Abstract
Two categories of life are currently recognized—chemosynthetic and photosynthetic—indicating their principal free energy resource as either chemicals or electromagnetic radiation. Building on recent developments in thermodynamics, we posit a third category of life—thermosynthetic life (TL)—which relies on environmental heat rather than traditional free energy sources. Since thermal energy is more abundant than chemicals or light in many settings, thermosynthesis offers compelling evolutionary possibilities for new life forms. Based on variants of standard cellular machinery, a physical model is proposed for the conversion of thermal energy into biochemical work. Conditions favorable to thermosynthetic life and prospects for its discovery are assessed. Terrestrially, deep-subsurface unicellular anaerobic superthermophiles are deduced to be likely TL candidates.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Kurzynski, M.: The Thermodynamic Machinery of Life. Springer, Berlin (2006)
Nelson, P.: Biological Physics: Energy, Information, Life. Freeman, New York (2004)
Phillips, R., Quake, S.R.: The biological frontier of physics. Phys. Today 59(5), 38 (2006)
Ward, P.D., Brownlee, D.: Rare Earth: Why Complex Life is Uncommon in the Universe. Copernicus, New York (2000)
Ward, P.D., Brownlee, D.: The Life and Death of Planet Earth. Henry Holt and Co., New York (2002)
Cavicchioli, R.: Extremophiles and the search for extraterrestrial life. Astrobiology 2, 281 (2002)
Uffink, J.: Bluff your way into the second law of thermodynamics. Stud. Hist. Philos. Mod. Phys. 32, 305 (2001)
Kestin, J.: The Second Law of Thermodynamics. Dowden Hutchinson Ross, Stroutburg (1976)
König, F.O.: On the various statements of the second law of thermodynamics. Surv. Prog. Chem. 7, 149 (1976)
Čápek, V., Sheehan, D.P.: Challenges to the Second Law of Thermodynamics. Fundamental Theories of Physics, vol. 146. Springer, Dordrecht (2005)
Gordon, L.G.M.: Brownian movement and microscopic irreversibility. Found. Phys. 11, 103 (1981)
Gordon, L.G.M.: Maxwell’s demon and detailed balancing. Found. Phys. 13, 989 (1983)
Gordon, L.G.M.: The molecular-kinetic theory and the second law. J. Coll. Interf. Sci. 162, 512 (1994)
Gordon, L.G.M.: The decrease in entropy via fluctuations. Entropy 6, 38 (2004)
Gordon, L.G.M.: A Maxwellian valve based on centrifugal forces. Entropy 6, 87 (2004)
Gordon, L.G.M.: Smoluchowski’s trapdoor. Entropy 6, 96 (2004)
Čápek, V.: Isothermal Maxwell daemon and active binding pairs of particles. J. Phys. A: Math. Gen. 30, 5245 (1997)
Čápek, V.: From convolutionless generalized master to finite-coupling Pauli master equations. Czech. J. Phys. 48, 993 (1998)
Čápek, V.: Isothermal Maxwell daemon. Czech. J. Phys. 47, 845 (1997)
Čápek, V.: Isothermal Maxwell daemon: swing (fish-trap) model of particle pumping. Czech. J. Phys. 48, 879 (1998)
Čápek, V.: Twilight of a dogma of statistical thermodynamics. Molec. Cryst. Liq. Cryst. 335, 13 (2001)
Čápek, V., Bok, J.: Isothermal Maxwell daemon: numerical results in a simplified model. J. Phys. A: Math. Gen. 31, 8745 (1998)
Čápek, V., Bok, J.: Violation of the second law of thermodynamics in the quantum microworld. Physica A 290, 379 (2001)
Čápek, V., Mančal, T.: Isothermal Maxwell daemon as a molecular rectifier. Europhys. Lett. 48, 365 (1999)
Čápek, V., Mančal, T.: Phonon mode cooperating with particle serving as Maxwell gate and rectifier. J. Phys. A: Math. Gen. 35, 2111 (2002)
Čápek, V., Sheehan, D.P.: Quantum mechanical model of a plasma system: a challenge to the second law of thermodynamics. Physica A 304, 461 (2002)
Bok, J., Čápek, V.: Langevin approach to the Porto system. Entropy 6, 57 (2004)
Crosignani, B., Di Porto, P., Segev, M.: Approach to thermal equilibrium in a system with adiabatic constraints. Am. J. Phys. 64, 610 (1996)
Crosignani, B., Di Porto, P.: On the validity of the second law of thermodynamics in the mesoscopic realm. Europhys. Lett. 53, 290 (2001)
Crosignani, B., Di Porto, P., Conti, C.: The adiabatic piston and the second law of thermodynamics. In: Quantum Limits to the Second Law, p. 267. AIP Press, Melville (2002)
Crosignani, B., Di Porto, P., Conti, C.: Entropy decrease in an isolated mesoscopic system. arXiv:physics/0305072v2 (2003)
Crosignani, B., Di Porto, P., Conti, C.: The adiabatic piston: a perpetuum mobile in the mesoscopic realm. Entropy 6, 50 (2004)
Allahverdyan, A.E., Nieuwenhuizen, T.M.: Extraction of work from a single thermal bath in the quantum regime. Phys. Rev. Lett. 85, 1799 (2000)
Allahverdyan, A.E., Nieuwenhuizen, T.M.: Breakdown of the Landauer bound for information erasure in the quantum regime. Phys. Rev. E 64, 056117 (2001)
Allahverdyan, A.E., Nieuwenhuizen, T.M.: Testing the violation of the Clausius inequality in nanoscale electric circuits. Phys. Rev. B 66, 115309 (2003)
Allahverdyan, A.E., Nieuwenhuizen, T.M.: Bath-generated work extraction and inversion-free gain in two-level systems. J. Phys. A: Math. Gen. 36, 875 (2004)
Nieuwenhuizen, Th.M., Allahverdyan, A.E.: Statistical thermodynamics of quantum Brownian motion: construction of perpetuum mobile of the second kind. Phys. Rev. E 66, 036102 (2002)
Denur, J.: The Doppler demon. Am. J. Phys. 49, 352 (1981)
Denur, J.: Velocity-dependent fluctuations: breaking the randomness of Brownian motion. Phys. Rev. A 40, 5390 (1989)
Denur, J.: Modified Feynmann ratchet with velocity-dependent fluctuations. Entropy 6, 76 (2004)
Sheehan, D.P., Glick, J., Means, J.D.: Steady-state work by an asymmetrically inelastic gravitator in a gas: a second law paradox. Found. Phys. 30, 1227 (2000)
Sheehan, D.P., Glick, J., Duncan, T., Langton, J.A., Gagliardi, M.J., Tobe, R.: Phase space protraits of an unresolved gravitational Maxwell demon. Found. Phys. 32, 441 (2002)
Keefe, P.: Quantum limit to the second law by magneto-caloric effect, adiabatic phase transition of mesoscopic-size type I superconductor particles. Physica E 29, 104 (2005)
Keefe, P.: Second law violation by magneto-caloric effect adiabatic phase transition of type I superconductor particles. Entropy 6, 116 (2004)
Berger, J.: Noise rectification by a superconducting loop with two weak links. Phys. Rev. B 70, 024524 (2004)
Dubonos, S.V., Kuznetsov, V.I., Zhilyaev, I.N., Nikulov, A.V., Firsov, A.A.: Observation of the external-ac-current-induced dc voltage proportional to the steady current in superconducting loops. JETP Lett. 77, 371 (2003)
Trupp, A.: Second law violations in the wake of the electrocaloric effect in liquid dielectrics. In: Quantum Limits to the Second Law, p. 201. AIP Press, Melville (2002)
Trupp, A.: Second law violations by means of a stratification of temperature due to force fields. In: Quantum Limits to the Second Law, p. 231. AIP Press, Melville (2002)
Nikulov, A.V.: Quantum force in a superconductor. Phys. Rev. B 64, 012505 (2001)
Nikulov, A.V., Zhilyaev, I.N.: The Little-Parks effect in an inhomogeneous superconducting ring. J. Low Temp. Phys. 112, 227 (1998)
Pombo, C., Allahverdyan, A.E., Nieuwenhuizen, T.M.: Bath generated work extraction in two-level systems. In: Quantum Limits to the Second Law, p. 254. AIP Press, Melville (2002)
Sheehan, D.P.: A paradox involving the second law of thermodynamics. Phys. Plasmas 2, 1893 (1995)
Sheehan, D.P.: Another paradox involving the second law of thermodynamics. Phys. Plasmas 3, 104 (1996)
Sheehan, D.P., Means, J.D.: Minimum requirement for second law violation: a paradox revisited. Phys. Plasmas 5, 2469 (1998)
Sheehan, D.P., Wright, J.H., Putnam, A.R.: A solid-state Maxwell demon. Found. Phys. 32, 1557 (2002)
Wright, J.H.: A novel sub-micron electrostatic motor. In: First International Conference on Quantum Limits to the Second Law, p. 308. AIP Press, Melville (2002)
Putnam, A.R.: Two-dimensional numerical simulations of a solid state Maxwell demon. In: First International Conference on Quantum Limits to the Second Law, p. 314. AIP Press, Melville (2002)
Wright, J.H., Sheehan, D.P., Putnam, A.R.: Modeling a submicrometer electrostatic motor. J. Nanosci. Nanotech. 3, 329 (2003)
Sheehan, D.P.: Dynamically-maintained steady-state pressure gradients. Phys. Rev. E 57, 6660 (1998)
Sheehan, D.P.: The second law and chemically-induced, steady-state pressure gradients: controversy, corroboration and caveats. Physica A 280, 185 (2001)
Sheehan, D.P., Wright, J.H., Putnam, A.R., Perttu, E.K.: Intrinsically biased, resonant NEMS-MEMS oscillator and the second law of thermodynamics. Physica E 29, 87 (2005)
Sheehan, D.P., Seideman, T.: Intrinsically biased electrocapacitive catalysis. J. Chem. Phys. 122, 204713 (2005)
Sheehan, D.P. (ed.): In: First International Conference on Quantum Limits to the Second Law. AIP Conference Proceedings, vol. 643. AIP Press, Melville (2002)
Physical and Quantum Electronics, Snowbird, Utah, 2003, 2004
Frontiers of Quantum and Mesoscopic Thermodynamics, Prague, Czech Republic, 2004
The Second Law of Thermodynamics: Foundations and Status, In 87th Annual Meeting of the Pacific Division of the AAAS, San Diego, California, 2006
Nikulov, A.V., Sheehan, D.P. (eds.): Entropy 6, 1–232 (2004); Special Issue: Quantum Limits to the Second Law of Thermodynamics
Maxwell, J.C.: Letter to P.G. Tait, 11 Dec. 1867. In: Knott, C.G. (ed.) Life and Work of Peter Guthrie Tait, p. 213. Cambridge University Press, London (1911)
Leff, H.S., Rex, A.F. (eds.): Maxwell’s Demon 2: Entropy, Classical and Quantum Information, Computing. Institute of Physics, Bristol (2003)
Uwins, P.J.R., Webb, R.I., Taylor, A.P.: Novel nano-organisms from Australian sandstones. Am. Minerol. 83, 1541 (1998)
Gold, T.: The hot deep biosphere. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89, 6045 (1992)
Szewzyk, U., Szewzyk, R., Stenstrom, T.: Thermophilic, anaerobic bacteria isolated from a deep borehole in granite in Sweden. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91, 1810 (1994)
Kashefi, K., Lovley, D.R.: Extending the upper temperature limit for life. Science 301, 934 (2003)
Brock, T.D.: Life at high temperatures. Science 230, 132 (1985)
Stetter, K.O., Fiala, G., Huber, R., Huber, G., Segerer, A.: Life above the boiling point of water? Experientia 42, 1187 (1986)
Jaenicke, R.: Protein stability and molecular adaptation to extreme conditions. Eur. J. Biochem. 202, 715 (1991)
Leibrock, E., Bayer, P., Lüdemann, H.-D.: Nonenzymatic hydrolysis of adenosinetriphosphate (ATP) at high temperatures and high pressures. Biophys. Chem. 54, 175 (1995)
Baross, J.A., Holden, J.F.: Overview of hyperthermophiles and their heat-shock proteins. Adv. Protein Chem. 48, 1 (1996)
Gold, T.: The Deep Hot Biosphere. Springer, New York (1999)
Hochachka, P.W., Somero, G.N.: Biochemical Adaptation. Oxford University Press, New York (2002)
Vreeland, R.H., Rosenzweig, W.D., Powers, D.W.: Isolation of a 250-million-year-old halotolerant bacterium from a primary salt crystal. Nature 407, 897 (2000)
Sheehan, D.P.: Four paradoxes involving the second law of thermodynamics. J. Sci. Explor. 12, 303 (1998)
Sheehan, D.P.: Four paradoxes involving the second law of thermodynamics. Infin. Energy 9/49, 17 (2003)
Sheehan, D.P.: Macroscopic potential gradients: experimentally-testable challenges to the second law. In: First International Conference on Quantum Limits to the Second Law, p. 195. AIP Press, Melville (2002)
Leegwater, J.A.: Coherent versus incoherent energy transfer and trapping in photosynthetic antenna complexes. J. Phys. Chem. 100, 14403 (1996)
Engel, G.S., et al.: Evidence for wavelike energy transfer through quantum coherence in photosynthetic systems. Nature 446, 782 (2007)
Reguera, G., et al.: Extracellular electron transfer via microbial nanowires. Nature 435, 1098 (2005)
Ellenbogen, J.C., Love, C.J.: Architectures for molecular electronic computers. In: Goddard, W.A., III, Brenner, D.W., Lyshevski, S.E., Iafrate, G.J. (eds.) Handbook of Nanoscience, Engineering, and Technology, CRC Press, Boca Raton (2003)
Zhou, C., Deshpande, M.R., Reed, M.A., Tour, J.M.: Nanoscale metal/self-assembled monolayer/metal heterostructures. Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 611 (1997)
Metzger, R.M., et al.: Unimolecular electrical rectification in hexadecylquinolinium tricyanoquinodimethanide. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 119, 10455 (1997)
Campbell, N.A., Reece, J.B., Mitchell, L.G.: Biology, 5th edn. Addison Wesley, Menlo Park (1999)
Becker, W.M., Reece, J.B., Poenie, M.F.: The World of the Cell. Benjamin/Cummings, Menlo Park (1996), chaps. 7, 8
Bustamante, C., Liphardt, J., Ritort, F.: The nonequilibrium thermodynamics of small systems. Phys. Today 58.7, 43 (2005)
Kováč, L.: Overview: Bioenergetics between chemistry, genetics, and physics. Curr. Top. Bioenerg. 15, 331 (1987)
Chernavski, D.S., Khurgin, Y.I., Shnol, S.E.: Biophysics (Moscow) 32, 775 (1987)
Williams, R.J.P.: Are enzymes mechanical devices? TIBS 18, 115 (1993)
Shaitan, K.V., Rubin, A.B.: Conformational dynamics of proteins and simple molecular ‘machines’. Biophysics (USSR) 27, 386 (1982)
Frautschi, S.: Entropy in an expanding universe. Science 217, 593 (1982)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sheehan, D.P. Thermosynthetic Life. Found Phys 37, 1774–1797 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10701-007-9168-y
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10701-007-9168-y