Abstract
This chapter explores a range of significant similarities and differences between videogames and films. It also examines the relationship between the philosophies of each. We begin by addressing the definition of videogames and the question of whether they count as a subcategory of some other artistic kind, namely, film or the moving image. We then turn to the debate about the art status of videogames and compare this to the debate concerning the art status of films. We go on to explore the nature of interactivity in videogames and ask whether videogame interactivity differs from the kind of interactivity that one can find in other artistic domains (such as interactive film). We conclude by exploring various ethical issues relating to videogames and, again, compare these to related issues which arise with respect to film.
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Notes
- 1.
For some examples, see http://uk.ign.com/articles/2013/10/03/most-cinematic-moments-in-games
- 2.
“A feature of a work of art is standard with respect to a…category just in case it is among those in virtue of which works in that category belong to that category – that is, just in case the lack of that feature would disqualify, or tend to disqualify, a work from that category….a contra-standard feature with respect to a category is the absence of a standard feature with respect to that category – that is, a feature whose presence tends to disqualify works as members of the category.” (Kendall Walton, “Categories of Art,” The Philosophical Review 79 no. 3 (1970): 339).
- 3.
There is no uncontroversial date for the first videogame. 1958’s Tennis for Two certainly seems to qualify but there are a number of possible predecessors.
- 4.
As discussed in Grant Tavinor, “Bioshock and the Art of Rapture,” Philosophy and Literature 33, no. 1 (2009): 91–106.
- 5.
See Jon Robson and Aaron Meskin, “Video Games as Self-involving Interactive Fictions,” The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 74 no. 2 (2016): 165–177; Shelby Moser, “Videogame Ontology, Constitutive Rules, and Algorithms,” in The Aesthetics of Videogames, eds. Jon Robson and Grant Tavinor. (New York: Routledge, 2018), 42–59; Stephanie Patridge, “Videogames and Gendered Invisibility,” in The Aesthetics of Videogames, eds. Jon Robson and Grant Tavinor. (New York: Routledge, 2018), 161–80; Karen Schrier, “EPIC: A Framework for Using Video Games in Ethics Education,” Journal of Moral Education 44 no. 4 (2015): 393–424.
- 6.
We will focus in this chapter on philosophical discussions of videogames themselves rather than on attempts to use videogames to do philosophy or illustrate standard philosophical themes and arguments (though see Jon Cogburn and Mark Silcox, Philosophy through Video Games (New York: Routledge, 2009) for discussions of these other approaches).
- 7.
Nicolas Esposito, “A Short and Simple Definition of what a Videogame is,” Proceedings of DiGRA 2005 Conference: Changing Views – Worlds in Play (2005): 2 (italics in the original).
- 8.
Grant Tavinor, The Art of Videogames (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009), 33. A variant of this definition is presented in Grant Tavinor, “Definition of videogames.” Contemporary Aesthetics 6, no. 1 (2008).
- 9.
See, e.g., Veli-Matti Karhulahti, “Defining the Videogame,” Game Studies 15 no. 2(2015).
- 10.
Jordan Erica Webber, “Video Games that let Blind People Play,” Guardian, October 13, 2014, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/oct/13/video-games-that-let-blind-people-play
- 11.
“Art, as the logic of the concept shows, has no set of necessary and sufficient properties, hence a theory of it is logically impossible and not merely factually difficult” (Morris Weitz, “The Role of Theory in Aesthetics,” The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 15 no. 1 (1956): 27–35).
- 12.
Jonne Arjoranta, “Game Definitions: A Wittgensteinian Approach,” Game Studies 14 no 1 (2014).
- 13.
Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 1953 / 2001), 33.
- 14.
Other reasons for this resistance have been offered in the ongoing debate between ludology and narratology (by, e.g., Gonzalo Frasca, “Ludologists Love Stories, Too: Notes from a Debate that Never Took Place,” Proc. Level Up: Digit. Games Res. Conf (2003)). However, these often seem to presuppose, mistakenly in our view, that there is some incompatibility (or at least tension) between classifying videogames as games and classifying them as narrative works.
- 15.
Weitz, “Role of Theory,” 32.
- 16.
Bernard Suits, The Grasshopper: Games, Life, and Utopia (Plymouth: Broadview Press, 1978 / 2005). Suits offers an earlier definition in a similar spirt in his “What is a Game?” Philosophy of Science 34 no. 2 (1967): 148–156.
- 17.
Noël Carroll, The Philosophy of Motion Pictures (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008), 78.
- 18.
Aaron Meskin and Jon Robson, “Videogames and the Moving Image,” Revue Internationale de Philosophie 254 no. 4 (2011): 547–564.
- 19.
We focus here on cases of films and videogames which are representations. As Carroll himself concedes (Noël Carroll. Theorizing the Moving Image (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) 1996): “many films and videos are abstract, or nonrepresentational” and the same, arguably, applies to various videogames (such as Tetris). We thank an anonymous reviewer for pushing us to clarify this point.
- 20.
We previously claimed (in Meskin and Robson, “Moving Image,” 551–2) that this condition did apply to all videogames but subsequent technological advances, such as those we discuss below, have provided counterexamples to this general claim.
- 21.
For more details of the Pokémon Go case, see https://www.pokemongo.com/
- 22.
Carroll, Theorizing, 63.
- 23.
See Jonathan Cohen and Aaron Meskin, “An Objective Counterfactual Theory of Information,” Australasian Journal of Philosophy 84 no. 3 (2006): 333–352.
- 24.
See David Lewis, “Veridical Hallucination and Prosthetic Vision,” Australasian Journal of Philosophy 58 no. 3 (1980): 239–249.
- 25.
Jonathan Cohen and Aaron Meskin, “On the Epistemic Value of Photographs,” The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 62 no. 2 (2004): 197–210; Aaron Meskin and Jonathan Cohen, “Photographs as Evidence,” in Photography and Philosophy: Essays on the Pencil of Nature, ed. Scott Walden (New York: Blackwell, 2008), 70–90.
- 26.
Indeed, it may be that having this kind of persistent world is a necessary (or at least standard) feature of MMORPGs. We will not, however, take any stance on this issue here.
- 27.
Carroll, Theorising, 67.
- 28.
We say that we “typically” don’t evaluate films in this way since it may well be that—as highlighted in, e.g., Robert Yanal, “Defining the Moving Image: A Response to Noel Carroll,” Film and Philosophy 12 (2008): 135–140—there are some exceptions to this claim.
- 29.
See, e.g., Meskin and Robson, “Moving Image,” 557–9; Jon Robson, “The Beautiful Gamer? On the Aesthetics of Videogame Performances,” in The Aesthetics of Videogames, eds. Jon Robson and Grant Tavinor (New York: Routledge, 2018), 78–94.
- 30.
Carroll claims that if these conditions were presented as jointly sufficient they would be “overly inclusive” since they would allow, e.g., certain kinds of flip book to qualify as instances of the moving image (Carroll Theorizing, 71). Carroll later appears more sympathetic to the joint sufficiency claim (Carroll, Motion Pictures, 55 and 78).
- 31.
Yanal, “Defining,” 135–40.
- 32.
Meskin and Robson, “Moving Image,” 559–63.
- 33.
Dominic McIver Lopes, A Philosophy of Computer Art (Oxon: Routledge, 2010), 17.
- 34.
Ibid. There is a problem with this account of “appreciative art kinds” (i.e., any kind which is a subset of an appreciative art kind will count as an appreciative art kind in its own right). The problem is irrelevant in this context.
- 35.
See, e.g., Rudolf Arnheim, Film as Art (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1957); Jesse Prinz, “When is Film Art?” Revue Internationale de Philosophie 254 no. 4 (2011): 473–86.
- 36.
Roger Scruton, “Photography and Representation,” Critical Inquiry 7 no. 3 (1981): 577–603.
- 37.
Ibid., 579.
- 38.
See, e.g., Catharine Abell, “Cinema as a Representational Art,” The British Journal of Aesthetics 50, no. 3 (2010): 273–286; Berys Gaut, A Philosophy of Cinematic Art (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
- 39.
Jonathan Jones, “Sorry MoMA, Video Games are not Art,” Guardian, November 30, 2012, https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/jonathanjonesblog/2012/nov/30/moma-video-games-art. We do not mean to endorse the various concerns we report here. For example, we both doubt the adequacy of the “individual artistic vision” criterion as a necessary condition for arthood and agree with an anonymous referee who suggests that various games such as Civilization and Undertale plausibly meet this criterion.
- 40.
Roger Ebert, “Video Games can Never be Art,” RogerEbert.com, April 16, 2010, http://www.rogerebert.com/rogers-journal/video-games-can-never-be-art; Brock Rough, “The Incompatibility of Games and Artworks,” Journal of the Philosophy of Games 1 no. 1.
- 41.
Thomas Wartenberg, “Philosophy of Film,” in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. Edward N. Zalta, 2015.
- 42.
Aaron Smuts, “Are Video Games Art?” Contemporary Aesthetics 3 (2005).
- 43.
Ibid.
- 44.
http://www.movingimage.us/about/, accessed August 31, 2018.
- 45.
Tavinor, Videogames, 172–95.
- 46.
Berys Gaut, “The Cluster Account of Art Defended.” The British Journal of Aesthetics 45, no. 3 (2005): 273–288; Denis Dutton, “But They Don’t Have Our Concept of Art,” in Theories of Art Today, ed. Noël Carroll (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2000), 217–238.
- 47.
Tavinor, Videogames, 180–90.
- 48.
Ibid., 191.
- 49.
Such as Thomas Adajian, “On the Cluster Account of Art.” The British Journal of Aesthetics 43, no. 4 (2003): 379–385; Aaron Meskin, “The Cluster Account of Art Reconsidered.” The British Journal of Aesthetics 47, no. 4 (2007): 388–400; Simon Fokt, “The Cluster Account of Art: A Historical Dilemma.” Contemporary Aesthetics 12, no. 1 (2014): 12.
- 50.
Lopes, Computer Art, 114.
- 51.
Ibid., 116.
- 52.
Reviewing Mr. Payback, Roger Ebert wrote: “I went to see ‘Mr. Payback’ with an open mind. I knew it would not be a ‘movie’ as I understand the word, because movies act on you and absorb you in their stories. An ‘interfilm,’ as they call this new medium, is like a cross between a video game and a CD-ROM game.” (Roger Ebert, “Mr. Payback,” Roger Ebert.com, February 17, 1995, https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/mr-payback-1995. http://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/mr-payback-1995).
- 53.
Aaron Smuts “What is Interactivity?” The Journal of Aesthetic Education, 43 no. 4 (2009): 53–73.
- 54.
Ibid., 63.
- 55.
Ibid., 65.
- 56.
Dominic McIver Lopes, “The Ontology of Interactive Art.” Journal of Aesthetic Education (2001): 67.
- 57.
Ibid., 68.
- 58.
Ibid.
- 59.
Ibid., 69.
- 60.
Smuts, “Interactivity”.
- 61.
Lopes, Computer Art, 36.
- 62.
Ibid., 37.
- 63.
Ibid., 36.
- 64.
Ibid., 4.
- 65.
Gaut, Cinematic Art, 142.
- 66.
Ibid., 143.
- 67.
Ibid., 142.
- 68.
Ibid.
- 69.
For an introduction to the phenomenon, see Brian Moylan, “The fan rituals that made Rocky Horror Picture Show a cult classic,” Guardian, October 19, 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2016/oct/19/rocky-horror-picture-show-fan-rituals-fox-remake
- 70.
Robson and Meskin, “Self-involving,” 165–77; Jon Robson and Aaron Meskin, “Still Self-involved: A Reply to Patridge,” The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 75 no. 2 (2017): 184–7.
- 71.
Robson and Meskin intend this claim to apply not only with respect to “game worlds” in Walton’s sense but also to Waltonian “work worlds”. For a discussion of the distinction, see Kendall Walton, Mimesis as Make-believe: On the Foundations of the Representational Arts (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), 58–61.
- 72.
Lopes, Computer Art; Lopes “Interactive Art”, 65–81.
- 73.
For some sympathetic criticisms of Robson and Meskin, see Stephanie Patridge, “Video Games and Imaginative Identification,” The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 75 no. 2 (2017): 179–84. For a response to some of these criticisms, see Robson and Meskin, “Still Self-involved,” 184–7.
- 74.
See, e.g., Jonathan Wells and Francis Blagburn, “Is video gaming bad for you? The science for and against,” The Telegraph, August 8, 2017, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/men/thinking-man/is-video-gaming-bad-for-you-the-science-for-and-against/ and Laura St. John, “8 Ways Violent Games Are Bad for Your Kids,” HuffPost 9/7/2013 updated December 6, 2017, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/laura-st-john/8-ways-violent-games_b_3875846.html
- 75.
Craig Anderson, “An Update on the Effects of Playing Violent Video Games,” Journal of Adolescence 27 no. 1 (2004): 113–122. This parallels similar results in research concerning the effects of exposure to violent films (see Craig Anderson, “Effects of Violent Movies and Trait Hostility on Hostile Feelings and Aggressive Thoughts,” Aggressive Behavior 23 no. 3 (1997): 161–178).
- 76.
James Anderson and Jeffrey Dean, “Moderate Autonomism,” The British Journal of Aesthetics 38 no. 2 (1998): 150–167.
- 77.
Berys Gaut “The Ethical Criticism of Art,” in Aesthetics and Ethics, ed. Jerrold Levinson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 182–203. Noël Carroll defends a distinct, though related, position which he terms “moderate moralism” in his “Moderate Moralism,” The British Journal of Aesthetics 36 no. 3 (1996): 223–239.
- 78.
See, e.g., Matthew Kieran, “Forbidden Knowledge: The Challenge of Immoralism,” in Art and Morality, eds. José Luis Bermudez and Sebastian Gardner (London: Routledge, 2003), 56–73.
- 79.
Anne W. Eaton, “Robust Immoralism,” The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 70 no. 3 (2012): 290.
- 80.
Morgan Luck, “The Gamer’s Dilemma: An Analysis of the Arguments for the Moral Distinction between Virtual Murder and Virtual Pedophilia,” Ethics and Information Technology 11 no. 1 (2009): 31–36.
- 81.
Ibid., 35.
- 82.
For arguments that he is not right here see, e.g., Christopher Bartel, “Resolving the Gamer’s Dilemma,” Ethics and Information Technology 14 no. 1 (2012): 11–16; Stephanie Patridge, “Pornography, Ethics, and Video Games,” Ethics and Information Technology 15 no. 1 (2013): 25–34; Rami Ali, “A New Solution to the Gamer’s Dilemma,” Ethics and Information Technology 17, no. 4 (2015): 267–274.
- 83.
Though they may, as shown in Robson and Meskin’s Man Bites Dog example (“Self-involving,” 171), be fictionally complicit with such actions in virtue of their attitudes toward the fictional events depicted.
- 84.
Ibid., 170.
- 85.
Patridge, “Imaginative Identification,” 184.
- 86.
For discussion, see the essays in Geoff King and Tanya Krzywinska eds. ScreenPlay: Cinema / Videogames / Interfaces (London: Wallflower Press, 2002); Aaron Smuts, “Film Theory Meets Video Games: An Analysis of the Issues and Methodologies in ScreenPlay,” Film-Philosophy 7 no. 7 (2003); Jonathan Frome and Aaron Smuts, “Helpless Spectators: Generating Suspense in Videogames and Film,” TEXT technology 13: 13–34.
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Robson, J., Meskin, A. (2019). Videogames and Film. In: Carroll, N., Di Summa, L.T., Loht, S. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of the Philosophy of Film and Motion Pictures. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19601-1_41
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