Replication and Pedagogy in the History of Psychology II: Fowler & Wells’s Phrenology

Abstract

Phrenologists believed that specific brain regions corresponded to certain character traits. In addition, the size of each brain region was believed to determine the strength of the respective trait. Phrenology originated in Austria with Franz Josef Gall and was popularized and commercialized in America at the end of the 19th century by Orson Squire Fowler. In this project, we conducted a replication of Fowler’s phrenology in order to better understand the specificity of the manualized methodology, the extent to which the methodology allowed for positive versus negative analyses, and the implications for the scientific rejection and public acceptance of phrenology. The results of our replication revealed that the subjective judgments and biases of the examiner strongly influence the results of phrenological analyses.

Appendix A: Descriptors of each Examinee

1.1 Phrenological Analysis: Examinee 1

Plain in taste, practical, not sentimental. Full share of vigor, vital stamina, enough energy but no excess energy. Stout, full-chested, fond of fresh air, like play more than hard work, liable to habits of intemperance, guard against tendency to be over-involved in hobbies such as sports. Average breathing power. Fair circulation but needs bodily exercise to keep extremities warm in cold weather. Digestive power strong, relishes excellent food. Vigorous, determined, efficient. Fair degree of mental activity but better adapted for manual labor. Rather slow and deliberate in movement. Sufficiently susceptible to exciting causes but not carried away by sudden impulse. You are capable of taking your place in the first ranks, among the intellectual giants of the age.

Cold and indifferent toward others, manifests more respect and friendship than love. Not inclined to fickleness in love, disposed to union for life under favorable conditions, may stray from committed relationships. Indifferent even towards own children, cold toward other children. Friendly in companionship to those deemed worthy, hospitable. Cares little for home or country, likes to travel. Likely to complete anything he starts, thorough and patient. Clings to life with great tenacity, will not be likely to die before your time except if by accident. Resolute, brave, determined, fond of argument. Takes pleasure in breaking down, uprooting, and destroying, fond of flesh meat. Enjoys food very much, difficult controlling appetite. Takes good care of what he gets, values property for its uses. Inclined to pursue open and direct course, sincere and frank. Careful, prudent, anxious, and apt to procrastinate. Good degree of respect for opinions of others. Likes to appear well but not over-anxious about appearance. Rather humble than proud, underestimates own ability and worth. Cannot be driven and not easily persuaded, sometimes defeats his own purpose, averse to change. Ideas of right and wrong are rather feeble. Very moderate in expectations of future, often looks to dark side. Lacks faith, believes little that cannot be logically approved. Eminently respectful, deferential, and inclined to be religious, prayerful, and devoted to the worship of God. Very tender, generous, kind-hearted. May make a good workman but manifests no special liking for the use of tools. Imaginative, refined, tasteful, loves poetry, nature. Appreciate and admire the wild, romantic, and the grand. Prefer to be yourself rather than anyone else. Rather slow to perceive the point of a joke, not inclined to laugh. Observation confined to more conspicuous objects around you, observations rather general than particular. Memory of faces and forms good but not remarkable. Excellent eye for measuring angles, proportions, and dimensions. Nice intuitive perception of the laws of gravity and great ability to apply them. Fair judge of color and the fitness of their combinations. Likes order and will make some effort to secure it. Remembers numbers with difficulty. Strong desire to travel and see places. Memory is treacherous and confused. Rather defective notion of time and does not have good memory for dates. Very little taste or love for music and less ability to produce it. Finds some difficulty in expressing his ideas, vocabulary small and memory and command of words small. Capacity to plan, invent, originate, adapt means to ends is good but plan better than you execute. Analogical ability is fair. No great natural capacity for character reading, often forms incorrect estimates of people. Pleasing and bland in manners.

1.2 Phrenological Analysis: Examinee 2

Fine-grained, high-tuned, sensitive, sympathetic, refined in taste, extreme feelings and actions. Bones, muscles, nerves in good working order, efficient in physical and mental action. Require much rest and sleep and be careful not to overwork mind or body. Respiratory organs admirably developed, breathes easily and deeply, warm hands and feet. Excellent circulation, strong steady pulse, perspires freely, can withstand cold. Digestion almost perfect, can eat anything. Strong feelings and passions, powerful will, strong commonsense. Fair degree of mental activity but better adapted for manual labor. Fair degree of activity, not lazy but prefer light to heavy work. Cool, deliberate, placid in excitability, acts on judgment not impulse. Mind of great reach and power.

Indifferent toward other sex, has neither desire or ability to win their love. Inclined to promiscuous society of other sex. Inclined to be cold and indifferent to own children, express dislike for other children. Forms few attachments, manifests only moderate degree of affection for anyone, not likely to be generally loved. Cares little for home or country, likes to travel. Loves variety, changes readily from one thing to another. Love of life is fair. Lacks self-defense, too gentle, cannot say no. Can be forcible but not disposed to be vindictive, cruel, or unforgiving. Inclined to be dainty, eats to live and not for pleasure of eating. Will be economical when necessities require it. Inclined to pursue open and direct course, sincere and frank. Capable of being prudent and careful but can be rash and unreliable. Little regard for popularity, despises flattery and idle compliments. Rather humble than proud, underestimates own ability and worth. Too easily influenced by those around you and too ready to abandon your positions if attacked. Inclined to do what is right and be guided by moral principles. Expects little from the future except misfortune. Lacks faith, believes little that cannot be logically approved. Inclined to be worshipful when the devotional feeling is especially called out. Not inclined to be obliging, rather unselfish and unsympathizing. May make a good workman but manifests no special liking for the use of tools. More liking for the plain and substantial than the ornamental, lives in real, everyday, matter-of-fact world. Moderate degree of sublimity. Good imitative powers. Rather too seriously inclined as a general rule. Observation confined to more conspicuous objects around you, observations rather general than particular. Memory of faces and forms neither distinct or retentive. Possesses good ability to measure by the eye. Fair judge of color and the fitness of their combinations. Likes order and will make some effort to secure it. Remembers numbers with difficulty. Recollection of places is fair, has not great desire to travel. Memory of facts and circumstances should be good if properly cultivated. Rather defective notion of time and does not have good memory for dates. Not particularly fond of music but can acquire taste for the simpler kinds. Speaks with difficulty, often hesitates for words. Rather deficient in ability to discern and apply principles with no great planning capacity. Analogical ability is fair. Fair talents for reading character but should not trust first impressions. Rather deficient in agreeableness and have little ability to smooth over his words or actions.

1.3 Phrenological Analysis: Examinee 3

Plain in taste, practical, not sentimental. Fair degree of health, liable to ailments so do not overwork. Barely enough vitality to keep body and mental functions in operation, conserve energy because it is limited. Breathing power medium with fair share of bodily warmth. Circulation not remarkably good, sometimes feels chilly with cold feet and hands. Good digestion. Digestion can be easily harmed, must avoid heavy meals and indigestible articles of diet. Cannot endure long continued strain on muscle or brain, can work hard but not fond of severe labor. More inclined to mental than animal enjoyments, fond of literature and art, ambitious, rather brilliant. Restless, active, speaks rapidly, comprehends quickly. Sufficiently susceptible to exciting causes but not carried away by sudden impulse. Mind of great reach and power.

Cold and indifferent toward others, manifests more respect and friendship than love. Inclined to single love and union for life to a chosen one. Intense love for children and pets, inclined to spoil his children. Friendly in companionship to those deemed worthy, hospitable. Manifests considerable attachment to home and country, prefers to live in one place. Can concentrate thoughts on one thing until fully deliberated or can divert attention to other matters, capable of consecutive thinking. Hold on life not strong. Gives way too readily to opposition, surrenders for the sake of peace. Can be forcible but not disposed to be vindictive, cruel, or unforgiving. Enjoys food well but can easily control appetite. Will be economical when necessities require it. No great degree of reserve, inclined to be outspoken and frank. Generally careful, prudent, and deliberate, not inclined to procrastinate. Little regard for popularity, despises flattery and idle compliments. Good degree of self-respect, dignity, and aspiration. Too easily influenced by those around you and too ready to abandon your positions if attacked. Inclined to do what is right and be guided by moral principles. Inclined to expect and attempt too little rather than too much. Not guided by faith, must have proof before believing. Respect for superiors, reverence for age, not lacking devotion. Kind to those he loves. May make a good workman but manifests no special liking for the use of tools. More liking for the plain and substantial than the ornamental, lives in real, everyday, matter-of-fact world. Moderate degree of sublimity. Prefer to be yourself rather than anyone else. Rather too seriously inclined as a general rule. Good observer. Tolerable development of memory for forms and faces. Only a fair share of eye measuring power. Good command over muscles. Passion for colors and instinctive perception of their harmonies. Careless, unmethodical, and inaccurate way of doing things. Dull and slow in learning arithmetic. Local memory is rather poor and prefers staying at home. Rather poor memory of events and is particularly forgetful of details. Rather defective notion of time and does not have good memory for dates. Not particularly fond of music but can acquire taste for the simpler kinds. Not very fluent in the use of language, say what you desire to say in few words. Rather deficient in ability to discern and apply principles with no great planning capacity. Analogical ability is fair. First impressions of character are generally correct. Generally pleasant in conversation and manners.