Skip to main content
Log in

Unreflective actions? complex motor skill acquisition to enhance spatial cognition

  • Published:
Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Cognitive science has recently moved toward action-integrated paradigms to account for some of its most remarkable findings. This novel approach has opened up new venues for the sport sciences. In particular, a large body of literature has investigated the relationship between complex motor practice and cognition, which in the sports domain has mostly concerned the effect of imagery and other forms of mental practice on motor skill acquisition and emotional control. Yet recent evidence indicates that this relationship is bidirectional: motor experience also influences higher cognition, with a broad range of cognitive abilities being impacted in various ways. In this paper, I review the latest research exploring the effect of complex motor practice on spatial cognition. After emphasizing the versatility of processes that are recruited in the acquisition of complex motor skills, I present further experimental evidence to suggest that the process of acquiring new motor skills triggers specific adaptions in the brain, which in turn can be critical in numerous aspects of daily life. Finally, I propose a mechanistic explanation to account for motor-induced improvements, within an embodied framework of cognition.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ambrosini, E., Sinigaglia, C., & Costantini, M. (2012). Tie my hands, tie my eyes. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance, 38(2), 263–266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amorim, M. A., Isableu, B., & Jarraya, M. (2006). Embodied spatial transformations: “body analogy” for the mental rotation of objects. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 135(3), 327–347.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barsalou, L. W. (1999). Perceptual symbol systems. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22, 577–600.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beilock, S. L., Lyons, I. M., Mattarella-Micke, A., Nusbaum, H. C., & Small, S. L. (2008). Sports experience changes the neural processing of action language. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105, 13269–13273.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Borghi, A., Glenberg, A. M., & Kaschak, M. P. (2004). Putting words in perspective. Memory and Cognition, 32(6), 863–873.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buccino, G., Vogt, S., Ritzl, A., Fink, G. R., Zilles, K., Freund, H. J., et al. (2004). Neural circuits underlying imitation learning of hand actions: an event-related fMRI study. Neuron, 42, 323–334.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Calvo-Merino, B., Grezes, J., Glaser, D. E., Passingham, R. E., & Haggard, P. (2006). Seeing or doing? Influence of visual and motor familiarity on action observation. Current Biology, 16, 1905–1910.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chu, M., & Kita, S. (2011). The nature of gestures’ beneficial role in spatial problem solving. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 140(1), 102–116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, A. (1997). Being there: Putting brain, body and world together again. Cambridge: The MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Connell, L. (2007). Representing object colour in language comprehension. Cognition, 102(3), 476–485.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Lange, F. P., Roelofs, K., & Toni, I. (2008). Motor imagery: a window into the mechanisms and alterations of the motor system. Cortex, 44(5), 494–506.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dietrich, A. (2008). Imaging the imagination: the trouble with motor imagery. Methods, 45(4), 319–324.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dijkstra, K., Kaschak, M. P., & Zwaan, R. A. (2007). Body posture facilitates retrieval of autobiographical memories. Cognition, 102(1), 139–149.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dijkstra, K., MacMahon, C., & Misirlisoy, M. (2008). The effects of golf expertise and presentation modality on memory for golf and everyday items. Acta Psychologica, 128(2), 298–303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Engel, A. K., Maye, A., Kurthen, M., & König, P. (2013). Where’s the action? The pragmatic turn in cognitive science. Trends in Cognitive Science, 17(5), 202–209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fitts, P. M., & Posner, M. I. (1967). Human performance. Oxford: Brooks and Cole.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flanagan, J. R., & Johansson, R. S. (2003). Action plans used in action observation. Nature, 424, 769–771.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Furley, P., & Memmert, D. (2010). The role of working memory in sports. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 3, 171–194.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gallant, J. L., Connor, C. E., & Van Essen, D. C. (1998). Neural activity in areas V1, V2 and V4 during free viewing of natural scenes compared to controlled viewing. NeuroReport, 9(9), 2153–2158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gallese, V., & Lakoff, G. (2005). The brain’s concepts: the role of the sensory–motor system in reason and language. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 22(3–4), 455–479.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Georgopoulos, A. P., & Massey, J. T. (1987). Cognitive spatial-motor processes. 1. The making of movements at various angles form a stimulus direction. Experimental Brain Research, 65, 361–370.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glenberg, A. M. (1997). What memory is for. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 20(1), 1–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glenberg, A. M., & Gallese, V. (2012). Action-based language: a theory of language acquisition, comprehension, and production. Cortex, 48(7), 905–922.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glenberg, A. M., & Kaschak, M. P. (2003). The body’s contribution to language. In B. Ross (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 43, pp. 93–126) (pp. 93–126). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Güldenpenning, I., Köster, D., Kunde, W., Weigelt, M., & Schack, T. (2011). Motor expertise modulates the unconscious processing of human body postures. Experimental Brain Research, 213(4), 383–391.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, I. M., Egan, G. F., Sonkkila, C., Tochon-Danguy, H. J., Paxinos, G., & Watson, J. D. (2000). Selective right parietal lobe activation during mental rotation: a parametric PET study. Brain, 123(1), 65–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herholz, S. C., & Zatorre, R. J. (2012). Musical training as a framework for brain plasticity: behavior, function, and structure. Neuron, 76(3), 486–502.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holt, L. E., & Beilock, S. L. (2006). Expertise and its embodiment: examining the impact of sensorimotor skill expertise on the representation of action-related text. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 13(4), 694–701.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hyun, J. S., & Luck, S. J. (2007). Visual working memory as the substrate for mental rotation. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14(1), 154–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Inoue, K., Kawashima, R., Satoh, K., Kinomura, S., & Sugiura, M. (2000). A PET study of visuomotor learning under optical rotation. NeuroImage, 516, 505–516.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ionta, S., & Blanke, O. (2009). Differential influence of hands posture on mental rotation of hands and feet in left and right handers. Experimental Brain Research, 195, 207–217.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ionta, S., Fourkas, A. D., Fiorio, M., & Aglioti, S. M. (2007). The influence of hands posture on mental rotation of hands and feet. Experimental Brain Research, 183(1), 1–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Janczyk, M., Pfister, R., Crognale, M. A., & Kunde, W. (2012). Effective rotations: action effects determine the interplay of mental and manual rotations. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 141(3), 489–501.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jansen, P., & Dahmen-Zimmer, K. (2012). Effects of cognitive, motor, and karate training on cognitive functioning and emotional well-being of elderly people. Frontiers in Psychology, 3(40), 1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jeannerod, M. (2001). Neural simulation of action: a unifying mechanism for motor cognition. NeuroImage, 14(1), 103–109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jeannerod, M., & Decety, J. (1995). Mental motor imagery: a window into the representational stages of action. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 5(6), 727–732.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jordan, K., Heinze, H. J., Lutz, K., Kanowski, M., & Jancke, L. (2001). Cortical activations during the mental rotation of different visual objects. NeuroImage, 13(1), 143–152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kosslyn, S. M., DiGirolamo, G. J., Thompson, W. L., & Alpert, N. M. (1998). Mental rotation of objects versus hands: neural mechanisms revealed by positron emission tomography. Psychophysiology, 35(2), 151–161.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lamm, C., Windischberger, C., Moser, E., & Bauera, H. (2007). The functional role of dorso-lateral premotor cortex during mental rotation: an event-related fMRI study separating cognitive processing steps using a novel task paradigm. NeuroImage, 36, 1374–1386.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mazer, J. A., & Gallant, J. L. (2003). Goal-related activity in V4 during free viewing visual search. Evidence for a ventral stream visual salience map. Neuron, 40(6), 1241–1250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Memmert, D., & Furley, P. (2007). “I spy with my little eye!”: breadth of attention, inattentional blindness, and tactical decision making in team sports. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 29(3), 365–381.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moreau, D. (2012a). The role of motor processes in three-dimensional mental rotation: shaping cognitive processing via sensorimotor experience. Learning and Individual Differences, 22(3), 354–359.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moreau, D. (2012b). Training spatial ability: comment on Pietsch and Jansen (2012) and prospective research trends. Learning and Individual Differences, 22(6), 882–883.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moreau, D. (2013a). Constraining movement alters the recruitment of motor processes in mental rotation. Experimental Brain Research, 224(3), 447–454.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moreau, D. (2013b). Motor expertise modulates movement processing in working memory. Acta Psychologica, 142(3), 356–361.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moreau, D., & Conway, A. R. A. (2013). Cognitive enhancement: a comparative review of computerized and athletic training programs. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 6(1), 155–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moreau, D., & Conway, A. R. A (2014). The case for an ecological approach to cognitive training. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18(7), 334–336.

  • Moreau, D., Mansy-Dannay, A., Clerc, J., & Guerrien, A. (2011). Spatial ability and motor performance: assessing mental rotation processes in elite and novice athletes. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 42(6), 525–547.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moreau, D., Clerc, J., Mansy-Dannay, A., & Guerrien, A. (2012). Enhancing spatial ability through sport practice: evidence for an effect of motor training on mental rotation performance. Journal of Individual Differences, 33(2), 83–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moreau, D., Morrison, A. B., & Conway, A. R. A. (2013). An ecological approach to cognitive enhancement: Complex motor training. Washington: Paper presented at the Association for Psychological Science Annual Convention.

    Google Scholar 

  • Munzert, J., & Lorey, B. (2013). Motor and visual imagery in sports. In S. Lacey & R. Lawson (Eds.), Multisensory imagery (pp. 319–342). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Nezafat, R., Shadmehr, R., & Holcomb, H. H. (2001). Long-term adaptation to dynamics of reaching movements: a PET study. Experimental Brain Research, 140, 66–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Niell, C. M., & Stryker, M. P. (2010). Modulation of visual responses by behavioral state in mouse visual cortex. Neuron, 65(4), 472–479.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oztop, E., Kawato, M., & Arbib, M. (2006). Mirror neurons and imitation: a computationally guided review. Neural Networks, 19(3), 254–271.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parsons, L. M. (1987). Imagined spatial transformations of one’s hands and feet. Cognitive Psychology, 19, 178–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parsons, L. M. (1994). Temporal and kinematic properties of motor behavior reflected in mentally simulated action. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance, 20(4), 709–730.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pellizzer, G., & Georgopoulos, A. P. (1993). Common processing constraints for visuomotor and visual mental rotation. Experimental Brain Research, 93, 165–172.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pietsch, S., & Jansen, P. (2012). Different mental rotation performance in students of music, sport and education. Learning and Individual Differences, 22(1), 159–163.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Puttemans, V., Wenderoth, N., & Swinnen, S. P. (2005). Changes in brain activation during the acquisition of a multifrequency bimanual coordination task: from the cognitive stage to advanced levels of automaticity. Journal of Neuroscience, 25, 4270–4278.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raab, M., & Johnson, J. G. (2007). Expertise-based differences in search and option-generation strategies. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Applied, 13(3), 158–170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Remy, F., Wenderoth, N., Lipkens, K., & Swinnen, S. P. (2008). Acquisition of a new bimanual coordination pattern modulates the cerebral activations elicited by an intrinsic pattern: an fMRI study. Cortex, 44(5), 482–493.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richter, W., Somorjai, R., Summers, R., Jarmasz, M., Menon, R. S., Gati, J. S., et al. (2000). Motor area activity during mental rotation studied by time-resolved single-trial fMRI. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12(2), 310–320.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rizzolatti, G., & Craighero, L. (2004). The mirror-neuron system. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 27, 169–192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, R. A. (1975). A schema theory of discrete motor skill learning. Psychological Review, 82, 225–260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, R. A., & Lee, T. A. (1998). Motor control and learning: A behavioral emphasis. Champaign: Human Kinetics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schuch, S., Bayliss, A. P., Klein, C., & Tipper, S. P. (2010). Attention modulates motor system activation during action observation: evidence for inhibitory rebound. Experimental Brain Research, 205(2), 235–249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, D. L., & Holton, D. L. (2000). Tool use and the effect of action on the imagination. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26(6), 1655–1665.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sekiyama, K. (1982). Kinesthetic aspects of mental representations in the identification of left and right hands. Perception & Psychophysics, 32, 89–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shipstead, Z., Redick, T. S., & Engle, R. W. (2012). Is working memory training effective? Psychological Bulletin, 138(4), 628–654.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skippera, J. I., Nusbauma, H. C., & Smalla, S. L. (2005). Listening to talking faces: motor cortical activation during speech perception. NeuroImage, 25(1), 76–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smeets, J. B. J., & Brenner, E. (1995). Perception and action are based on the same visual information: distinction between position and velocity. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance, 21(1), 19–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smyth, M. M., & Pendleton, L. R. (1989). Working memory for movements. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A: Human Experimental Psychology, 41(2-A), 235–250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smyth, M. M., & Pendleton, L. R. (1990). Space and movement in working memory. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A: Human Experimental Psychology, 42(2-A), 291–304.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smyth, M. M., & Pendleton, L. R. (1994). Memory for movement in professional ballet dancers. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 25(3), 282–294.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smyth, M. M., Pearson, N. A., & Pendleton, L. R. (1988). Movement and working memory: patterns and positions in space. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A: Human Experimental Psychology, 40(3-A), 497–514.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steggemann, Y., Engbert, K., & Weigelt, M. (2011). Selective effects of motor expertise in mental body rotation tasks: comparing object-based and perspective transformations. Brain and Cognition, 76(1), 97–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, L., Henson, R., Kampe, K., Walsh, V., Turner, R., & Frith, U. (2003). Brain changes after learning to read and play music. NeuroImage, 20(1), 71–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, L., Walsh, V., & Frith, U. (2004). Reading music modifies spatial mapping in pianists. Perception and Psychophysics, 66(2), 183–195.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tenenbaum, G. (2003). Expert athletes: An integrated approach to decision-making. In J. L. Starkes & K. A. Ericsson (Eds.), Expert performance in sport: Advances in research on sport expertise (pp. 191–218). Champaign: Human Kinetics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tracy, J., Flanders, A., Madi, S., Laskas, J., Stoddard, E., Pyrros, A., et al. (2003). Regional brain activation associated with different performance patterns during learning of a complex motor skill. Cerebral Cortex, 13, 904–910.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vingerhoets, G., de Lange, F. P., Vandemaele, P., Deblaere, K., & Achten, E. (2002). Motor imagery in mental rotation: an fMRI study. NeuroImage, 17(3), 1623–1633.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wexler, M., Kosslyn, S., & Berthoz, A. (1998). Motor processes in mental rotation. Cognition, 68(1), 77–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, M., & Knoblich, G. (2005). The case for motor involvement in perceiving conspecifics. Psychological Bulletin, 131(3), 460–473.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wohlschläger, A., & Wohlschläger, A. (1998). Mental and manual rotation. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance, 24, 397–412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wood, J. N. (2007). Visual working memory for observed actions. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 136(4), 639–652.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wood, J. N. (2011). A core knowledge architecture of visual working memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance, 37(2), 357–381.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wraga, M., Thompson, W. L., Alpert, N. M., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2003). Implicit transfer of motor strategies in mental rotation. Brain and Cognition, 52(2), 135–143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wright, M. J., Bishop, D. T., Jackson, R. C., & Abernethy, B. (2011). Cortical fMRI activation to opponents’ body kinematics in sport-related anticipation: expert-novice differences with normal and point-light video. Neuroscience Letters, 500(3), 216–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zacks, J. M. (2008). Neuroimaging studies of mental rotation: a meta-analysis and review. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 20(1), 1–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zwaan, R. A., & Taylor, L. J. (2006). Seeing, acting, understanding: motor resonance in language comprehension. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 135(1), 1–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to David Moreau.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Moreau, D. Unreflective actions? complex motor skill acquisition to enhance spatial cognition. Phenom Cogn Sci 14, 349–359 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11097-014-9376-9

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11097-014-9376-9

Keywords

Navigation