Abstract
The purpose of this study is to examine how workgroup diversity can be managed through specific strategic human resource management systems. Our review shows that ‘affirmative action’ and traditional ‘diversity management’ approaches have failed to simultaneously achieve business and social justice outcomes of diversity. As previous literature has shown, the benefits of diversity cannot be achieved with isolated interventions. To the contrary, a complete organizational culture change is required, in order to promote appreciation of individual differences. The paper contributes to this discussion by exploring the implications of this change for human resource management, and explaining how the systems of practices should be changed when they are directed to diverse groups. The model designed to test this notion includes: (1) demographic and human capital diversity as independent variables, (2) group performance (measured as innovation outcomes) as the dependent variable and, (3) the orientation of the strategic human resource management system as a potential moderator of this relationship. The main conclusion of the empirical analysis developed is that different patterns of human resource management practices can be used, depending on the type of diversity that the organization faces, and the specific effects that it wishes to manage. Concretely, three alternative management systems are identified in this paper, with different moderating effects. This result has interesting implications for human resource management professionals, explained in the last section. The limitations of this study are also discussed, as well as some issues that future research in this field should address.
Similar content being viewed by others
Abbreviations
- SHRM:
-
Strategic human resource management
- SEM:
-
Structural equations modeling
References
Adler, N. J. (1991). International dimensions of organizational behavior. Boston, MA: PWS-Kent Publishing Co.
Ancona, D. G., & Caldwell, D. F. (1992). Demography and design: Predictors of new product team performance. Organization Science, 3(3), 321–341.
Appelbaum, S. H., Abdallah, C., & Shapiro, B. T. (1999). The self-directed team: A conflict resolution analysis. Team Performance Management, 5(2), 60–77.
Arora, A. (1997). Patents, licensing, and market structure in the chemical industry. Research Policy, 26, 391–403.
Arthur, J. B. (1994). Effects of human resource systems on manufacturing performance. Academy of Management Journal, 37, 670–687.
Arvey, R. D., Azevedo, R. E., Ostgaard, D. J., & Raghuram, S. (1996). The implications of a diverse labor market on human resource planning. In E. E. Kossek & S. A. Lobel (Eds.), Managing diversity: Human resource strategies for transforming the workplace. Cambridge: Blackwell.
Arvey, R. D., Gordon, M. E., Massengill, D. P., & Mussio, S. J. (1975). Differential dropout rates of minority and majority job candidates due to ‘time lags’ between selection procedures. Personnel Psychology, 28, 175–180.
Bamberger, P., & Meshoulam, I. (2000). Human resource strategy. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Barber, A. E., & Daly, C. L. (1996). Compensation and diversity: New pay for a new workforce? In E. E. Kossek & S. A. Lobel (Eds.), Managing diversity: Human resource strategies for transforming the workplace. Cambridge: Blackwell.
Barclay, D., Higgins, C., & Thompson, R. (1995). The partial least squares (PLS) approach to causal modeling: Personal computer adoption and use as an illustration. Technology Studies (Special Issue on Research Methodology), 2(2), 285–309.
Bassett-Jones, N. (2005). The paradox of diversity management, creativity and innovation. Creativity and Innovation Management, 14(2), 169–175.
Becker, S. (1964). Human capital. New York: National Bureau of Economic Research.
Bendick, M., Egan, M. L., & Lanier, L. (2010). The business case for diversity and the perverse practice of matching employees to customers. Personnel Review, 39(4), 468–486.
Benschop, Y. (2001). Pride, prejudice and performance; relations between HRM, diversity and performance. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 12(7), 1166–1181.
Bezrukova, K., Thatcher, S. M. B., & Jehn, K. A. (2001) Comparing the effects of group heterogeneity and faultlines on performance: An empirical assessment of contrasting models. Academy of Management Proceedings.
Blau, P. M. (1977). Inequality and composition: A primitive theory of social structure. New York: Free Press.
Brewster, C. (1999). Strategic human resource management: The value of different paradigms. Management International Review, 39(3), 45–64.
Bunderson, J. S., & Sutcliffe, K. M. (2002). Comparing alternative conceptualizations of functional diversity in management teams: Process and performance effects. Academy of Management Journal, 45(5), 875–893.
Byrne, D. E. (1971). The attraction paradigm. New York: Academic Press.
Campbell, K., & Minguez-Vera, A. (2008). Gender diversity in the boardroom and firm financial performance. Journal of Business Ethics, 83(3), 435–452.
Cassel, C. M., Hackl, P., & Westlund, A. H. (2000). On measurement of intangible assets: A study of robustness of partial least squares. Total Quality Management, 11(7), 897–907.
Chang, W. J. A., & Huang, T. C. (2005). Relationship between strategic human resource management and firm performance: A contingency perspective. International Journal of Manpower, 26(5), 434–452.
Chatman, J. A., & Flynn, F. J. (2001). The influence of demographic heterogeneity on the emergence and consequences of cooperative norms in work teams. Academy of Management Journal, 44(5), 956–974.
Chatman, J. A., Polzer, J. T., Barsade, S. G., & Neale, M. A. (1998). Being different yet feeling similar: The influence of demographic composition and organizational culture on work processes and outcomes. Administrative Science Quarterly, 43, 749–780.
Chin, W. W. (1995). Partial least squares is to LISREL as principal components analysis is to common factor analysis. Technology Studies, 2, 315–319.
Chin, W. W. (1998). The partial least squares approach to structural equation modeling. In G. A. Marcoulides (Ed.), Modern methods for business research (pp. 295–336). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Chin, W. W., & Newsted, P. R. (1999). Structural equation modeling analysis with small samples using partial least squares. In R. Hoyle (Ed.), Statistical strategies for small samples research (pp. 307–341). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Chrobot-Mason, D. (2004). Managing racial differences. Group & Organization Management, 29(1), 5–31.
Chuang, Y. T., Church, R., & Zikic, J. (2004). Organizational culture, group diversity and intra-group conflict. Team Performance Management, 10(1/2), 26–34.
Clark, M. A., Anand, V., & Roberson, L. (2000). Resolving meaning: Interpretation in diverse decision-making groups. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 4, 211–221.
Cook, A., & Glass, C. (2009). Between a rock and a hard place: Managing diversity in a shareholder society. Human Resource Management Journal, 19(4), 391–412.
Cornelius, N. (2002). Multidimensional information and knowledge bases for equality and diversity learning and action. In N. Cornelius (Ed.), Building workplace equality. Ethics, diversity and inclusion (pp. 99–141). London: Thompson.
Cox, T. H. (1993). Cultural diversity in organizations: Theory, research & practices. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.
Cox, T. H., Lobel, S., & McLeod, P. (1991). Effects of ethnic group cultural differences on cooperative versus competitive behavior on a group task. Academy of Management Journal, 34, 827–847.
Craig, S., & Henry, C. J. (1975). One-time dummies—zero-one dummy variables which take on only one non-zero value. Journal of Economics and Business, 27(3).
Cunningham, G. B. (2007). The influence of group diversity on intergroup bias following recategorization. The Journal of Social Psychology, 146(5), 533–547.
Curtis, E. F., & Dreachslin, J. L. (2008). Integrative literature review: Diversity management interventions and organizational performance: A synthesis of current literature. Human Resource Development Review, 7(1), 107–134.
D’Art, D., & Turner, T. (2006). New working arrangements: Changing the nature of the employment relationship? International Journal of Human Resource Management, 17(3), 523–538.
Dalton, M., & Chrobot-Mason, D. (2007). A theoretical exploration of manager and employee social identity, cultural values and identity conflict management. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 7(2), 169–183.
Daniels, K., Johnson, G., & de Chernatony, L. (1994). Differences in managerial cognitions of competition. British Journal of Management, 5, S21–S29.
Delery, J. E., & Doty, D. H. (1996). Modes of theorizing in strategic human resource management: Test of universalistic, contingency, and configurational performance predictions. The Academy of Management Journal, 39(4), 802–835.
Devanna, M., Fombrun, C., & Tichy, N. (1981). Human resources management: A strategic perspective. Organizational Dynamics, winter, 51–67.
Diamantopoulos, A., & Siguaw, J. A. (2000). Introducing LISREL. London: SAGE.
Díaz Fernández, J. M. (2003). Tendencias en la industria química y de procesos. Barcelona: Ariel.
Digman, J. M. (1990). Personality structure: Emergence of the five-factor model. Annual Review of Psychology, 41, 417–440.
DiTomaso, N., Cordero, R., & Farris, G. F. (1996). Effects of group diversity on perceptions of group and self among scientists and engineers. In M. N. Ruderman, M. W. Hughes-James, & S. E. Jackson (Eds.), Selected research on work team diversity American Psychological Association. Washington, DC: Center for Creative Leadership.
Drucker, C., Ehlinger, S., & Grenier, C. (2001). Validity and reliability. In R. A. Thietart (Ed.), Doing management research: A comprehensive guide (pp. 196–219). London: SAGE.
Dunphy, S. M. (2004). Demonstrating the value of diversity for improved decision making: The “Wuzzle-Puzzle” exercise. Journal of Business Ethics, 53(4), 321–331.
Eigel, K. M., & Kuhnert, K. W. (1996). Personality diversity and its relationship to managerial team productivity. In M. N. Ruderman, M. W. Hughes-James, & S. E. Jackson (Eds.), Selected research on work team diversity (American Psychological Association). Washington, DC: Centre for Creative Leadership.
Elron, E. (1997). Top management teams within multinational corporations: Effects of cultural heterogeneity. Leadership Quarterly, 8, 393–412.
Farh, J. L., Tsui, A. S., Xin, K., & Cheng, B. S. (1998). The influence of relational demography and Guanxi: The Chinese case. Organization Science, 9(4), 471–488.
Ferguson, K. L., & Reio, T. G., Jr. (2009). Human resource management systems and firm performance. Journal of Management Development, 29(5), 471–494.
Fombrun, C., Tichy, N., & Devanna, M. (1984). Strategic human resource management. New Jersey: Wiley.
Fornell, C. (1987). A second generation of multivariate analysis: Classification of methods and implications for marketing research. In M. J. Houston (Ed.), Review of marketing. Chicago: American Marketing Association.
Fornell, C. P., & Larcker, D. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18, 39–50.
Fowler, F. J., Jr. (2002). Survey research methods (Third ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Francoeur, C., Labelle, R., & Sinclair-Desgagné, B. (2008). Gender diversity in corporate governance and top management. Journal of Business Ethics, 81(1), 83–96.
Gelfand, M. J., Khun, K. M., & Radhakrishnan, P. (1996). The effect of value differences on social interaction processes and job outcomes: Implications for managing diversity. In M. N. Ruderman, M. W. Hughes-James, & S. E. Jackson (Eds.), Selected research on work team diversity. Washington, DC: Center for Creative Leadership, American Psychological Association.
Gilbert, J. A., & Ivanicevich, J. M. (2000). Valuing diversity: A tale of two organizations. Academy of Management Executive, 14(1), 93–105.
Gilbert, J. A., Stead, B. A., & Ivancevich, J. M. (1999). Diversity management: A new organizational paradigm. Journal of Business Ethics, 21(1), 61–77.
Glazer, S., Daniel, S. C., & Short, K. M. (2004). A study of the relationship between organizational commitment and human values in four countries. Human Relations, 57(3), 323–345.
Gordon, A. D. (1999). Classification (2nd ed.). London: Chapman & Hall.
Graves, L. M., & Powell, G. N. (1995). The effect of sex similarity on recruiters’ evaluations of actual applicants: A test of the similarity-attraction paradigm. Personnel Psychology, 48, 85–98.
Guest, D. (1989). Personnel and HRM: Can you tell the difference? Personnel Management, 21(1), 48–51.
Gunnigle, P. (1992). Changing management approaches to employee relations in Ireland. Employee Relations, 14(1), 17–33.
Haenlein, M., & Kaplan, A. M. (2004). A beginner’s guide to partial least squares analysis. Understanding Statistics, 3(4), 283–297.
Harrison, H. A., & Klein, K. J. (2007). What’s the difference? Diversity constructs as separation, variety or disparity in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 32(4), 1199–1228.
Harrison, D. A., Price, K. H., & Bell, M. P. (1998). Beyond relational demography: Time and the effects of surface and deep-level diversity on work group cohesion. Academy of Management Journal, 41, 96–107.
Heneman, R. L., Waldeck, N. E., & Cushnie, M. (1996). Diversity considerations in staffing decision-making. In E. E. Kossek & S. A. Lobel (Eds.), Managing diversity: Human resource strategies for transforming the workplace. Cambridge: Blackwell.
Holmes, J. D., Nelson, G. O., & Stump, D. C. (1993a). Improving the innovation process at Eastman Chemical. Research Technology Management, 36(3), 27–35.
Holmes, J. D., Nelson, G. O., & Stump, D. C. (1993b). Improving the innovation process at Eastman Chemical. Research Technology Management, 36(3), 27–35.
Hope-Pelled, L., Eisenhardt, K. M., & Xin, K. R. (1999). Exploring the black box: An analysis of work group diversity, conflict and performance. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(1), 1–28.
Hui, B. S. (1982). On building partial least squares models with interdependent inner relations. In K. G. Jöreskog & H. Wold (Eds.), Systems under indirect observations: Causality, structure, prediction (pp. 249–272). Amsterdam: North Holland.
Hutcheson, P., Pearson, A. W., & Ball, D. F. (1996). Sources of technical innovation in the network of companies providing chemical process plant and equipment. Research Policy, 25, 25–41.
Iles, P., & Hayers, P. K. (1997). Managing diversity in transnational project teams. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 12(2), 95–117.
Ivancevich, J. M., & Gilbert, J. A. (2000). Diversity management: Time for a new approach. Public Personnel Management, 29(1), 75–92.
Jackson, S. E., Joshi, A., & Erhardt, N. L. (2003a). Recent research on team and organizational diversity: SWOT analysis and implications. Journal of Management, 29(6), 801–830.
Jackson, S. E., Joshi, A., & Erhardt, N. L. (2003b). Recent research on team and organizational diversity: SWOT analysis and implications. Paper presented at 7th international HRM conference, Limerick, June 2003
Jackson, S. E., May, K. E., & Whitney, K. (1995). Understanding the dynamics of diversity in decision-making teams. In R. A. Guzzo & E. Salas (Eds.), Team decision-making effectiveness in organizations (pp. 204–261). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Jackson, S. E., & Schuler, R. S. (1995). Understanding human resource management in the context of organizations and their environments. Annual Review of Psychology, 46, 237–264.
Jackson, S. E., Schuler, R. S., & Rivero, J. C. (1989). Organizational characteristics as predictors of personnel practices. Personnel Psychology, 42, 727–786.
Jan, K., Marwat, Z. A., & Arif, M. (2009). Impact of human resource practices on organizational commitment. Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, 1(8), 78–102.
Janssen, O., & Veenstra, C. (1999). How task and person conflict shape the role of positive interdependence in management teams. Journal of Management, 25(2), 117–142.
Jassawalla, A. R., & Sashittal, H. C. (1999). Building collaborative cross-functional new product teams. Academy of Management Executive, 13(3), 50–63.
Jehn, K. A. (1995). A multimethod examination of the benefits and detriments of intragroup conflict. Administrative Science Quarterly, 40, 256–282.
Jehn, K. A., Northcraft, G. B., & Neale, M. A. (1999). Why differences make a difference: A field study in diversity conflict and performance in workgroups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44, 741–763.
Johnson, P., & Harris, D. (2002). Qualitative and quantitative issues in research design. In D. Partington (Ed.), Essential skills for management research (pp. 99–116). London: SAGE.
Johnson, J. P., Korsgaard, M. A., & Sapienza, H. J. (2002). Perceived fairness, decision control, and commitment in international joint venture teams. Strategic Management Journal, 23(12), 1141–1160.
Jones, D., Pringle, J., & Shepherd, D. (2000). ‘Managing Diversity’ meets Aotearoa/New Zealand. Personnel Review, 29(3), 364–380.
Kamp, A., & Hagendorn-Rasmussen, P. (2004). Diversity management in a Danish context: Towards a multicultural or segregated working life? Economic and Industrial Democracy, 25, 525–553.
Keller, R. T. (2001). Cross-functional project groups in research and new product development: Diversity, communications, job stress, and outcomes. Academy of Management Journal, 44(3), 547–555.
Kelly, E., & Dobbin, F. (1998). How affirmative action became diversity management. American Behavioral Scientist, 41(7), 960–984.
Kerklaan, L. (2011). Visualization: The bridge between commitment and control. Measuring Business Excellence, 15(1), 92–99.
Ketchen, D. J., & Shook, C. L. (1996). The application of cluster analysis in strategic management research: An analysis and critique. Strategic Management Journal, 17(6), 441–459.
Kilduff, M., Angelmar, R., & Mehra, A. (2000). Top management team diversity and firm performance: Examining the role of cognitions. Organization Science, 11(1), 21–34.
Kilker, B. F. (1966). The historical roots of the concept of human capital. Journal of Political Economy’, 74(5), 481–499.
Klimoski, R., & Mohammed, S. (1994). Team mental model: Construct or metaphor. Journal of Management, 20, 403–437.
Knight, D., Pearce, C. L., Smith, K. G., Olian, J. D., Sims, H. P., Smith, K. A., et al. (1999). Top management team diversity, group process and strategic consensus. Strategic Management Journal, 20, 445–465.
Kochan, T., Bezrukova, K., Ely, R., Jackson, S. E., Joshi, A., Jehn, K., et al. (2003). The effects of diversity on business performance: Report of the diversity research network. Human Resource Management, 42(1), 3–21.
Kossek, E. E., & Lobel, S. A. (1996). Introduction: Transforming human resource systems to manage diversity—an introduction and orienting framework. In E. E. Kossek & S. A. Lobel (Eds.), Managing diversity: Human resource strategies for transforming the workplace. Cambridge: Blackwell.
Kossek, E. E., & Lobel, S. A. (2001). Managing diversity: Human resource strategies for transforming the workplace. Cambridge: Blackwell.
Krishnan, H. A., Miller, A., & Judge, W. Q. (1997). Diversification and top management team complementarity: Is performance improved by merging similar or dissimilar teams? Strategic Management Journal, 18(5), 361–374.
Kwak, M. (2003). The paradoxical effects of diversity. MIT Sloan Management Review, 44(3), 7–8.
Lau, D. C., & Murnighan, J. K. (1998). Demographic diversity and faultlines: The compositional dynamics of organizational groups. Academy of Management Review, 23(2), 325–340.
Lavelle, J. J., McMahan, G. C., & Harris, C. M. (2009). Fairness in human resource management, social exchange relationships, and citizenship behavior: Testing linkages of the target similarity model among nurses in the United States. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 20(12), 2419–2434.
Lawrence, B. S. (1997). The black box of organizational demography. Organization Science, 8(1), 1–22.
Lepak, D., & Snell, S. (1999). The human resource architecture: Toward a theory of Human Capital allocation and development. Academy of Management Review, 24(1), 31–48.
Lin, N. (2001). Social capital: A theory of social structure and action. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lohmöller, J. B. (1989). Latent variable path modeling with partial least squares. Heidelberg: Physica-Verlag.
Marchington, M., & Grugulis, I. (2000). ‘Best Practice’ human resource management: Perfect opportunity or dangerous illusion. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 11(6), 1104–1124.
Martín Alcázar, F., Romero Fernández, P. M., & Sánchez Gardey, G. (2005a). Strategic human resource management: Integrating the universalistic, contingent, configurational and contextual perspectives. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 16(5), 633–659.
Martín Alcázar, F., Romero Fernández, P. M., & Sánchez Gardey, G. (2005b). Researching on SHRM: An analysis of the debate over the role played by human resources in firm success. Management Revue, 16(2), 213–241.
Mason, G., & Wagner, K. (1994). Innovation and the skill mix: Chemicals and engineering in Britain and Germany. National Institute Economic Review, 148, 61–73.
Mayo, M. C., & Pastor, J. C. (1996). The cost of leading diversity: Effects of group diversity on leaders’ perceptions. In M. N. Ruderman, M. W. Hughes-James, & S. E. Jackson (Eds.), Managing diversity: Human resource strategies for transforming the workplace. Cambridge: Blackwell.
McKay, P. F., Avery, D. R., & Morris, M. A. (2009). A tale of two climates: Diversity climate from subordinates’ and managers’ perspectives and their role in store unit sales. Personnel Psychology, 62(4), 767–791.
McMahon, A. M. (2010). Does workplace diversity matter? A survey of empirical studies on diversity and firm performance, 2000–09. Journal of Diversity Management, 5(2), 37–48.
McMillan-Capehart, A., Grubb, W. L., & Herdman, A. (2009). Affirmative action decisions: When ignorance is bliss. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal, 28(5), 415–431.
Miles, R., & Snow, C. (1984). Designing strategic human resource systems. Organizational Dynamics, Summer, 36–52.
Milliken, F. J., & Martins, L. L. (1996). Searching for common threads: Understanding the multiple effects of diversity in organizational groups. Academy of Management Review, 21, 402–433.
Noon, M. (2007). The fatal flaws of diversity and the business case for ethnic minorities. Work, Employment & Society, 21, 773–784.
Olson, B. J., Parayitam, S., & Bao, Y. (2007). Strategic decision making: The effects of cognitive diversity, conflict, and trust on decision outcomes. Journal of Management, 33(2), 196–222.
Peck, S. R. (1994). Exploring the link between organizational strategy and the employment relationship: The role of human resources policies. Journal of Management Studies, 31(5), 715–736.
Phillips, K. W., Northcraft, G. B., & Neale, M. A. (2006). Surface-level diversity and decision-making in groups: When does deep-level similarity help? Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 9(4), 467–482.
Pless, N., & Maak, T. (2004). Building an inclusive diversity culture: Principles, processes and practice. Journal of Business Ethics, 54(2), 129–147.
Prahalad, C. K., & Bettis, R. A. (1986). The dominant logic: A new linkage between diversity and performance. Strategic Management Journal, 7(6), 469–478.
Priem, R. L., Lyon, D. W., & Dess, G. G. (1999). Inherent limitations of demographic proxies in top management team heterogeneity research. Journal of Management, 25(6), 935–953.
Pugh, S. D., Dietz, J., Brief, A. P., & Wiley, J. W. (2008). Looking inside and out: The impact of employee and community demographic composition on organizational diversity climate. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(6), 1442–1448.
Reagans, R., & Zuckerman, E. W. (2001). Networks, diversity, and productivity: The social capital of corporate R&D teams. Organization Science, 12(4), 502–517.
Richard, O. C., & Johnson, N. B. (2001). Understanding the impact of human resource diversity practices on firm performance. Journal of Managerial Issues, 2, 177–195.
Richard, O. C., Kochan, T. A., & McMillan-Capehart, A. (2002). The impact of visible diversity on organizational effectiveness: Disclosing the contents in Pandora’s black box. Journal of Business and Management, 8(3), 265–291.
Richard, O. C., & Shelor, R. M. (2002). Linking top management team age heterogeneity to firm performance: Juxtaposing two mid-range theories. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 13(6), 958–974.
Roberson, Q. M., & Park, H. J. (2007). Examining the link between diversity and firm performance: The effects of diversity reputation and leader racial diversity. Group & Organization Management, 32(5), 548–568.
Rodríguez Pérez, J., & Ordóñez de Pablos, P. (2002). Knowledge management and organizational competitiveness: A framework for human capital analysis. Journal of Knowledge Management, 7(3), 82–92.
Rogers, E. W., & Wright, P. M. (1998). Measuring organizational performance in strategic human resource management: Problems, prospects and performance information markets. Human Resource Management Review, 8(3), 311–331.
Rosenzweig, P. (1998). Managing the new global workforce: Fostering diversity, forging consistency. European Management Journal, 16, 644–652.
Sánchez, J. I., & Medkik, N. (2004). The effects of diversity awareness training on differential treatment. Group & Organization Management, 29(4), 517–536.
Schuler, R. S. (1987). Personnel and human resource management choices and organizational strategy. Human Resource Planning, 10(1), 1–17.
Schuler, R. S., & Jackson, S. E. (1987a). Linking competitive strategies with human resource management practices. Academy of Management Executive, 1(3), 207–219.
Schuler, R. S., & Jackson, S. E. (1987b). Organizational strategy and organization level as determinants of human resource management practices. Human Resource Planning, 10(3), 125–141.
Schultz, T. W. (1961). Investment in human capital. The role of education and of research. New York: The Free Press.
Schwartz, S. H. (1994). Beyond individualism/collectivism: New cultural dimensions of values. In U. Kim, H. C. Triandis, C. Kagitcibasi, S. C. Choi, & G. Yoon (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism. London: SAGE.
Schwartz, S. H. (1999). A theory of cultural values and some implications for work. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 48(1), 23–47.
Schwarz, S. H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 1–65). New York: Academic Press.
Searle, S. R., & Udell, J. G. (1970). The use of regression on dummy variables in management research. Management Science, 16(6), 397–410.
Shaw, M. E. (1981). Group dynamics: The psychology of small group behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Shaw, B. (1988). Affirmative action: An ethical evaluation. Journal of Business Ethics, 7, 763–770.
Shaw, J. B., & Barrett-Power, E. (1998). The effects of diversity on small work group processes and performance. Human Relations, 51, 1307–1324.
Shen, J., Chanda, A., D’Netto, B., & Monga, M. (2009). Managing diversity through human resource management: an international perspective and conceptual framework. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 20(2), 235–251.
Smith, K. G., Smith, K. A., Olian, J. D., Sims, H. P., O’Bannon, D. P., & Scully, J. A. (1994). Top management team demography and process: The role of social integration and communication. Administrative Science Quarterly, 39, 412–438.
Stockdale, M., & Crosby, F. (2004). The psychology and management of workplace diversity. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
Syed, J., & Kramar, R. (2009). Socially responsible diversity management. Journal of Management & Organization, 15(5), 639–651.
Taylor, S. E., Fiske, S. T., Etcoff, N. L., & Ruderman, A. J. (1978). Categorical and contextual bases of person memory and stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 718–793.
Thietart, R. A. (Ed.). (2001). Doing management research: A comprehensive guide. London: SAGE.
Tichy, N., Fombrun, C., & Devanna, M. (1982). Strategic human resource management. Sloan Management Review, 23(2), 47–61.
Totta, J. M., & Burke, R. J. (1995). Integrating diversity and equality into the fabric of the organization. Women in Management Review, 10(7), 32–39.
Tsui, A. S., Egan, T. D., & O’Reilly, C. A., I. I. I. (1992). Being different: Relational demography an organizational attachment. Administrative Science Quarterly, 37, 549–579.
Tsui, A. S., & O’Reilly, C. A., I. I. I. (1989). Beyond simple demographic effects: The importance of relational demography in superior-subordinate dyads. Academy of Management Journal, 32(2), 402–423.
Turner, J. C. (1987). Social identification and psychological group formation. In H. Tajfel (Ed.), The social dimension: European developments in social psychology (pp. 518–540). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Van den Broeck, H., Vanderheyden, K., & Cools, E. (2003). Individual differences in cognitive styles: Development, validation and cross validation of the cognitive style inventory. Working Paper Series of Vlerick Leuven Gent 2003/27.
Von Glinow, M. A., Drost, E. A., & Teagarden, M. B. (2002). Converging on IHRM best practices: Lessons learned from a globally distributed consortium on theory and practice. Human Resource Management, 41(1), 123–140.
Wagner, W. G., Pfeffer, J., & O’Reilly, C. A., I. I. I. (1984). Organizational demography and turnover in top-management groups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 29, 74–92.
Walsh, V., & Lodorfos, G. (2002). Technological and organizational innovation in chemicals and related products. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 14(3), 273–298.
Walton, R. E. (1985). Toward a strategy of eliciting employee commitment based on policies of mutuality. In P. R. Lawrence & R. E. Walton (Eds.), HRM trends and challenges. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Walton, R. E., & Lawrence, P. R. (1985). HRM trends and challenges. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Watson, W. E., Kumar, K., & Michaelsen, L. K. (1993). Cultural diversity’s impact on interaction process and performance: Comparing homogeneous and diverse task groups. Academy of Management Journal, 36(3), 590–602.
Werner, B. M., & Souder, W. E. (1997). Measuring R&D performance—state of the art. Research Technology Management, 40(2), 34–43.
Werts, C. E., Linn, R. L., & Jöreskog, K. G. (1974). Interclass reliability estimates: Testing using structural assumptions. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 34, 25–33.
West, C. T., & Schenk, C. (1996). Top management team strategic consensus, demographic homogeneity and firm performance: A report of resounding nonfindings. Strategic Management Journal, 17, 571–576.
Wiersema, M. F., & Bantel, K. A. (1992). Top management team demography and corporate strategic change. Academy of Management Journal, 35(1), 91–121.
Wiersema, M. F., & Bird, A. (1993). Organizational demography in Japanese firms: Group heterogeneity, individual dissimilarity, and top management team turnover. Academy of Management Journal, 36(5), 996–1025.
Williams, K., & O’Reilly, C. (1997). The complexity of diversity: A review of forty years of research. In D. Gruenfeld & M. Neale (Eds.), Research on managing in groups and teams. Greenwich: JAI Press.
Wold, H. (1980). Model construction and evaluation when theoretical knowledge is scarce: Theory and application of partial least squares. In J. Kmenta & J. B. Ramsey (Eds.), Evaluation of econometric models (pp. 47–74). New York: Academic Press.
Wright, P. M., Dunford, B. B., & Snell, S. A. (2001). Human resources and the resource based view of the firm. Journal of Management, 27, 701–721.
Wright, P. M., & McMahan, G. C. (1992). Theoretical perspectives for strategic human resource management. Journal of Management, 18(2), 295–320.
Wright, P. M., & Snell, S. A. (1991). Toward an integrative view of strategic human resource management. Human Resource Management Review, 1, 203–225.
Yang, Y., & Konrad, A. M. (2011). Understanding diversity management practices: Implications of institutional theory and resource-based theory. Group & Organization Management, 36(1), 6–38.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Appendix
Appendix
See Table 2.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Martín-Alcázar, F., Romero-Fernández, P.M. & Sánchez-Gardey, G. Transforming Human Resource Management Systems to Cope with Diversity. J Bus Ethics 107, 511–531 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-011-1061-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-011-1061-0