Huston, Perdita, 1979, Third World Women Speak Out, New York: Praeger Publishers.Google Scholar

Koss, M., in press. “Detecting the Scope of Rape: A Review of Prevalence Research Methods,” Journal of Interpersonal Violence. Kilpatrick, Dean et al. 1992. “Rape in America: A Report to the Nation,” Charleston, SC,: Crime Victims Research and Treatment Center.Google Scholar

Consumers Association of Penang, 1988, Rape in Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia.Google Scholar

Perez, Amelia Marquez, 1990, “Aproximacion Diagnostica a Las Violaciones de mujeres en Los Distritos de Panama y San Miguelito.” Centro Para el Desarrollo de la Mujer, Universidad de Panama.Google Scholar

Potugal, Ana Maria, 1988, “Cronica de una Violacion Provocada?” Revista Mujer/Fempress: Contraviolencia. Chile: FEMPRESS-ILET.Google Scholar

Bradley, Christine, 1990, “Why Male Violence Against Women is a Development Issue: Reflections from Papua New Guinea,” occasional paper, New York, N.Y.: United Nations Fund for Women (UNIFEM).Google Scholar

COVAC, 1990, “Evaluacion de Proyecto para Educacion, Capacitacion, y Atencion a Mujeres y Menores de Edad en Materia de Violencia Sexual, Enero a Diciembre 1990.” Mexico City: Asociacion Mexicana Contra la Violencia a las Mujeres, A.C. (COVAC).Google Scholar

Kilpatrick, D. et al., 1992, Rape in America: A Report to the Nation, Charleston, SC: Crime Victims Research and Treatment Center.Google Scholar

Data from “Ban Thanom Rak,” a home for rape survivors run by the Friends of Women, Bangkok, Thailand as quoted in Archavanitkui, K. and Pramualratana, A., 1990, “Factors Affecting Women's Health in Thailand,” Paper presented at the Workshop on Women's Health in Southeast Asia. Population Council, Jakarta, October 29–31, 1990.Google Scholar

Private communication with Dr. Bonnie Dattel, Medical Director of the San Francisco Rape Crisis Center and Associate Professor OB-GYN at the University of California, San Francisco, March 4, 1992.Google Scholar

COVAC, 1990, “Evaluacion de Proyecto para Educacion, Capacitacion, y Atencion a Mujeres y Menores de Edad en Materia de Violencia Sexual, Enero a Diciembre 1990.” Mexico City: Asociacion Mexicana Contra la Violencia a las Mujeres. CAMVAC 1985, “Carpeta de Informacion Basica Para la Atencion Solidaria y Feminista a Mujeres Violadas.” Mexico City: Centro de Apoyo A Mujeres Violadas (CAMVAC). Archavanitkui and Pramuairatana, “Factors Affecting Women's Health in Thailand.” Korea data from Young-Hee, Shim, 1992, “Sexual Violence Against Women: A Victimization Survey of Seoul Women,” paper presented at the conference on “International Perspective: Crime, Justice and Public Order,” St. Petersburg, Russia, June 21–27.Google Scholar

This figure is quoted in “Rape Can I Have This Child?” a photonovela produced by Movimiento Manuela Ramos, Lima Peru, as part of their campaign to decriminalize abortion in cases of rape.Google Scholar

Treguear, L. Tatiana and Carro, B. Carmen, Ninas Madres: Recuento de una Experiencia, San Jose, Costa Rica: PROCAL, 1991 as cited in Elizabeth Shrader-Cox, “Violence Against Women in Central America and its Impact on Reproductive Health,” paper presented at the Safe Motherhood Central America Conference, Guatemala, City, January 27–31, 1992.Google Scholar

Kressel, Gideon, (1981), “Sororicide/Filiacide: Homicide for Family Honour,” Current Anthropology 22(2):141–158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Graitcer, P. and Youssef, Z., 1993, Injury in Egypt: An Analysis of Injuries as a Health Problem, USAID and Egyptian Ministry of Health, Cairo, Egypt.Google Scholar

Dixon-Mueller, Ruth, 1992, “Sexuality, Gender, and Reproductive Health,” draft paper prepared for the International Women's Health Coalition, New York.Google Scholar

Elias, Chris and Heise, Lori, 1993, “The Development of Microbicide: A New Method of HIV Prevention for Women,” working Paper No.6, New York: The Population Council.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

By no means is male approval always the greatest determinant of contraceptive use. For studies indicating where it is, See “Men—New Focus for Family Planning Programs,” Population Reports Series J, No. 33, 1986. Bangladesh data from Kincaid, D. Lawrence et al. 1991, “Family Planning and the Empowerment of Women in Bangladesh,” paper presented at the 119th Annual Meeting of the American Public Health Association, Atlanta, November 13, 1991.Google Scholar

Banwell, Stout Suzanna, 1990, “Law, Status of Women and Family Planning in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Suggestion for Action,” Nairobi: The Pathfinder Fund.Google Scholar

Ibid. p. 14.Google Scholar

Mexico example from Evelyn Folch-Lyon; Macorra, Luis and Schearer, S. Bruce, 1981, “Focus Group and Survey Research on Family Planning in Mexico,” Studies in Family Planning 12(12): 409–432. Peru example from Alfredo Fort, 1989, “Investigating the Social Context of Fertility and Family Planning: A Qualitative Study in Peru,” International Family Planning Perspectives 15(3):88-94.Google Scholar

Cook, Rebeccca and Maine, Deborah, 1987, “Spousal Veto over Family Planning Services,” American Journal of Public Health 77(3):339–344.Google Scholar

Population Reports p. J-891.Google Scholar

Folch-Lyon, et al., “Focus Group and Survey Research on Family Planning in Mexico.”Google Scholar

According to the Clearinghouse on Marital and Date Rape in Berkeley California, 18 states recognize rape in marriage under all circumstances. Thirty states require serious bodily injury or the use of a weapon to qualify as rape within marriage (this is more strict than the standard for non-conjugal rape). North Carolina does not recognize conjugal rape unless the husband is living separately and Oklahoma does not recognize rape unless the couple is legally separated. Number of married women reporting being raped from: Russel, Diana, 1982, Rape in Marriage, New York: MacMillan.Google Scholar

Young-Hee, Shim et al., 1991, “Sexual Violence and its Countermeasures in Korea: A Victimization Survey of Seoul Women.” Summary of a report by the Korean Institute of Criminology as reprinted in the Information Booklet of the Korea Sexual Violence Relief Center, Seoul, Korea.Google Scholar

Forty percent figure from Campbell, Jacqueline and Alford, Peggy, (1989), “The Dark Consequences of Marital Rape,” American Journal of Nursing, July.Google Scholar

Fifty-eight percent refers to studies in Puerto Rico and Bolivia as cited in “Campana sobre la violencia en contra de la mujer,” Boletin 16–17, Red de Salud de las Mujeres Latinoamericanas y del Caribe, Isis International, Santiago Chile, April 1988. Colombia data from “Estudio Sobre La Violencia Contra La Mujer en la Familia Basado en La Encuesta Realizada a las Mujeres Maltratadas Que Acudieron At Servicio Juridico de ProFamilia Entre E1 15 de Marzo de 1989 y E1 30 de Marzo de 1990,” in La Violencia y Los Derechos Humanos de la Mujer, 1992, Bogata: Profamilia.Google Scholar

Council on Scientific Affairs, 1992, “Violence Against Women: Relevance for Medical Practitioners,” Journal of the American Medical Association, 267(23):3184–3189.Google Scholar

Philippines data cited in Liskin, Laurie, (1981), “Periodic Abstinence: How Well Do New Approaches Work?” Population Reports, Baltimore, Md.: Population Information Program, Johns Hopkins University.Google Scholar

Preliminary Report (1991) “Guatemala City Women: Empowering a Vulnerable Group for HIV Prevention,” Guatemala City: DataPro SA and the Asociacion Guatemalteca para la Prevencion y Control del SIDA.Google Scholar

Skrobanek, Siriporn, “Violence Against Women in the Family: The Case of Thailand,” Bangkok: Foundation for Women as cited in Archavanitkul and Pramualratana “Factors Affecting Women's Health in Thailand.”.Google Scholar

Freiberg, Peter, 1991, “Condom Use: Burden Shouldn't Be Woman's,” Christian Science Monitor.Google Scholar

Perlez, Jane, (1990), “For the Oppressed Sex, Brave Words to Live By,” New York Times, June 6.Google Scholar

Worth, Dooley, 1989, “Sexual Decision-Making and AIDS: Why Condom Promotion among Vulnerable Women is Likely to Fail,” Studies in Family Planning 20(6): 297–307.Google Scholar

Elias, and Heise, op cit.Google Scholar

For a review of the incidence and prevalence research see: Wolfe, David, Wolfe, Vicky, and Best, Connie, “Child Victims of Sexual Abuse,” in Van Hasselt, Vincent et al. (eds), Handbook of Family Violence 1988. New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar

Boyer, Debra and Fine, David, 1992, “Sexual Abuse as a Factor in Adolescent Pregnancy and Child Maltreatment,” Family Planning Perspectives 24(1):4–10. See also Wyatt, Gail, 1988, “The Relationship between Child Sexual Abuse and Adolescent Sexual Functioning in Afro-American and White American Women,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 528:111-122CrossRefGoogle Scholar

See Finkelhor, D., 1987, “The Sexual Abuse of Children: Current Research Reviewed,” Psychiatric Annals 17:233–241; and James, J. and Meyerding, J., 1977, “Early Sexual Experience and Prostitution,” American Journal of Psychiatry 134:1381–1385.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Zierler, Sally et al., 1991, “Adult Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse and Subsequent Risk of HIV Infection,” 81(5):572–575.Google Scholar

Worth, Dooley, 1991, “Sexual Violence against Women and Substance Abuse,” Paper presented to the Domestic Violence Task Force, New York City.Google Scholar

See for example, Miller, B.A. et al. 1987. “The Role of Childhood Sexual assault in the Development of Alcoholism in Women,” Violence and Victims 2:157–172Google Scholar

Handwerker, Penn, (1991), “Gender Power Difference May be STD Risk Factors for the Next Generation,” Paper presented at the 90th Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association, Chicago, Illinois.Google Scholar

Variables controlled for include years in legal or common law union during previous 5 years; raised in lower class home; education of mother; education of father; raised in stable nuclear family; raised solely by mother; raised with a stepfather; degree of affection mother's partner showed her; degree of physical and emotional abuse to mother; degree of affection mother showed son; degree of affection mother's partner showed son; degree mother's partner physically and emotionally abused son; man's educational status; man's occupational status.Google Scholar

McFarlane, Judith et al. 1992, “Assessing for Abuse During Pregnancy: Severity and Frequency of Injuries and Associated Entry Into Prenatal Care,” Journal of the American Medical Society 267(23):3176–3178.Google Scholar

Stark, Evan et al., 1981, Wife Abuse in the Medical Setting: An Introduction for Health Personnel. Monograph #7, Washington D.C. Office of Domestic Violence. Bullock, Linda F. and McFarlane, Judith, (1989), “The Birth-Weight/Battering Connection,” American Journal of Nursing. Pp. 1153–1155.Google Scholar

Santiago, Rosario Valdez and Cox, Elizabeth Shrader, 1991, “Violencia Domestica: Caracteristicas y Alternativas de Solucion en Mexico,” paper presented at “Leading the Way Out,” an international conference on violence against women sponsored by the Global Fund for Women, Menlo Park, California.Google Scholar

Ugalde, Juan Gerardo, 1988, “Sindrome de la Mujer Agredida,” In Mujer 5, San Jose, Costa Rica: Cefemina.Google Scholar

Rushwan, Hamid, 1990, “Female Circumcision,” World Health. April–May.Google Scholar

A'Haleem, Asma Mohammed, 1992, “Claiming Our Bodies and Our Rights: Exploring Female Circumcision as an Act of Violence in Africa,” in Schuler, Margaret, ed. Freedom from Violence: Women's Strategies from Around the World, New York: UNIFEM.Google Scholar

Toubia, Nahid, 1993, Female Genital Mutilation: A Call for Global Action, (available from Women Ink., 777 United Nations Plaza, New York, NY).Google Scholar

Petchesky, Rosalind, 1990, Abortion and Woman's Choice: The State, Sexuality, and Reproductive Freedom, Boston: Northeastern University Press.Google Scholar

Quoted in Petchesky, Rosalind, “Reproduction, Ethics, and Public Policy: The Federal Sterilization Regulations,” Hasting Center Report, October 1979.Google Scholar

Jacobson, Jodi, 1991, Women's Reproductive Health: The Silent Emergency. Washington D.C.: Worldwatch Institute.Google Scholar

Saxenian, Helen, “Brazil: Women's Reproductive Health,” (unpublished draft) World Bank, December 29, 1989.Google Scholar

Hartman, Betsy, Reproductive Rights and Wrongs. p.242.Google Scholar

Dr.Dinez, Simone Grilo, personal communication, June 7, 1991.Google Scholar

Brazil has the highest rate of cesarean section deliveries in the world. In 1981 an estimated 31 percent of all births were by cesarean compared with under 10 percent in the Netherlands, 15 percent in England and Wales, 20 percent in Canada, and 25 percent in the United States. Rates continue to rise in most countries despite evidence that the increased use of cesarean sections has not reduced infant mortality. In the United States, one highly successful program aimed at eliminating unnecessary caesareans reduced the cesarean rate from 17.5 percent to 11.5 percent, without adverse effects for the mother or infant. A recent review of the literature estimates that perhaps 15 percent of caesareans are medically justified. See Saxenian, Helen, 1989, Brazil: Women's Reproductive Health, (draft) Washington D.C.: World Bank.Google Scholar

“Health Services and Maternity in Mexico,” 1991 Women's Global Network for Reproductive Rights. Newsletter 36. July–September.Google Scholar

Eberts, Mary, 1992, “Emerging Legal Issues in Health Care.” Paper presented at the 3rd International Conference of the American Society of Law and Medicine. Toronto, Ontario, July.Google Scholar

Mensch, Barbara, “Quality of Care: A Neglected Dimension.” In Koblinsky, Marge; Timyan, Judith and Gay, Jill eds. Women's Health: A Global Perspective, Boulder, Co.: Westview Press, 1993.Google Scholar

“Incidents of Violence and Disruption Against Abortion Providers,” 1991, Washington D.C.: National Abortion Federation.Google Scholar

Ibid.Google Scholar

“Depo-Provera: Control of Fertility—Two Feminist Views,” Spare Rib (London), no. 116, March 1982 as quoted in Betsy Hartman, Reproductive Rights and Wrongs, p. 194.Google Scholar

Bullock, L. et al., 1989, “The Prevalence and Characteristics of Battered Women in a Primary Care Setting. Nurse Practitioner, 14:47–54.Google Scholar

See Heise, Lori, 1993, “Violence Against Women: The Missing Agenda,” in Koblinsky, Marge, Timyan, Judith and Gay, Jill eds., Women's Health: A Global Perspective.Google Scholar

Report of the Virucide Meeting, sponsored by the Medical Research Council, Margaret Pyke Center, London, England, April 12, 1991.Google Scholar