Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-c47g7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-19T07:00:04.262Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Reading the geography of India’s district-level fertility differentials: a spatial econometric approach

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 August 2019

Ismail Haque ,
Dipendra Nath Das  and
Priyank Pravin Patel
Ismail Haque
Affiliation:
Centre for the Study of Regional Development, School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi Impact and Policy Research Institute (IMPRI), New Delhi, India
Dipendra Nath Das
Affiliation:
Centre for the Study of Regional Development, School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
Priyank Pravin Patel*
Affiliation:
Department of Geography, Presidency University, Kolkata, India
*
*Corresponding author. Email: priyank999@hotmail.com
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

India has gradually progressed into fertility transition over the last few decades. However, the timing and pace of this transition has varied notably in terms of both its geography and the demographic groups most affected by it. While much literature exists on the relationships between fertility level and its influence on demographic, economic, socio-cultural and policy-related factors, the potential spatial variations in the effects of these factors on the fertility level remain unaddressed. Using the most recent district-level census data (of 2011) for India, this nationwide study has identified plausible spatial dependencies and heterogeneities in the relationships between the district-wise Total Fertility Rates (TFRs) and their respective demographic, socioeconomic and cultural factors. After developing a geocoded database for 621 districts of India, spatial regression and Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR) models were used to decipher location-based relationships between the district-level TFR and its driving forces. The results revealed that the relationships between the district-level TFR and the considered selected predictors (percentage of Muslims, urbanization, caste group, female mean age at marriage, female education, females in the labour force, net migration, sex ratio at birth and exposure to mass media) were not spatially invariant in terms of their respective strength, magnitude and direction, and furthermore, these relationships were conspicuously place- and context-specific. This study suggests that such locality-based variations and their complexities cannot be explained simply by a single narrative of either socioeconomic advancement or government policy interventions. It therefore contributes to the ongoing debate on fertility research in India by highlighting the spatial dependence and heterogeneity of the impacts made by demographic, socioeconomic and cultural factors on local fertility levels. From a methodological perspective, the study also discerns that the GWR local model performs better, in terms of both model performance and prediction accuracy, compared with the conventional global model estimates.

Keywords

FertilityDemographyFamily planning and contraception
Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of Biosocial Science , Volume 51 , Issue 5 , September 2019 , pp. 745 - 774
Copyright
© Cambridge University Press, 2019 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aassve, A, Goisis, A and Sironi, M (2012) Happiness and childbearing across Europe. Social Indicators Research 108(1), 65–86.Google Scholar
Akaike, H (1974) A new look at the statistical model identification. IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control 19(6), 716–723.Google Scholar
Alagarajan, M (2003) An analysis of fertility differentials by religion in Kerala state: a test of the Interaction Hypothesis. Population Policy and Research Review 22(5–6), 557–574.Google Scholar
Alagarajan, M and Kulkarni, PM (2008) Religious differentials in fertility in India: is there a convergence? Economic and Political Weekly 43(48), 44–53.Google Scholar
Amin, S, Basu, AM and Stephenson, R (2002) Spatial variation in contraceptive use in Bangladesh: looking beyond the borders. Demography 39(2), 251–267.Google Scholar
Anselin, L (1988) Lagrange multiplier test diagnostics for spatial dependence and spatial heterogeneity. Geographical Analysis 20(1), 1–17.Google Scholar
Anselin, L (1995) Local indicators of spatial association – LISA. Geographical Analysis 27(2), 93–115.Google Scholar
Anselin, L (1996) The Moran scatterplot as an ESDA tool to assess local instability in spatial association. In Fischer MM, Scholten HJ and Unwin D (eds) Spatial Analytical Perspectives on GIS. Taylor and Francis, London, pp. 111–125.Google Scholar
Anselin, L (2001) Spatial econometric. In Baltagi B (ed.) Companion to Econometrics. Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 310–330.Google Scholar
Anselin, L and Rey, S (1991) Properties of tests for spatial dependence in linear regression models. Geographical Analysis 23(2), 112–131.Google Scholar
Arokiasamy, P (2002) Gender preference, contraceptive use and fertility in India: regional and development influences. International Journal of Population Geography 8(1), 49–67.Google Scholar
Arokiasamy, P (2009) Fertility decline in India: contribution by uneducated women using contraception. Economic and Political Weekly 44(30), 55–64.Google Scholar
Attané, I and Courbage, Y (2000) Transitional stages and identity boundaries: the case of ethnic minorities in China. Population and Environment 21(3), 257–280.Google Scholar
Axinn, WG and Yabiku, ST (2001) Social change, the social organization of families, and fertility limitation. American Journal of Sociology 106(5), 1219–1261.Google Scholar
Basu, AM (1992) Culture, the Status of Women and Demographic Behaviour. Clarendon, Oxford.Google Scholar
Basu, AM and Amin, S (2000) Conditioning factors for fertility decline in Bengal: history, language identity and openness to innovations. Population and Development Review 26(4), 761–794.Google Scholar
Baumont, C (2009) Spatial effects of urban public policies on housing values. Papers in Regional Science 88(2), 301–326.Google Scholar
Becker, GS (1960) An economic analysis of fertility. In Roberts GB (ed.) Demographic and Economic Change in Developed Countries. Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 209–240.Google Scholar
Bhagat, RB (2011) Emerging pattern of urbanisation in India. Economic and Political Weekly 46(34), 10–12.Google Scholar
Bhagat, RB and Praharaj, P (2005) Hindu–Muslim fertility differentials. Economic and Political Weekly 40(5), 411–418.Google Scholar
Bhat, PNM (1996) Contours of fertility decline in India: a district level study based on the 199 census. In Srinivasan K (ed.) Population Policy and Reproductive Health. Hindustan Publishers, New Delhi, pp. 96–177.Google Scholar
Bhat, PNM (1998) Contours of fertility decline in India: an analysis of district-level trends from two recent censuses. In Martine G, Das Gupta M and Chen LC (eds) Reproductive Change in India and Brazil. Oxford University Press, Delhi.Google Scholar
Bhat, PNM and Rajan, SI (1990) Demographic transition in Kerala revisited. Economic and Political Weekly 25(35–36), 1957–1980.Google Scholar
Bivand, R and Piras, G (2015) Comparing implementations of estimation methods for spatial econometrics. Journal of Statistical Software 63(18), 1–36.Google Scholar
Bocquet-Appel, JP, Rajan, I, Bacro, JN and Lajaunie, C (2002) The onset of India’s fertility transition. European Journal of Population 18(3), 211–232.Google Scholar
Bongaarts, J (2002) The end of the fertility transition in the developed world. Population and Development Review 28(3), 419–443.Google Scholar
Bongaarts, J and Watkins, SC (1996) Social interactions and contemporary fertility transitions. Population and Development Review 22(4), 639–682.Google Scholar
Brahmanandam, N and Arokiasamy, P (2016) Fertility transition in Andhra Pradesh: role of diffusion in use of contraception among illiterate women. Social Science Spectrum 2(4), 239–247.Google Scholar
Cai, Y (2010) China’s below-replacement fertility: government policy or socioeconomic development? Population and Development Review 36(3), 419–440.Google Scholar
Can, A (1992) Specification and estimation of hedonic house price models. Regional Science and Urban Economics 22(3), 453–474.Google Scholar
Carlsson, G (1966) The decline of fertility: Innovation or adjustment process. Population Studies 20(2), 149–174.Google Scholar
Cassetti, E (1972) Generating models by the expansion method: applications to geographical research. Geographical Analysis 4(1), 81–91.Google Scholar
Casterline, JB (2001) Diffusion process and fertility transition: Introduction. In Casterline JB (ed.) Diffusion Process in Fertility Transition: Selected Perspectives. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, pp. 1–38.Google Scholar
Chamratrithirong, A, Hirschman, C and Guest, P (1992) A multi-level analysis of the determinants of fertility in the four regions of Thailand. Asia-Pacific Population Journal 7(1), 51–64.Google Scholar
Childs, G, Goldstein, MC, Jiao, B and Beall, CM (2005) Tibetan fertility transitions in China and South Asia. Population and Development Review 31(2), 337–349.Google Scholar
Cleland, J and Wilson, C (1987) Demand theories of the fertility transition: an iconoclastic view. Population Studies 41(1), 5–30.Google Scholar
Cole, AJ and Watkins, SC (eds) (1986) The Decline of Fertility in Europe: The Revised Proceedings of a Conference on the Princeton European Fertility Project. Princeton University Press, Princeton.Google Scholar
Cole, AJ and Watkins, SC (1987) The Decline of Fertility in Europe. Princeton University Press, Princeton.Google Scholar
Crowder, K and South, SJ (2008) Spatial dynamics of white flight: the effects of local and extralocal racial conditions on neighbourhood out-migration. American Sociological Review 73(5), 792–812.Google Scholar
Das Gupta, M (1987) Selective discrimination against female children in rural Punjab, India. Population and Development Review 13(1), 77–100.Google Scholar
Das Gupta, M and Bhat, PNM (1997) Fertility decline and increased manifestation of sex bias in India. Population Studies 51(3), 307–315.Google Scholar
Das, M and Mohanty, K (2012) Spatial pattern of fertility transition in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar: a district level analysis. Genus 68(2), 81–106.Google Scholar
Davis, K (1946) Human fertility in India. American Journal of Sociology 52(3), 243–254.Google Scholar
Dev, SM, James, KS and Sen, B (2002) Causes of fertility decline in India and Bangladesh: role of community. Economic and Political Weekly 37(43), 4447–4454.Google Scholar
Dharmalingam, A, Rajan, S and Morgan, SP (2014) The determinants of low fertility in India. Demography 51(4), 1451–1475.Google Scholar
Dreze, J and Murthi, M (2001) Fertility, education and development: evidence from India. Population and Development Review 27(1), 33–63.Google Scholar
Dyson, T and Moore, M (1983) On kinship structure, female autonomy, and demographic behaviour in India. Population and Development Review 9(1), 35–60.Google Scholar
Easterlin, RA (1969) Towards a socioeconomic theory of fertility: a survey of recent research on economic factors in American fertility. In Behrman SJ, Corsa L and Freedman R (eds) Fertility and Family Planning: A World View. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, pp. 127–156.Google Scholar
Easterlin, RA and Crimmins, EM (1985) The Fertility Revolution: A Supply–Demand Analysis. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Evans, A and Gray, E (2017) Modelling variations in fertility rates using geographically weighted regression. Spatial Demography 6(2), 121–140.Google Scholar
Fotheringham, AS, Brunsdon, C and Charlton, ME (1998) Geographically weighted regression: a natural evolution of the expansion method for spatial data analysis. Environment and Planning A 30(11), 1905–1927.Google Scholar
Fotheringham, AS, Brunsdon, C and Charlton, ME (2002) Geographically Weighted Regression: The Analysis of Spatially Varying Relationship. Wiley, New York.Google Scholar
Ghosh, S (2017) Second demographic transition or aspirations in transition: an exploratory analysis of lowest-low fertility in Kolkata, India. Asian Population Studies 13(1), 25–49.Google Scholar
Ghosh, S (2018) Hindu–Muslim fertility differentials in India: indirect estimation at the district level from Census 2011. Indian Journal of Human Development 12(1), 37–51.Google Scholar
Goldstein, J and Klüsener, S (2014). Spatial analysis of the causes of fertility decline in Prussia. Population and Development Review 40(3), 497–525.Google Scholar
Greenhalgh, S and Winckler, E (2005) Governing China’s Population: From Leninist to Neoliberal Biopolitics. Stanford University Press, Stanford.Google Scholar
Guilmoto, CZ (2000) The geography of fertility in India (1981–1991). In Guilmoto CZ and Vaguet A (eds) Essays on Population and Space in India. Institut Français de Pondichéry, Pondicherry, pp. 37–56.Google Scholar
Guilmoto, CZ (2013) The changing contours of fertility in India. Paper presented at the 27th Conference of International Union for the Scientific Study of Population (IUSSP), 26–31th August 2013, Busan, Korea. URL: http://iussp.org/sites/default/files/event_call_for_papers/fertility%20in%20India.pdf (accessed 18th February 2018).Google Scholar
Guilmoto, CZ and Rajan, SI (2001) Spatial patterns of fertility transition in Indian districts. Population and Development Review 27(4), 713–738.Google Scholar
Guilmoto, CZ and Rajan, SI (2002) District level estimates of fertility from India’s 2001 Census. Economic and Political Weekly 37(7), 665–672.Google Scholar
Guilmoto, CZ and Rajan, SI (eds) (2005) Fertility Transition in South India. Sage Publications, New Delhi.Google Scholar
Guilmoto, CZ and Rajan, SI (2013) Fertility at the district level in India: Lessons from the 2011 Census. Economic and Political Weekly 48(23), 59–74.Google Scholar
Guilmoto, CZ, Saikia, N, Tamrakar, V and Bora, J (2018) Excess under-5 female mortality across India: a spatial analysis using 2011 census data. Lancet Global Health 6(6), 650–658.Google Scholar
Hajnal, J (1953) Age at marriage and proportions marrying. Population Studies 7(2), 111–136.Google Scholar
Haque, I (2016) Discriminated urban spaces – a study of spatial segregation in urban West Bengal. Economic and Political Weekly 51(46), 40–51.Google Scholar
Haque, I, Das, DN and Patel, PP (2018) Spatial segregation in Indian cities: does the city size matter? Environment and Urbanization ASIA 9(1), 1–17.Google Scholar
Haque, I and Patel, PP (2015) Socioeconomic and cultural differentials of contraceptive usage in West Bengal: evidence from National Family Health Survey Data. Journal of Family History 40(2), 230–249.Google Scholar
Haque, I and Patel, PP (2016) Assessing Hindu–Muslims fertility differentials in West Bengal: insights from the National Family Health Survey-3 data, India. Journal of Family History 41(2), 192–224.Google Scholar
Harrell, S, Wang, Y, Hua, H. Santos, GD and Zhou, Y (2011) Fertility decline in rural China: a comparative analysis. Journal of Family History 36(1), 15–36.Google Scholar
Hirschman, C (1994) Why fertility changes. Annual Review of Sociology 20, 203–233.Google Scholar
Hurvich, CM, Simonoff, JS and Tsai, CL (1998) Smoothing parameter selection in nonparametric regression using an improved Akaike Information Criterion. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series B (Statistical Methodology) 60(2), 271–293.Google Scholar
IIPS and Macro International (2017) National Family Health Survey 2015–16 (NFHS-4), India. International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS), Mumbai.Google Scholar
Işik, O and Pinarcioğlu, M (2006) Geographies of a silent transition: a geographically weighted regression approach to regional fertility differences in Turkey. European Journal of Population 22(4), 399–421.Google Scholar
Jain, AK (1981) The effect of female education on fertility: a simple explanation. Demography 18(4), 577–595.Google Scholar
James, KS (1999) Fertility decline in Andhra Pradesh: a search for alternative hypothesis. Economic and Political Weekly 34(8), 491–499.Google Scholar
Jejeebhoy, SJ (1995) Women’s Education, Autonomy, and Reproductive Behaviour: Experience from Developing Countries. Oxford University Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Jenks, GF and Caspall, FC (1971) Error on choroplethic maps: definition, measurement, reduction. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 61(2), 217–244.Google Scholar
Jones, GW (2007) Delayed marriage and very low fertility in Pacific Asia. Population and Development Review 33(3), 453–478.Google Scholar
Jun, HJ (2017) The spatial dynamics of neighbourhood change: exploring spatial dependence in neighbourhood housing value change. Housing Studies 32(6), 717–741.Google Scholar
Kabir, A, Barbhuiya, MA and Islam, MS (2001) Determinants of fertility in Bangladesh: evidence from the three national surveys. Journal of Medical Sciences 1(5), 302–307.Google Scholar
Kirk, D (1996) Demographic transition theory. Population Studies 50(3), 361–387.Google Scholar
Kishor, S (1995) Women’s Status Module for Use With DHS Model Questionnaires. Macro International Inc., MD.Google Scholar
Klasen, S and Launov, A (2003) Analysis of the determinants of fertility decline in the Czech Republic. Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Discussion Paper No. 870. URL: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.912.4816&rep=rep1&type=pdf (accessed on 18th February, 2018).Google Scholar
Knodel, JE and van de Walle, E (1986) Lessons from the past: policy implications of historical fertility studies. In Cole AJ and Watkins SC (eds) The Decline of Fertility in Europe: The Revised Proceedings of a Conference on the Princeton European Fertility Project. Princeton University Press, Princeton, pp. 390–419.Google Scholar
Kohler, HP (1997) Learning in social networks and contraceptive choice. Demography 34(3), 369–383.Google Scholar
Kulkarni, PM (1999) Gender preference in contraceptive prevalence: evidence of regional variations. Economic and Political Weekly, 34(42/43), 3058–3062.Google Scholar
Kulkarni, PM (2011) Towards an explanation of India’s fertility transition. George Simmons Memorial Lecture delivered at the 33rd Annual Conference of Indian Association for the Study of Population (IASP), Lucknow, November 11–13th 2011. URL: http://www.iasp.ac.in/pdf/simmons%20memorial%20Lecture.pdf, (accessed 10th January 2018).Google Scholar
Kulkarni, PM, Krishnamoorthy, S and Audinarayan, N (1995) Review of research on fertility in Tamil Nadu. Paper presented in the Workshop on Demographic Transition in Tamil Nadu, August 21–22nd 1995, Madras.Google Scholar
Kulu, H (2005) Migration and fertility: competing hypothesis. European Journal of Population 21(1), 51–87.Google Scholar
Lesthaeghe, R and Vanderhoeft, C (2001) Ready, willing and able: a conceptualization of transition to new behavioural forms. In Casterline JB (ed.) Diffusion Process and Fertility Transition: Selected Perspectives. National Academy Press, Washington DC, pp. 241–264.Google Scholar
Li, WL (1973) Temporal and spatial analysis of fertility decline in Taiwan. Population Studies 27(1), 97–104.Google Scholar
Maharatna, A (2000) Fertility, mortality and gender bias among tribal population: an Indian perspective. Social Science & Medicine 50(10), 1333–1351.Google Scholar
Malhotra, A and Riley, N (2009) Fertility declines in developing countries: do they empower women? Paper presented at the Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 30th–May 2nd 2009, Detroit, MI. URL: http://paa2009.princeton.edu/abstracts/91983 (accessed on 18th February 2018).Google Scholar
Martine, G (1996) Brazil’s fertility decline, 1965–95: a fresh look at key factors. Population and Development Review 22(1), 47–75.Google Scholar
Millward, H (2008) Evolution of population densities: five Canadian cities, 1971–2001. Urban Geography 29(7), 616–638.Google Scholar
Mohanty, SK and Ram, F (2011) Spatial pattern of poverty reduction and fertility transition in India. Population Review 50(1), 62–78.Google Scholar
Montgomery, MR and Casterline, JB (1993) The diffusion of fertility control in Taiwan: evidence from pooled cross-section, time-series models. Population Studies 47(3), 457–479.Google Scholar
Montgomery, MR and Casterline, JB (1996) Social learning, social influence and new models of fertility. Population and Development Review 22 (Supplement: Fertility in the United States: New Patterns, New Theories), 151–175.Google Scholar
Moore, AM, Singh, SS, Ram, U and Audam, S (2009) Adolescent Marriage and Childbearing in India: Current Situation and Recent Trends. Guttmacher Institute, New York.Google Scholar
Morenoff, JD and Sampson, RJ (1997) Violent crime and the spatial dynamics of neighbourhood transition: Chicago, 1970–1990. Social Forces 76(1), 31–64.Google Scholar
Morenoff, JD, Sampson, RJ and Raudenbush, SW (2001) Neighbourhood inequality, collective efficacy, and the spatial dynamics of urban violence. Criminology 39(3), 517–558.Google Scholar
Murthi, M, Guio, A-C and Dreze, J (1995) Mortality, fertility and gender bias in India: a district–level analysis. Population and Development Review 21(4), 745–782.Google Scholar
Mutharayappa, R, Choe, MK, Arnold, F and Roy, TK (1997) Son preference and its effect on fertility in India. NFHS Survey Subject Report No. 3. URL: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/22865614.pdf (accessed on 29th September 2017).Google Scholar
Nagdeve, DA (2012) Fertility and family planning differentials among caste groups in Rajasthan. Journal of Family Welfare 58(2), 40–50.Google Scholar
Nair, PS (2010) Understanding below-replacement fertility in Kerala, India. Journal of Health Population and Nutrition 28(4), 405–412.Google Scholar
Noonan, DS (2005) Neighbours, barriers and urban environments: are things ‘different on the other side of the tracks’? Urban Studies 42(10), 1817–1835.Google Scholar
Paez, A, Uchida, T and Miyamoto, K (2002) A general framework for estimation and inference of geographically weighted regression models: 2. Spatial association and model specification tests. Environment and Planning A 34(5), 883–904.Google Scholar
Pasupuleti, SSR, Pathak, P and Jatrana, S (2016) Hindu–Muslim fertility differential in India: a cohort approach. Journal of Biosocial Science 49(2), 147–172.Google Scholar
Paul, P and Kulkarni, PM (2006) The dynamics of fertility transition in West Bengal, India. Paper presented at the European Population Conference, Liverpool, UK, 21st–24th June 2006.Google Scholar
Peng, Y (2010) When formal laws and informal norms collide: lineage networks versus birth control policy in China. American Journal of Sociology 116(3), 770–805.Google Scholar
Planning Commission, (2008) Eleventh Five-Year Plan, Volume III: Agriculture, Rural Development, Industry, Services, and Physical Infrastructure. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.Google Scholar
Poston, DL, Chang, C-F and Dan, H (2006) Fertility differences between the majority and minority nationality groups in China. Population Research and Policy Review 25(2), 197–206.Google Scholar
Pradhan, I and Sekher, TB (2014) Single-child family in India: levels, trends and determinants. Asian Population Studies 10(2), 163–175.Google Scholar
Premi, MK (1989) Pattern of internal migration in India: some new dimensions. In Singh SN, Premi MK, Bhatia PS and Bose A (eds) Population Transition in India, Vol. 2. B.R. Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, pp. 277–292.Google Scholar
Rajan, SI (2005) District level fertility estimates for Hindus and Muslims. Economic and Political Weekly 40(5), 437–446.Google Scholar
Rajan, SI, Srinivasan, S and Bedi, AS (2017) Update on trends in sex ratio at birth in India. Economic and Political Weekly 52(11), 14–16.Google Scholar
Retherford, RD (1985). A theory of marital fertility transition. Population Studies 39(2), 249–268.Google Scholar
RGI (2011a) Size, Growth Rate and Distribution of Population. Registrar General of India. URL: http://censusindia.gov.in/2011–prov–results/data_files/india/Final_PPT_2011_chapter3.pdf (accessed 29th September 2017).Google Scholar
RGI (2011b) Provisional Population Totals, Paper 1 of 2011: Census of India 2011, Series 1 – India. Controller of Publications, New Delhi.Google Scholar
Robinson, WC (1961) Urban–rural differences in Indian fertility. Population Studies 14(3), 218–234.Google Scholar
Ryder, N (2010) Norman Ryder on the sociology of fertility reduction. Population and Development Review 36(3), 607–620.Google Scholar
Saha, S and Paul, K (2017) Evolving patterns of child sex ratio in India. Social Change 47(2), 1–21.Google Scholar
Schultz, TP (1981) Economics of Population. Addision-Wesley, Reading, MA.Google Scholar
Schultz, TP (1994) Source of Fertility Decline in Modern Economic Growth: Is Aggregate Evidence on Demographic Transition Credible? Mimeo, Yale University.Google Scholar
Sekher, TB, Raju, KNM and Sivakumar, MN (2001) Fertility transition in Karnataka: levels, trends and implications. Economic and Political Weekly 36(51), 4742–4752.Google Scholar
Sharma, RK and Pandey, A (2000) Rural–Urban Fertility Differentials in India and its Major States: An Application of Demand–Supply Framework. URL: https://www.popline.org/node/173383 (accessed 29th September 2017).Google Scholar
Skirbekk, V and Samir, KC (2012) Fertility-reducing dynamics of women’s social status and educational attainment. Asian Population Studies 8(3), 251–264.Google Scholar
Swaroop, S and Morenoff, JD (2006) Building community: the neighbourhood context of social organization. Social Forces 84(3), 1665–1695.Google Scholar
Taiwo, OJ and Ahmed, F (2015) Geographical analysis of voter apathy in presidential elections between 1999 and 2011 in Nigeria. African Geographical Review 34(3), 250–268.Google Scholar
United Nations (1973) The determinants and consequences of population trends. In Population Studies No. 50. Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations, New York.Google Scholar
Uttamacharya and Arokiasamy P (2014) Regional fertility dynamics in India: exploring the role of tempo effects in shaping period fertility trends across regions. Paper presented at the Population Association of America (PAA) Annual Meeting, 3rd May 2014, Boston, MA.Google Scholar
Visaria, P, Visaria, L and Jain, A (1995) Contraceptive Use and Fertility in India: A Case Study of Gujarat. Sage Publication, New Delhi.Google Scholar
Vithayathil, T (2013) Pathways to low fertility in India: comparison across states and a detailed look at Kerala. Asian Population Studies 9(3), 301–321.Google Scholar
Vithayathil, T and Singh, G (2012) Spaces of discrimination: residential segregation in Indian cities. Economic and Political Weekly 47(37), 60–66.Google Scholar
Wang, D and Chi, G (2017) Different places, different stories: a study of the spatial heterogeneity of county level fertility in China. Demographic Research 37(16), 593–1526.Google Scholar
Wilson, T (2015) The demographic constraints on future population growth in regional Australia. Australian Geographer 21(1), 53–67.Google Scholar
Yu, D-L, Wei, YD and Wu, C (2007) Modelling spatial dimensions of housing prices in Milwaukee, WI. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 34(6), 1085–1102.Google Scholar
Zachariah, KC (1984) The Anomaly of the Fertility Decline in India’s Kerala State: A Field Investigation. World Bank, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Zachariah, KC and Rajan, SI (eds) (1997) Kerala’s Demographic Transition: Determinants and Consequences. Sage Publications, New Delhi.Google Scholar
Zhang, H (2007) From resisting to “embracing?” the one-child rule: understanding new fertility trends in a central China village. China Quarterly 192(192), 855–875.Google Scholar