Abstract
Workplace spirituality research has sidestepped religion by focusing on the function of belief rather than its substance. Although establishing a unified foundation for research, the functional approach cannot shed light on issues of workplace pluralism, individual or institutional faith-work integration, or the institutional roles of religion in economic activity. To remedy this, we revisit definitions of spirituality and argue for the place of a belief-based approach to workplace religion. Additionally, we describe the construction of a 15-item measure of workplace religion informed by Judaism and Christianity – the Faith at Work Scale (FWS). A stratified random sample (n = 234) of managers and professionals assisted in refining the FWS which exhibits a single factor structure (Eigenvalue = 8.88; variance accounted for = 59.22%) that is internally consistent (Cronbach’s α = 0.77) and demonstrates convergent validity with the Faith Maturity Scale (r = 0.81, p > 0.0001). The scale shows lower skew and kurtosis with Mainline and Catholic adherents than with Mormons and Evangelicals. Validation of the scale among Jewish and diverse Christian adherants would extend research in workplace religion.
References
Ashmos D. P., D. Duchon: 2000, Spirituality at Work: A Conceptualization and Measure. Journal of Management Inquiry 9, 134–145. doi:10.1177/105649260092008
Arthaud-Day M. L., J. C. Rode, C. H. Mooney, J. P. Near: 2005, The Subjective Well-Being Construct: A Test of Its Convergent, Discriminant, and Factoral Validity. Social Indicators Research 74, 445–476. doi:10.1007/s11205–004–8209–6
Baylor Religion Survey: 2006, American Piety in the 21st Century: New Insights to the Depth and Complexity of Religion in the US. Baylor Institute for Studies of Religion, Waco, TX
Becker P.E., H. Hofmeister: 2001, Work, Family, and Religious Involvement for Men and Women. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 40, 707–722. doi:10.1111/0021–8294.00086
Benson P. L., M. J. Donahue, J. A. Erickson: 1993, The Faith Maturity Scale: Conceptualization, Measurement, and Empirical Validation. In: M. L. Lynn, D. O. Moberg (eds) Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, vol. 5. JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, pp 1–26
Bureau of Labor Statistics: 2007, ‹Employment Situation (Table A-2. Employment Status of the Civilian Population by Race, Sex, and Age; Table A-3. Employment Status of the Hispanic or Latino Population by Sex and Age)’, Retrieved September 2, 2007 from http://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.toc.htm
Conroy S. J., T. L. N. Emerson: 2004, Business Ethics and Religion: Religiosity as a Predictor of Ethical Awareness Among Students. Journal of Business Ethics 50, 383–396. doi:10.1023/B:BUSI.0000025040.41263.09
Davidson J. C., D. P. Caddell: 1994, Religion and the Meaning of Work. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 33, 135–147. doi:10.2307/1386600
DeVellis R. F.: 2003, Scale Development: Theory and Applications, 2 ed. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA
Emmons R. A., R. F. Paloutzian: 2003, The Psychology of Religion. Annual Review of Psychology 54, 377–402. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145024
Epstein E. M.: 2002, Religion and Business – The Critical Role of Religious Traditions in Management Education. Journal of Business Ethics 38, 91–96. doi:10.1023/A:1015712827640
Fabrigar L. R., D. T. Wegener, R. C. MacCallum, E. J. Strahan: 1999, Evaluating the Use of Exploratory Factor Analysis in Psychological Research. Psychological Methods 4, 272–299. doi:10.1037/1082–989X.4.3.272
Finnis J., J. Boyle, G. Grisez: 1999, A Sounder Theory of Morality. Readings in Moral Theology, No. 11. In: R. McCornick, C. Curran (eds) The Historical Development of Moral Theology in the United States. Paulist Press, New York, pp 200–218
Foddy W.: 1998, An Empirical Evaluation of In-Depth Probes Used to Pretest Survey Questions. Sociological Methods and Research 27, 103–133. doi:10.1177/0049124198027001003
Fowler F. J. Jr.: 1995, Improving Survey Questions: Design and Evaluation. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA
Geertz C.: 1973, Thick Description: Towards an Interpretative Theory of Culture. In: C. Geertz (ed) The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays. Basic Books, New York, pp 3–30
Giacalone R. A., C. L. Jurkiewicz: 2003, Toward a Science of Workplace Spirituality. In: R. A. Giacalone, C. L. Jurkiewicz (eds) Handbook of Workplace Spirituality and Organizational Performance. M.G. Sharpe, Armonk, NY, pp 3–28
Gorsuch R. L., W. R. Miller: 1999 Assessing Spirituality. In: W. R. Miller (ed) Integrating Spirituality into Treatment: Resources for Practitioners. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, pp 47–64
Gotsis G., Z. Kortezi: 2008, Philosophical Foundations of Workplace Spirituality: A Critical Approach. Journal of Business Ethics 78, 575–600. doi:10.1007/s10551–007–9369–5
Hall T. W., K. J. Edwards: 2002, The Spiritual Assessment Inventory: A Theistic Model and Measure for Assessing Spiritual Development. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 41, 341–357. doi:10.1111/1468–5906.00121
Hicks D. A.: 2003, Religion and the Workplace: Pluralism, Spirituality, Leadership. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Hill P. C.: 2005, Measurement in the Psychology of Religion and Spirituality: Current Status and Evaluation. In: R. F. Paloutzian, C. L. Park (eds) Handbook of the Psychology of Religion and Spirituality. Guilford Press, New York, pp 43–61
Hill P. C., R. W. Hood Jr.: 1999, Measures of Religiosity. Religious Education Press, Atlanta
Hill P. C., K. I. Pargament, R. W. Hood Jr., M. E. McCullough, J. P. Swyers, D. B. Larson, B. J. Zinnbauer: 2000, Conceptualizing Religion and Spirituality: Points of Commonality, Points of Departure. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour 30, 51–77. doi:10.1111/1468–5914.00119
ISCO-88: 1988, International Standard Classification of Occupations (International Labour Organization, Geneva), available at: http://www.ilo.org/public/english/bureau/stat/isco/index.htm
ISIC Rev. 4 (draft): 2007, International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities, Revision 4 (United Nations Statistical Division, New York), available at: http://unstats.un.org/unsd/class/default.asp
Jackson S., R. Eames, L. Van Drunen, J. Voskuil: 2006, Engaging Ideas: Can Christian Business Scholarship Inform Business Practice? Journal of Biblical Integration in Business, Fall, 141–162
Jones H. B. Jr.: 1997, The Protestant Ethic: Weber’s Model and the Empirical Literature, Human Relations 50, 757–778
Jones, D. E., S. Doty, C. Grammich, J. E. Horsch, R. Houseal, M. Lynn, J. P. Marcum, K. M. Sanchagrin and R. H. Taylor: 2002, Religious Congregations and Membership in the United States 2000: An Enumeration by Region, State and County Based on Data Reported for 149 Religious Bodies (Glenmary Research Center, Atlanta)
Juergensmeyer, M.: 2006, `Thinking Globally about Religion', in M. Juergensmeyer (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions (Oxford University Press, New York), pp. 3–14
Kinjerski, V. and B. J. Skrypnek: 2006, ‹Measuring the Intangible: Development of the Spirit at Work Scale’, Paper presented at the Academy of Management Annual Meeting, Atlanta, August
Klemmack D. L., L. L. Roff, M. W. Parker, H. G. Koenig, P. Sawyer, R. M. Allman: 2007, A Cluster Analysis Typology of Religiousness/Spirituality Among Older Adults. Research on Aging 29, 163–183
Ladd K. L., B. Spilka: 2006, Inward, Outward, Upward Prayer: Scale Reliability and Validation. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 45, 233–251
Levenson M. R., C. M. Aldwin, M. D’Mello: 2005, Religious Development from Adolescence to Middle Adulthood. In: R. F. Paloutzian, C. L. Park (eds) Handbook of the Psychology of Religion and Spirituality. Guilford Press, New York, pp 144–161
Lund Dean K., Fornaciari C. J.: 2007, Empirical Research in Management, Spirituality and Religion During Its Founding Years. Journal of Management, Spirituality and Religion 4, 3–34
Miller D. W.: 2006, God at Work: The History and Promise of the Faith at Work Movement. Oxford University Press, New York
Miller W. R., C. E. Thoresen: 1999, Spirituality and Health. In: W. R. Miller (ed) Integrating Spirituality into Treatment: Resources for Practitioners. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, pp 3–18
Moberg D. O.: 2002, Assessing and Measuring Spirituality: Confronting Dilemmas of Universal and Particular Evaluative Criteria. Journal of Adult Development 9, 47–60
Mockabee S. T., J. Q. Monson, J. T. Grant: 2001, Measuring Religious Commitment Among Catholics and Protestants: A New Approach. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 40, 675–690
Nash L., S. McLennan: 2001, Church on Sunday, Work on Monday: The Challenge of Fusing Christian Values with Business Life. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco
Neff J. A.: 2006, Exploring the Dimensionality of ‹Religiosity’ and ‹Spirituality’ in the Fetzer Multidimensional Measure. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 45, 449–459
Netemeyer R. G., W. O. Bearden, S. Sharma: 2003. Scaling Procedures: Issues and Applications. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA
Orsi R. A.: 2006, 2 + 2 = 5, or the Quest for an Abundant Empiricism. Spiritus 6, 113–121
Pargament K. I.: 1999, The Psychology of Religion and Spirituality? Yes and No. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion 2, 201–229
Pargament K. I., G. M. Magyar-Russell, N. A. Murray-Swank: 2005, The Sacred and the Search for Significance: Religion as a Unique Process. Journal of Social Issues 61, 665–687
Pava M. L.: 2003, Searching for Spirituality in all the Wrong Places. Journal of Business Ethics 48, 393–400
Peterson R. A.: 2000, A Meta-Analysis of Variance Accounted for and Factor Loadings in Exploratory Factor Analysis. Marketing Letters 11, 261–275
Piedmont R. L., M. M. Leach: 2002, Cross-Cultural Generalizability of the Spiritual Transcendence Scale in India: Spirituality as a Universal Aspect of Human Experience. American Behavioral Scientist 45, 1888–1901
Radoki, C.: 2007, ‹Understanding the Roles of Religion in Development: The Approach of the RaD Programme’, Working Paper 9 (University of Birmingham, Birmingham)
Raidt, E.: 2001, ‹Towards a Christian Spirituality of Work’, Paper presented at Work as Key to the Social Question: The Great Social and Economic Transformations and the Subjective Dimension of Work (John A. Ryan Center for Catholic Studies, University of St. Thomas, Rome/Vatican City), March
Rossiter J. R.: 2002, The C-OAR-SE Procedure for Scale Development in Marketing. International Journal of Research in Marketing 19, 305–335
Sandelands L. E.: 2003, The Argument for God from Organization Studies. Journal of Management Inquiry 12, 168–177
Schumacher E. F.: 1979, Good Work. Harper Colophon Books, New York
Seidlitz L., A. D. Abernethy, P. R. Duberstein, J. S. Evinger, T. H. Change, B. L. Lewis: 2002, Development of the Spiritual Transcendence Index. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 41, 439–453
Sheep, M. L.: 2004, ‹Nailing Down Gossamer: A Valid Measure of the Person-Organization Fit of Workplace Spirituality’, Academy of Management Proceedings, pp B1–B6
Smith Y. S.: 2005, The JBIB and the State of Faith/Business Integration: Accomplishments and Gaps. Journal of Biblical Integration in Business, Fall, 154–165
Smith T. W.: 2006. The National Spiritual Transformation Study. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 45, 283–296
Spilka, B.: 1993, ‹Spirituality: Problems and Directions in Operationalizing a Fuzzy Concept’, Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Ontario, August
Stevens J. P.: 2001, Applied Multivariate Statistics for the Social Sciences, 4th ed. Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ
Tourangeau R., L. J. Rips, K. Rasinski: 2000, The Psychology of Survey Response. Cambridge University Press, New York
Tsang J., M. E. McCullough: 2003, Measuring Religious Constructs: A Hierarchical Approach to Construct Organization and Scale Selection. In: S. J. Lopez, C. R. Snyder (eds) Positive Psychological Assessment: A Handbook of Models and Measures. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, pp 345–360
Tucker M. E., 2007: The Ecological Spirituality of Pierre Teilhard de Chardin. Spiritus: A Journal of Christian Spirituality 7, 1–19
US Census Bureau: 2007, 2007 Statistical Abstract, Table 577, Civilian Labor Force–Percent Distribution by Sex and Age: 1960 to 2005, retrieved September 2, 2007 from http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/labor_force_employment_earnings/
Van Buren H.J. III: 1995, Work and Religious Faith: How People of Faith Relate to their Employers. Journal of Values-Based Management 8, 279–288
Van Loon, E. C.: 2000, ‹Faith on the Job: A Typology for the Integration of Faith and Work Life for Christians Working in For-Profit Businesses’, unpublished M.A. thesis (Hartford Seminary, Hartford, CT)
Von Hügel F. F.: 1923, The Mystical Element of Religion as Studied in Saint Catherine of Genoa and Her Friends. J. M. Dent, London
Whittington, J. L., B. Frank, R. May, B. Murray and V. Goodwin: 2006, ‹Servant Leadership in Organizations: Scale Development and Validation’, Paper presented at Academy of Management Annual Meeting, Atlanta, August
Widaman K. F.: 1993, Common Factor Analysis Versus Principal Component Analysis: Differential Bias in Representing Model Parameters? Multivariate Behavioral Research 28, 263–311
Wink P., M. Dillon: 2002, Spiritual Development Across the Adult Life Course: Findings from a Longitudinal Study. Journal of Adult Development 9, 79–94
Withnow R.: 1998, After Heaven: Spirituality in America Since the 1950s. University of California Press, Berkeley
Zinnbauer B. J., K. I. Pargament., B. Cole, M. S. Rye, E. M. Butter, T. G. Belavich, K. M. Hipp, A. B. Scott, J. L. Kadar: 1997, Religion and Spirituality: Unfuzzying the Fuzzy. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 36, 549–564
Zsolnai L., K. J. Ims (Eds.): 2006, Business Within Limits: Deep Ecology and Buddhist Economics, Frontiers of Business Ethics, vol. 1. Peter Lang, Oxford
Zwick W. R., W. F. Velicer: 1986, Comparison of Five Rules for Determining the Number of Components to Retain. Psychological Bulletin 99, 432–442
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lynn, M.L., Naughton, M.J. & VanderVeen, S. Faith at Work Scale (FWS): Justification, Development, and Validation of a Measure of Judaeo-Christian Religion in the Workplace. J Bus Ethics 85, 227–243 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-008-9767-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-008-9767-3