Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-m8qmq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-23T14:13:38.931Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Practical Wisdom and Business Ethics

Presidential Address to the Society for Business Ethics Atlanta, August 2006

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 January 2015

Dennis J. Moberg
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Practical wisdom has received scant attention in business ethics. Defined as a disposition toward cleverness in crafting morally excellent responses to, or in anticipation of, challenging particularities, practical wisdom has four psychological components: knowledge, emotion, thinking, and motivation. People's experience, reflection, and inspiration are theorized to determine their capacity for practical wisdom-related performance. Enhanced by their abilities to engage in moral imagination, systems thinking, and ethical reframing, this capacity is realized in the form of wisdom-related performance. This can be manifested either in wise business decisions or through their performance as mentors, advice givers, or dispute handlers.

Type
Presidential Address
Information
Business Ethics Quarterly , Volume 17 , Issue 3 , July 2007 , pp. 535 - 561
Copyright
Copyright © Business Ethics Quarterly 2007

References

Allen, T. D., & Eby, L. T. 2003. Relationship effectiveness for mentors: Factors associated with learning and quality. Journal of Management, 29: 469–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aquino, K. F., & Reed II, A. 2002. The self-importance of moral identity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83: 1432–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ardelt, M. 2000. Antecedents and effects of wisdom in old age. Research on Aging, 22: 360–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Argyris, C., & Schon, D. A. 1996. Organizational learning II. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley.Google Scholar
Aristotle. 1985. Nicomachean ethics, trans. Irwin, T.Indianapolis: Hackett.Google Scholar
Athanassiou, N., & Nigh, D. 1999. The impact of company internationalization on top management team advice networks: A tacit knowledge perspective. Strategic Management Journal, 19: 83–92.3.0.CO;2-Y>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Auster, D. 1984. Mentors and protégés: Power-dependent dyads. Sociological Inquiry, 54: 142–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Badaracco, J. L. Jr., 1997. Defining moments: When managers must choose between right and right. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.Google Scholar
Baltes, P. B., & Staudinger, U. M. 1993. The search for a psychology of wisdom. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2: 75–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baltes, P. B., & Staudinger, U. M. (Eds.). 1996. Interactive minds: Life span perspectives on the social foundation of cognition. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Baltes, P. B., & Staudinger, U. M. 2000. Wisdom: A meta-heuristic (pragmatic) to orchestrate mind and virtue toward excellence. American Psychologist, 55: 122–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baltes, P. B., Staudinger, U. M., Maercker, A., & Smith, J. 1995. People nominated as wise: A comparative study of wisdom-related knowledge. Psychology and Aging, 10: 155–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartunek, J. M. 1988. The dynamics of personal and organizational reframing. In Quinn, R. E. & Cameron, K. S. (Eds.), Paradox and transformation: Toward a theory of change in organization and management: 137–62. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger.Google Scholar
Bateson, G. 1972. Steps to the ecology of the mind. San Francisco: Chandler.Google Scholar
Blasi, G., & Globis, K. 1995. The development of identity: A critical analysis from the perspective of the self as subject. Developmental Review, 15: 404–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bollier, D. 1996. Aiming higher: 25 stories of how companies prosper by combining sound management and social vision. New York: AMACOM.Google Scholar
Borg, J. S., Hynes, C., Van Horn, J., Grafton, S., & Sinnott-Armstrong, W. 2006. Consequences, action, and intention as factors in moral judgments: An fMRI investigation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 18: 803–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brady, F. N. 1987. Rules for making exceptions to rules. Academy of Management Review, 12: 436–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, P., & Levinson, S. 1987. Politeness: Some universals in language use. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, W. S. 2000. Wisdom and human neurocognitive systems: Perceiving and practicing the laws of life. In Brown, W. S. (Ed.), Understanding wisdom: Sources, science and society: 193–213. Philadelphia: Templeton Foundation Press.Google Scholar
Caldwell, D. F., & Moberg, D. J. In press. The effect of ethical culture and moral identity in activating moral imagination. Journal of Business Ethics.Google Scholar
Chao, G. T. 1997. Mentoring phases and outcomes. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 51: 16–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clayton, V., & Birren, J. E. 1980. The development of wisdom across the life span: A reexamination of an ancient logic. In Baltes, P. B. & Brim, O. G. (Eds.), Life-span development and behavior, vol. 3: 103–35. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Colonia-Willner, R. 1999. Investing in practical intelligence: Ageing and cognitive efficiency among executives. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 23: 591–614.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Comeau-Kirschner, C., & Wah, L. 2000. Who has time to think? Management Review, 89: 16–23.Google Scholar
Dahlsgaard, K., Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. 2005. Shared virtue: The convergence of valued human strengths across culture and history. Review of General Psychology, 9: 203–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Darley, J., & Batson, C. 1973. “From Jerusalem to Jericho”: A study of situational and dispositional variables in helping behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 27: 100–08.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deelstra, J. T., Peeters, M. C., Schaufeli, W. B., Stroebe, W., Zijlstra, F. R., & van Doornen, L. P. 2003. Receiving instrumental support at work: When help is not welcome. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88: 324–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dijksteruis, A., Bos, M. W., Nordgren, L. F., & Van Baaren, R. B. 2006. On making the right choice: The deliberation-without-attention effect. Science, 311: 1005–07.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doris, J. 1998. Persons, situations, and virtue ethics. Nous, 32: 504–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dreyfus, H. L., & Dreyfus, S. E. 2004. The ethical implications of the five-stage skill-acquisition model. Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 24: 251–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Druskat, V. U., Sala, F., & Mount, G. (Eds.). 2006. Linking emotional intelligence and performance at work: Current research evidence with individuals and groups. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.Google Scholar
Elangovan, A. R. 1995. Managerial third-party dispute intervention: A prescriptive model of strategy selection. Academy of Management Review, 20: 800–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ericsson, K. A., & Lehmann, A. C. 1996. Expert and exceptional performance: Evidence of maximal adaptation to task constraints. Annual Review of Psychology, 47, 273–305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Erikson, E. H., Erikson, J. M., & Kivnick, H. Q. 1986. Vital involvement in old age: The experience of old age in our time. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Freeman, R. E. 1994. The politics of stakeholder theory: Some future directions. Business Ethics Quarterly, 44: 409–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Furlong, J., & Maynard, T. 1995. Mentoring student teachers. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Gabarro, J. J. 1985. When a new manager takes charge. Harvard Business Review, 63 (3): 110–23.Google Scholar
Goffman, E. 1974. Frame analysis: An essay on the organization of the experience. New York: Harper Colophon.Google Scholar
Graham, J. W. 1986. Principled organizational dissent. In Cummings, L. L. & Staw, B. M. (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior, vol. 8: 1–52. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.Google Scholar
Green, S. P. 2004. Moral ambiguity in white collar criminal law. Notre Dame Journal of Law, Ethics, and Public Policy, 18: 501–19.Google Scholar
Greene, J. D., Sommerville, R. B., Nystrom, L. E., Darley, J. M., & Cohen, J. D. 2001. An fMRI investigation of emotional engagement in moral judgment. Science, 293: 2105–08.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Habermas, J. 1998. On the pragmatics of communication (Cooke, M., Ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Haidt, J. 2001. The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychological Review, 108: 814–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Happe, F. G. E., Winner, E., & Brownell, H. 1998. The getting of wisdom: Theory of mind in old age. Developmental Psychology, 34: 358–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harman, G. 2000. The nonexistence of character traits. Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 100: 223–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hart, T. 1998. Inspiration: Exploring the experience and its meaning. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 38: 7–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartman, E. M. 2006. Can we teach character? An Aristotelian answer. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 5: 68–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartshorne, H., & May, M. A. 1928. Studies in the nature of character, vol. 1: Studies in deceit. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
He, A. 1994. Withholding academic advice: Institutional context and academic practice. Discourse Processes, 18: 297–316.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heckhausen, J., Dixon, R. A., & Baltes, P. B. 1989. Gains and losses in development throughout adulthood as perceived by different adult age groups. Developmental psychology, 25: 109–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helson, R., & Srivastava, S. 2001. Three paths of adult development: Conservers, seekers, and achievers. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 80: 995–1010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Higgins, E. T. 2000. Making a good decision: Values from fit. American Psychologist, 55: 1217–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hunt, J. M., & Weintraub, J. 2002. How coaching can enhance your brand as a manager. Journal of Organizational Excellence, 10: 39–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Janoff-Bulman, R. 1992. Shattered assumptions: Toward a new psychology of trauma. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Johnson, M. 1993. Moral imagination: Implications of cognitive science for ethics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Johnson, W. B. 2003. A Framework for conceptualizing competence to mentor. Ethics and Behavior, 13: 127–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, C. A. 2005. Wisdom paradigms for the enhancement of ethical and profitable business practices. Journal of Business Ethics, 57: 363–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalbfleisch, P. J. 1997. Appeasing the mentor. Aggressive Behavior, 23: 389–403.3.0.CO;2-D>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kastenbaum, R. J. 1997. Lasting words as a channel for intergenerational communication. Ageing and Society, 17: 21–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kekes, J. 1995. Moral wisdom and good lives. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Kidder, R. M. 1995. How good people make tough choices. New York: Morrow.Google Scholar
Kim, S., & Hasher, L. 2005. The attraction effect in decision making: Superior performance by older adults. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A: Human Experimental Psychology, 58A, 1: 120–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knapp, M. L., Stohl, C., & Reardon, K. K. 1981. “Memorable” messages. Journal of Communication, 31 (4): 27–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kram, K. E. 1985. Mentoring at work. Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman.Google Scholar
Kramer, D. A. 1983. Post-formal operations? A need for further conceptualization. Human Development, 26: 91–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krebs, D. L., & Denton, K. 2005, Toward a more pragmatic approach to morality: A critical evaluation of Kohlberg's model. Psychological Review, 112: 629–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kristjánsson, K. 2006. Emotional intelligence in the classroom: An Aristotelian critique. Educational Theory, 56: 39–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kunzmann, U., & Baltes, P. B. 2003. Wisdom-related knowledge: Affective, motivational, and interpersonal correlates. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29: 1104–19.Google ScholarPubMed
Landau, M. J., & Scandura, T. A. 2002. An investigation of personal learning in mentoring relationships: Content, antecedents, and consequence. Academy of Management Journal, 45: 779–90.Google Scholar
Langer, E. J., Blank, A., & Chanowitz, B. 1978. The mindlessness of ostensibly thoughtful action. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 36: 635–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lapsley, D. 2006. Moral stage theory. In Killen, M. & Smetana, J. G. (Eds.), Handbook of Moral Development: 37–66. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Leonard, D., & Swap, W. 2005. Deep smarts: How to cultivate and transfer enduring business wisdom. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.Google Scholar
Lissak, R. I., & Sheppard, B. H. 1983. Beyond fairness: The criterion problem in research on conflict intervention. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 13: 45–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maani, K. E., & Maaraj, V. 2004. Links between systems thinking and complex decision making. System Dynamics Review, 20: 21–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manz, C. C., Manz, K. P., Marx, R. D., & Neck, C. P. 2001. The wisdom of Solomon at work: Ancient virtues for living and leading today. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.Google Scholar
McAdams, D. P., de St. Aubin, E., & Logan, R. L. 1993. Generativity among young, midlife, and older adults. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 64: 221–30.Google Scholar
McCollough, T. E. 1991. The moral imagination and public life. Chatham, NJ: Chatham House.Google Scholar
McElhaney, R. 1996. Conflict management in nursing. Nursing Management, 27 (3): 49–50.Google ScholarPubMed
Meacham, J. A. 1983. Wisdom in the context of knowledge: Knowing what one doesn't know. In Kuhn, D. & Meacham, J. A. (Eds.), On the development of developmental psychology: 111–34. Basel: Karger.Google Scholar
Meacham, J. A. 1990. The loss of wisdom. In Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), Wisdom: Its nature, origins and development: 181–211. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meyerson, D. E. 2003. Tempered radicals: How everyday leaders inspire change at work. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.Google Scholar
Miceli, N. S., & Near, J. P. 2002. What makes whistle-blowers effective? Three field studies. Human Relations, 55: 455–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, W. R., & C’ de Baca, J. 2001. Quantum change: When epiphanies and sudden insights transform ordinary lives. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Minsky, M. 1974. A framework for representing knowledge. Cambridge, MA: MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory.Google Scholar
Moberg, D. J. 1990. Helping subordinates with their personal problems: A moral dilemma for managers. Journal of Business Ethics, 9: 519–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moberg, D. J. 2000. Role models and moral exemplars. Business Ethics Quarterly, 10: 675–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moberg, D. J. 2001a. The aging workforce: Implications for ethical practice. Business & Society Review, 106: 315–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moberg, D. J. 2001b. Diagnosing system states. Emergence, 3 (2): 19–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moberg, D. J. 2002a. Giving business ethics advice: A praxis. Professional Ethics, 10: 3–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moberg, D. J. 2002b. Managerial wisdom. In Dienhart, J., Duska, R., & Moberg, D. (Eds.), The next phase of business ethics: 377–96. New York: American Elsevier.Google Scholar
Moberg, D. J. 2003. Managers as judges in employee disputes: An occasion for moral imagination. Business Ethics Quarterly, 13: 453–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moberg, D. J. In press. Best intentions, worst results: Grounding ethics students in the realities of organizational context. Academy of Management Learning and Education.Google Scholar
Moberg, D. J., & Seabright, M. 2000. The development of moral imagination. Business Ethics Quarterly, 10: 845–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moberg, D. J., & Velasquez, M. 2004. The ethics of mentoring. Business Ethics Quarterly, 14: 95–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mobley, M. E., Humphreys, J., Brown, J., Frank, K., Narayandas, D., & Rousseau, D. 2006. How low will you go? Harvard Business Review, 84 (4): 33–44.Google Scholar
Nussbaum, M. C. 1990. Love's knowledge. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Pardales, M. J. 2002. So, how did you arrive at that decision? Connecting moral imagination and moral judgment. Journal of Moral Education, 31: 423–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peterson, C, & Seligman, M. E. 2004. Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Polanyi, M. 1966. The tacit dimension. Garden City, NY: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Rakfeldt, J., Rybash, J. M., & Roodin, P. A. 1996. Affirmative coping: A marker of success in adult therapeutic intervention. In Commons, M. I. & Demick, J. (Eds.), Clinical approaches to development: 295–310. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Reynolds, S. J. 2006. Moral awareness and ethical predispositions: Investigating the role of individual differences in the recognition of moral issues. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91: 233–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schneider, S. K., & Northcraft, G. B. 1999. Three social dilemmas of work force diversity in organizations: A social identity perspective. Human Relations, 52: 1445–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schön, D. A. 1983. The reflective practitioner. New York: Basic BooksGoogle Scholar
Schön, D. A. 1987. Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Seibert, K. W., & Daudelin, M. 1999. The role of reflection in managerial learning. New York: Quorum Books.Google Scholar
Senge, P. M., Klein, A., Roberts, C., Boss, R. B., & Smith, B. J. 1994. The fifth discipline fieldbook: Strategies and tools for building a learning organization. New York: Doubleday.Google Scholar
Simon, S. A., & Eby, L. T. 2003. A typology of negative mentoring experiences: A multicultural scaling study. Human Relations, 56: 1083–1106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, J., & Baltes, P. B. 1990. A study of wisdom-related knowledge: Age/cohort differences in responses to life planning problems. Developmental Psychology, 26: 494–505.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, J., Staudinger, U. M., & Baltes, P. B. 1994. Occupational settings facilitating wisdom-related knowledge: The sample case of clinical psychologists. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62: 989–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Somech, A. 2006. The effects of leadership style and team process on performance and innovation in functionally heterogeneous teams. Journal of Management, 32: 132–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sreenivasan, G. 2002. Errors about errors: Virtue theory and trait attribution. Mind, 111: 47–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Staudinger, U. M. 1996. Wisdom and the social-interactive foundation of the mind. In Baltes, P. B., & Staudinger, U. M. (Eds.), Interactive minds: Life span perspectives on the social foundation of cognition: 276–315. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Staudinger, U. M. 1997. Cultural psychology and the art of life: Some thoughts on the work of Ernst E. Boesch. Culture & Psychology, 3: 299–314.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Staudinger, U. M., & Baltes, P. B. 1994. The psychology of wisdom. In Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of intelligence: 1143–52. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Staudinger, U. M., & Baltes, P. B. 1996. Interactive minds: A facilitative setting for wisdom-related performance? Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 71: 746–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Staudinger, U. M., & Kunzmann, U. 2005. Positive adult personality development. European Psychologist, 10: 320–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Staudinger, U. M., Maciel, A. G., Smith, J., & Baltes, P. B. 1998. What predicts wisdom-related performance? A first look at personality, intelligence, and facilitative experiential contexts. European Journal of Personality, 12: 1–18.3.0.CO;2-9>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. 1985. Implicit theories of intelligence, creativity, and wisdom. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 49: 607–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. 1998. A balance theory of wisdom. Review of General Psychology, 2: 347–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. 2002. Why smart people can be so stupid. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., & Wagner, R. K. (Eds.). 1986. Practical intelligence: Nature and origins of competence in the everyday world. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., Wagner, R. K., Williams, M. W., & Horvath, J. A. 1995. Testing common sense. American Psychologist, 50: 912–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tentori, K., Osherson, D., Hasher, L., & May, C. 2001. Wisdom and aging: Irrational preferences in college students but not older adults. Cognition, 81: B87–B96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, K. W., & Schmidt, W. H. 1976. A survey of managerial interests with respect to conflict. Academy of Management Journal, 19: 315–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Treviño, L. K., Hartman, L. P., & Brown, M. 2000. Moral person and moral manager: How executives develop a reputation for ethical leadership. California Management Review, 42 (4): 128–42.Google Scholar
Tykocinski, O. E., & Pittman, T. S. 1998. The consequences of doing nothing: Inaction inertia as avoidance of anticipated counterfactual regret. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75: 607–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tykocinski, O. E., Pittman, T. S., & Tuttle, E. E. 1995. Inaction inertia: Foregoing future benefits as a result of an initial failure to act. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68: 793–803.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Rooy, D. L., Alonso, A., & Viswesvaran, C. 2005. Group differences in emotional intelligence scores: Theoretical and practical implications. Personality and Individual Differences, 38: 689–700.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walker, L. J., & Pitts, R. C. 1998. Naturalistic conceptions of moral maturity. Developmental Psychology, 34: 403–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watzlawick, P., Weakland, J., & Fisch, R. 1974. Change: Principles of problem resolution. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Weaver, G. R. 2006. Virtue in organizations: Moral identity as a foundation for moral agency. Organization Studies, 27: 341–368.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Werhane, P. H. 1999. Moral imagination and managerial decision making. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Werhane, P. H. 2002. Moral imagination and systems thinking. Journal of Business Ethics, 38: 33–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, S. R., Aleman, C. G., & Leatham, G. B. 1998. Identity implications of influence goals. Human Communication Research, 25: 64–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, T. D., & Kraft, D. 1993. Why do I love thee? Effects of repeated introspections about a dating relationship on attitudes: Toward a relationship. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19: 409–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Young, A. M., & Perrewé, P. L. 2000. What did you expect? An examination of career-related support and social support among mentors and protégés. Journal of Management, 26: 611–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar