Skip to main content
Log in

The Ethics of a Co-regulatory Model for Farm Animal Welfare Research

  • Articles
  • Published:
Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Standards for farm animal welfare are variously managed at a national level by government-led regulatory control, by consumer-led welfare economics and co-regulated control in a partnership between industry and government. In the latter case the control of research to support animal welfare standards by the relevant industry body may lead to a conflict of interest on the part of researchers, who are dependent on industry for continued research funding. We examine this dilemma by reviewing two case studies of research published under an Australian co-regulated control system. Evidence of unsupported conclusions that are favourable to industry is provided, suggesting that researchers do experience a conflict of interest that may influence the integrity of the research. Alternative models for the management of research are discussed, including the establishment of an independent research management body for animal welfare because of its public good status and the use of public money derived from taxation, with representation from government, industry, consumers, and advocacy groups.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. http://www.mla.com.au/Research-and-development/Final-report-details?projectid=15355.

  2. http://www.betterliveexport.com/.

  3. http://www.daff.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/1046871/70-peter-thornber.pdf.

References

  • Australian Animal Welfare Standards. (2014). Bobby calf time off feed standard. Department of Agriculture. http://www.animalwelfarestandards.net.au/land-transport/bobby-calf-time-off-feed-standard/. Last accessed 12 August, 2014.

  • Australian Animal Welfare Standards and Guidelines. (2012). Land transport of livestock. Version 1.1. Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Canberra, pp. 59.

  • Australian Standards for the Export of Livestock Version 2.3. (2011). http://www.daff.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/1904365/australian-standards-v2.3.pdf. Accessed 10 April, 2014.

  • Baker, R. W. R., & Nissim, J. A. (1963). Expressions for combining standard errors of two groups and for sequential standard error. Nature, 198, 1020.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bristow, D. J., & Holmes, D. S. (2007). Cortisol and anxiety-related behaviours in cattle. Physiology & Behavior, 90, 626–628.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Broom, D. M., & Johnson, K. G. (1993). Stress and Animal Welfare. London: Chapman & Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campfield, L. A., Smith, F. J., Rosenbaum, M., & Hirsch, (1995). Transient declines in blood glucose precede increased hunger ratings in humans. Appetite, 24, 78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caulfield, M. P., Cambridge, H., Foster, S. F., & McGreevy, P. D. (2014). Heat stress: A major contributor to poor animal welfare associated with long-haul live export voyages. The Veterinary Journal, 199, 223–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cave, J. G., Callinan, A. P., & Woonton, A. P. (2005). Mortalities in bobby calves associated with long distance transport. Australian Veterinary Journal, 83, 82–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cockram, M. S., Kent, J. E., Goddard, P. J., Waran, N. K., McGilp, I. M., Jackson, R. E., et al. (1996). Effect of space allowance during transport on the behavioural and physiological responses of lambs during and after transport. Animal Science, 62, 461–477.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Colditz, I. G., Ferguson, D. M., Collins, T., Matthews, L., & Hemsworth, P. H. (2014). A prototype tool to enable farmers to measure and improve the welfare performance of the farm animal enterprise: The Unified Field Index. Animals, 4, 446–462.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Department of Agriculture (2014). About the Department of Agriculture. http://www.daff.gov.au/. Accessed 7 August, 2014.

  • Edwards, A.V. (1970). Carbohydrate metabolism in young animals. In:Physiology of Digestion and Metabolism in the Ruminant (Eds.), A.T. Phillipson. Oriel Press Newcastle upon Tyne. pp. 180–198.

  • Eldridge, G. A., Winfield, C. G., & Cahill, D. J. (1988). Responses of cattle to different space allowances, pen sizes and road conditions during transport. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 28, 155–159.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, A., Mansell, P., Stevens, B., Conley, M, Jongman, E., Lauber, M., & Hides, S. (2010). Determining a suitable time off feed for bobby calf transport under Australian conditions. Dairy Australia Project No. TIG 124. Dairy Australia, Southbank, Victoria. http://www.animalwelfarestandards.net.au/files/2011/05/Fisher-report-a-summary.pdf.

  • Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations (FAO). (2014). FAOStat statistical data. http://faostat.fao.org/site/535/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=535. Accessed 22 January, 2014.

  • Grant, R. (2007). Taking advantage of natural behavior improves dairy cow performance. Proceedings of the Western Dairy Management Conference, Reno, NV, Manhattan, Kansas State University, pp. 225–236.

  • Harvey, D., & Hubbard, C. (2013). Reconsidering the political economy of farm animal welfare: An anatomy of market failure. Food Policy, 38, 105–114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Horgan, R., & Gavinelli, A. (2006). The expanding role of animal welfare within EU legislation and beyond. Livestock Science, 103, 303–307.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knowles, T. G., Edwards, J. E., Bazeley, K. J., Brown, S. N., Butterworth, A., & Warriss, P. D. (2000). Changes in the blood biochemical and haematological profile of neonatal calves with age. Veterinary Record, 147, 593–598.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kondo, S., Sekine, J., Okubo, M., & Asahida, Y. (1989). The effect of group size and space allowance on the agonistic and spacing behaviour of cattle. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 24, 127–135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krawczel, P. D., Klaiber, L. B., Butzler, R. E., Klaiber, L. M., Dann, H. M., Mooney, C. S., et al. (2012). Short-term increases in stocking density affect the lying and social behavior, but not the productivity, of lactating Holstein dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science, 95, 4298–4308.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson D., & Lea, J. (2013). Refining stocking densities. Final Report W.LIV.0253. Meat & Livestock Australia Limited, North Sydney, pp. 26. http://www.mla.com.au/Research-and-development/Final-report-details?projectid=15355. Accessed 31 March, 2014.

  • Leliveld, L. M. C., Langbein, J., & Puppe, B. (2013). The emergence of emotional lateralization: evidence in non-human vertebrates and implications for farm animals. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 145, 1–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lumsden, J. H., Mullen, K., & Rowe, R. (1980). Hematology and biochemistry reference values for female Holstein cattle. Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine, 44, 24–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, J. H., Phillips, C. J. C., & Alcock, M. B. A. (1991a). Supplementary forage for grazing sheep 1. Effects on lactating ewes and lambs. Grass & Forage Science, 46, 209–216.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, J. H., Phillips, C. J. C., & Alcock, M. B. A. (1991b). Supplementary forage for grazing sheep. 2. Effects on weaned lambs. Grass & Forage Science, 46, 217–222.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meat and Livestock Australia. (2006). World Livestock Export StandardsA comparison of development processes, systems and outcomes achieved. Alliance Resource Economics, Sydney. pp 26-33. http://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.daff.gov.au%2F__data%2Fassets%2Fword_doc%2F0011%2F2378198%2Findependent-review-australias-livestock-export-trade.doc. Accessed 1 April, 2014.

  • Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries for Scotland & Department of Agriculture for Northern Ireland. (1984). Energy Allowances and Feeding Systems for Ruminants. London: Her Majesty’s Stationary Office. 36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morris, T. R. (1999). Experimental Design and Analysis in Animal Sciences. Wallingford: CABI. 26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morton, J., & Phillips, C. (2008). Stocking Density in Cattle Shipments and Animal Health and Performance—An Assessment of Existing Data. North Sydney: Meat and Livestock Australia.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Primary Industries Animal Welfare Research, Development and Extension (RD&E) Framework (NPIAW). (2010). http://www.animalwelfare.net.au/sites/default/files/Animal%20Welfare%20RDE%20Strategy%20Sept%202010%20Endorsed.pdf. Accessed 5 August, 2014.

  • Palme, R., Touma, C., Arias, N., Dominchin, M. F., & Lepschy, M. (2013). Steroid extraction: get the best out of faecal samples. Wiener Tierarztliche Monatsschrift, 100, 238–246.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paradice, J., & Thornber, P. (2014). Facilitating the use of the OIE standards for the transport of animals by sea and by land. Proceedings of the Third OIE Global Conference on Animal Welfare, Kuala Lumpur 6-8 November, 2012 (pp. 45–52). Paris: World Organisation for Animal Health.

    Google Scholar 

  • Petherick, J. C., & Kilgour, R. (2001). Feedlot research: do the ethical, scientific and industry requirements conflict? In R. Baker, M. Fisher, & P. Hemsworth (Eds.), Farm Animals in Research—Can We Meet the Demands of Ethics, Welfare, Science and Industry? (pp. 96–101). Adelaide: ANZCCART.

    Google Scholar 

  • Petherick, J. C., & Phillips, C. J. C. (2009). Space allowances for confined livestock and their determination from allometric principles. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 117, 1–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Petherick, J. C., Small, A. H., Mayer, D. G., Colditz, I. G., Ferguson, D. M., & Stafford, K. J. (2014a). A comparison of welfare outcomes for weaner and mature Bos indicus bulls surgically or tension band castrated with or without analgesia. 1. Behavioural responses. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 157, 23–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Petherick, J. C., Small, A. H., Mayer, D. G., Colditz, I. G., Ferguson, D. M., & Stafford, K. J. (2014b). A comparison of welfare outcomes for weaner and mature Bos indicus bulls surgically or tension band castrated with or without analgesia. 2. Responses related to stress, health and productivity. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 157, 35–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phillips, C. J. C. (2005). Ethical perspectives of the Australian live export trade. Australian Veterinary Journal, 83, 558–562.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phillips, C. J. C. (2008). The welfare of livestock during sea transport. In M. C. Appleby, V. Cussen, L. Garcés, L. A. Lambert, & J. Turner (Eds.), Long Distance Transport and Welfare of Farm Animals (pp. 137–154). Wallingford: CAB International.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Phillips, C. J. C., Pines, M. K., Latter, M., Muller, T., Petherick, J. C., Norman, S. T., et al. (2010). The physiological and behavioral responses of steers to gaseous ammonia in simulated long distance transport by ship. Journal of Animal Science, 88, 3579–3589.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phillips, C. J. C., & Santurtun, E. (2013). The welfare of livestock transported by ship. The Veterinary Journal, 196, 309–314.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pines, M., Petherick, J. C., Gaughan, J. B., & Phillips, C. J. C. (2007). Stakeholders’ assessment of welfare indicators for sheep and cattle exported by sea from Australia. Animal Welfare, 16, 489–498.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pines, M. K., & Phillips, C. J. C. (2013). Microclimatic conditions and their effects on sheep behavior during a live export shipment from Australia to the Middle East. Journal of Animal Science, 91, 4406–4416.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rind, M. I., & Phillips, C. J. C. (1999). The effects of group size on the ingestive and social behaviour of grazing dairy cows. Animal Science, 68, 589–596.

    Google Scholar 

  • Santurtun, E., Moreau, V., & Phillips, C. J. C. (2014a). A novel method to measure the impact of sea transport motion on sheep welfare. Biosystems Engineering, 118, 128–137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Santurtun, E., Moreau, V., & Phillips, C.J.C. (2014b). Behavioral, body postural and physiological responses of sheep to sea transport motions. In: Proceedings of the 48th Congress of the International Society for Applied ethology, Spain, in press.

  • Stewart, M., Stafford, K. J., Dowling, S. K., Schaefer, A. L., & Webster, J. R. (2008). Eye temperature and heart rate variability of calves disbudded with or without local anaesthetic. Physiology & Behavior, 93, 789–797.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tarrant, P. V., Kenny, F. J., & Harrington, D. (1988). The effect of stocking density during 4 hour transport to slaughter on behaviour, blood constituents and carcass bruising in Friesian steers. Meat Science, 24, 209–222.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tarrant, P. V., Kenny, F. J., Harrington, D., & Murphy, M. (1992). Long distance transportation of steers to slaughter: effect of stocking density on physiology, behaviour and carcass quality. Livestock Production Science, 30, 223–238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thornber, P. (2004). Australian standards for the export of livestock. http://www.daff.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/1046871/70-peter-thornber.pdf. Accessed 1 April, 2014.

  • Van der Schott, A., & Phillips, C. J. C. (2013). Publication bias in animal welfare scientific literature. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 26, 945–948.

  • Van Eck, M., Berkhof, H., Nicolson, N., & Sulon, J. (1996). The effects of perceived stress, traits, mood states, and stressful daily events on salivary cortisol. Psychosomatic Medicine, 58, 447–458.

  • Wallach, D., Charpenteau, J. L., & Elsent, J. M. (1986). Weight gain in grazing sheep: a detailed comparison between models. Agricultural Systems, 19, 211–248.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Western Australian Farmers Federation (2014). Better live export. http://www.betterliveexport.com/. Accessed 25 June, 2014.

Download references

Acknowledgments

Neither of the authors of this paper has a financial or personal relationship with people or organisations that inappropriately influenced or biased the content of this paper. No external funding was provided for this study.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to C. J. C. Phillips.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Phillips, C.J.C., Petherick, J.C. The Ethics of a Co-regulatory Model for Farm Animal Welfare Research. J Agric Environ Ethics 28, 127–142 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10806-014-9524-9

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10806-014-9524-9

Keywords

Navigation