), December 1850, no. 36, pp. 494–496

  • —— 1852. “Letter to the Editor, Concerning the Fire on the “Helen”, Zoologist, November 1852, section on “Proceedings of Natural-History Collectors in Foreign Countries,” pp. 3641–3643

  • —— 1969 [1853]. A Narrative of Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro, With an Account of the Native Tribes, and Observations on the Climate, Geology, and Natural History of the Amazon Valley. 2nd ed. New York: Haskell House Publishers

  • —— 1854a. On the Habits of the Butterflies of the Amazon Valley. Transactions of the Entomological Society of London 2 (new series) part VIII: 253–264, April 1854 (read at Nov 7, Dec 5 1853 meetings)

  • Wallace A.R. 1854b. Some Remarks on the Habits of the Hesperidæ. Zoologist 11: 3884–3885 (May 1854, no. 127)

    Google Scholar 

  • —— 1854c. “Letter from Singapore,” dated 9 May 1854. Printed in: Zoologist 12: 4394–4397 (August 1854)

  • Wallace Alfred Russel 1855b. “Letter from Sarawak,” dated 8 April 1855, Si Munjon Coal Works, Borneo. Zoologist 13: 4803–4807

    Google Scholar 

  • —— 1855b. “On the Law Which has Regulated the Introduction of New Species.” Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Volume 16 (2nd series), September 1855, 184–196

  • Wallace Alfred Russel 1856a. Some Account of an Infant “Orang-utan,”. Annals and Magazine of Natural History 17: 386–390. (2nd series, May 1856, no. 101)

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallace Alfred Russel 1856b. Observations on the Zoology of Borneo (10 March 1856, Singapore). Zoologist 14: 5113–5117 (June 1856)

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallace Alfred Russel 1856c. On the Orang-utan or Mias of Borneo. Annals and Magazine of Natural History 17: 471–476. (2nd series, June 1856, no. 102)

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallace Alfred Russel 1856d. On the Habits of the Orang-utan of Borneo. Annals and Magazine of Natural History 18: 26–32. (2nd series, July 1856, no. 103)

    Google Scholar 

  • —— 1856e. A New Kind Of Baby. Chambers’ Journal 6 (3rd series): 325–327 (22 November 1856: no. 151)

  • Wallace A.R. 1857a. Untitled letter to Stevens, 1 December 1856, Macassar. Zoologist 15: 5652–5657 (July 1857)

    Google Scholar 

  • —— 1857b. Untitled Letter to Stevens, With Postscript, 10 March, 15 May 1857, Dobbo, Aru Islands. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of London, 1856–1857: 92–93 (communicated 5 October 1857)

  • Wallace Alfred Russel 1857c. On the Great Bird of Paradise, Paradisea apoda, Linn.; ‚Burong mati’ (Dead Bird) of the Malays; ‚Fanéhan’ of the natives of Aru. Annals & Magazine of Natural History 20: 411–416 (December 1857, no. 120, 2nd series)

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallace Alfred Russel 1857d. On the Natural History of the Aru Islands. Annals & Magazine of Natural History. 20: 473–485 (December 1857, no. 121, 2nd series)

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallace Alfred Russel 1858a. On the Entomology of the Aru Islands. Zoologist 16: 5889–5894

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallace Alfred Russel 1858b. Letter from Amboyna (20 December 1857). Zoologist 16: 6120–6124

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallace Alfred Russel 1859a. Extract of a Letter from Ternate, 2 September 1858. Ibis 1: 111–113

    Google Scholar 

  • —— 1859b. “Letter from Batchian (22 March 1859).” Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 27: 129

  • —— 1860. “Note on the Sexual Differences in the Genus Lomaptera.” [communicated 6 February 1860]. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of London, 1858–1859: 107

  • Wallace Alfred Russel 1861. On the Ornithology of Ceram and Waigiou; 20 December 1860, Ternate. Ibis 3: 283–291 (July 1861; no. 11)

    Google Scholar 

  • —— 1862. “Narrative of Search After Birds of Paradise.” Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 1862: 153–161

  • —— 1869. The Malay Archipelago: the Land of the Orang-utan, and the Bird of Paradise; A Narrative of Travel, with Studies of Man and Nature. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1869 (1st edition, Macmillan and Co: London, 1869)

  • —— 1906 [American edition]. My Life: A Record of Events and Opinions, Volumes 1, 2. New York: Dodd, Mead and Company

Download references

Acknowledgments

I thank Sander Gliboff, John Beatty, Jane Camerini, Steve Crowley, Michael Dickison, Elisabeth Lloyd, Rasmus Winther, the editor and two anonymous reviewers for insightful discussion and comments; the Linnean Society for permission to examine Wallace’s unpublished MSS; and Jane Camerini for guidance on Wallace’s published and unpublished writings. Earlier drafts of this paper were presented at the Vienna International Summer University workshop on “The Quest for Objectivity” (Vienna, Austria, July 26, 2004) and as the 2005 Hanson Prize Lecture at Indiana University (Bloomington, IN, January 20, 2006). Many thanks to participants on both occasions for helpful questions and comments. Any errors are mine.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of History and Philosophy of Science, Indiana University, Goodbody Hall 130, 1011 East Third St, Bloomington, IN, 47405, USA

    Melinda B. Fagan

Authors
  1. Melinda B. Fagan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Melinda B. Fagan.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Fagan, M.B. Wallace, Darwin, and the Practice of Natural History. J Hist Biol 40, 601–635 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10739-007-9126-8

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10739-007-9126-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation