Abstract
In this paper we focus on the modularity of visual functions in the human visual cortex, that is, the specific problems that the visual system must solve in order to achieve recognition of objects and visual space. The computational theory of early visual functions is briefly reviewed and is then used as a basis for suggesting computational constraints on the higher-level visual computations. The remainder of the paper presents neurological evidence for the existence of two visual systems in man, one specialized for spatial vision and the other for object vision. We show further clinical evidence for the computational hypothesis that these two systems consist of several visual modules, some of which can be isolated on the basis of specific visual deficits which occur after lesions to selected areas in the visually responsive brain. We will provide examples of visual modules which solve information processing tasks that are mediated by specific anatomic areas. We will show that the clinical data from behavioral studies of monkeys (Ungerleider and Mishkin 1984) supports the distinction between two visual systems in monkeys, the ‘what’ system, involved in object vision, and the ‘where’ system, involved in spatial vision.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Allman, J.: 1987, ‘Maps in Context: Some Analogies between Visual Cortical and Genetic Maps’, in Lucia M. Vaina (ed.), Matters of Intelligence, D. Reidel, Dordrecht, pp. 369–93.
Balint, R.: 1909, ‘Seelenlahmung des “Schauens”, optische Ataxie, räumliche Störung der Aufmerksamkeit’, Montasschr. f. Psychiat. u. Neurol. 25, 57–71.
Bender, M. B. and L. T. Furlow: 1945, ‘Phenomenon of Visual Extinction in Homonymous Fields and Psychological Principles Involved’, Archs Neurol. Psychiat., 53, 29–33.
Benson, D. F., J. Segarra, and M. L. Albert: 1974, ‘Visual Agnosia-Prosopagnosia, A Clinico-Pathological Correlation’, Archives of Neurology 30, 307–10.
Benton, A.: 1979, ‘Visuoperceptive, Visuospatial, and Visuoconstructive Disorders’, in K. M. Heilman and E. Valenstein (eds.), Clinical Neuropsychology, pp. 186–232.
Biederman, I.: 1985, ‘Human Image Understanding: Recent Research and a Theory’, Comp. Vis. Graph. Imag. Processing 32, 29–73.
Botez, M. I.: 1975, ‘Two Visual Systems in Clinical Neurology: Readaptive Role of the Primitive System in Visual Agnostic Patients’, European Neurology 13, 101–22.
Butters, N. and M. Barton: 1970, ‘Role of the Right Parietal Lobe in the Mediation of Cross-Modal Associations and Reversible Operations in Space’, Cortex 6, 174–90.
Cajal, S. R.: 1954, Neuron Theory or Reticular Theory? Objective Evidence of Anatomical Unity of Nerve Cells, Consejo Superior De Investigaciones Cientificas, Madrid, Spain.
Campbell, F. W. and J. G. Robson: 1968, ‘Applications of Fourier Analysis to the Visibility of Gratings’, J. Physiol., London, 197, 551–56.
Carmon, A. and H. P. Bechtoldt: 1969, ‘Dominance of the Right Cerebral Hemisphere for Stereopsis’, Neuropsychologia 7, 29–39.
Critchley, M.: 1953, The Parietal Lobes, Arnold and Co., London.
Damasio, A. and A. Benton: 1979, ‘Impairment of Hand Movement under Visual Guidance’, Neurology 29, 170–74.
Damasio, A.: 1980, ‘Neglect Following Damage to Frontal Lobe or Basal Ganglia’, Neuropsychologia 8, 123–32.
Danta, G.: 1978, ‘Hemisphere Function and Binocular Depth Perception’, Brain 101, 569–89.
Denny-Brown, D., J. S. Meyer and S. Horenstein: 1952, ‘The Significance of Perceptual Rivalry Resulting from Parietal Lesion’, Brain 75, 433–71.
Denny-Brown, D. and B. Q. Banker: 1954, ‘Amorphosynthesis from Left Parietal Lesion’, Arch. Neurol. Psychiat. 71, 302–13.
Denny-Brown, D. and R. Chambers: 1958, ‘The Parietal Lobes and Behavior’, Res. Pabl. Assoc. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 36, 307–10.
DeRenzi, E.: 1982, Disorders of Space Exploration and Cognition, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Efron, R.: 1968, ‘What Is Perception?’ in R. Cohen and M. Wartofsky (eds.), Boston Studies in Philosophy and Science, Vol. 4, Humanities Press, New York, D. Reidel, Dordrecht.
Gelb, A. K. and K. Goldstein: 1924, ‘Uber Farbenamnesie’, Psychol. Forsch. 6, 127–86.
Geschwind, N.: 1965, ‘Disconnection Syndromes in Animals and Man’, Brain 88, 237–94.
Geschwind, N. and M. Fusillo: 1966, ‘Color-Naming Defects in Association with Alexia’, Archives of Neurology 15, 137–46.
Goldstein, A. and A. Gelb: 1918, ‘Psychologische Analysen hirnpathologischer Falle auf Grund von Untersuchungen Hirnverletzter. I. Abhandlung. Zur Psychologie des optischen Wahrnehmungund Erkennungsvorganges’, Zeitschrift fur die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie 41, 1–142.
Gross, C., R. Desimone, T. Albright and E. Schwartz: 1985, ‘Inferior Temporal Cortex and Pattern Recognition’, Pontificae Academiae Scientiarvum Scripta Varia 54, 179–200.
Hamsher, K. S.: 1978, ‘Stereopsis and Unilateral Brain Disease’, Invest. Opthalmol. Visual Sciences 17, 336–42.
Hecaen, H. and M. L. Albert: 1978, Human Neuropsychology, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Hecaen, H., R. Ajuriaguerra and F. Massonet: 1954, ‘Balint's Syndrome (Psychic Paralysis of Visual Fixation and its Minor Forms)’, Brain 77, 373–400.
Heilman, K.: 1979, ‘Neglect and Related Disorders’, in K. M. Heilman and E. Valenstein (eds.), Clinical Neuropsychology, Oxford Press, New York.
Heilman, K. and E. Valenstein: 1972 ‘Auditory Neglect in Man’, Archives of Neurology 22, 660–64.
Hendricks, I., I. E. Holliday and K. H. Ruddock: 1981, ‘A New Class of Visual Defect’, Brain 104, 813–40.
Holmes, G.: 1918, ‘Disturbances of Visual Orientation’, British Journal of Opthalmology 2, 449–68, 506–16.
Holmes, G.: 1919, ‘Disturbances of Visual Space Perception’, British Medical Journal II, 230–33.
Jackson, H.: 1878, ‘On Affliction of Speech from Disease’, Brain 1, 304–30.
Kinsbourne, M. and E. K. Warrington: 1962, ‘A Disorder of Simultaneous Form Perception’, Brain 85, 461–86.
Kinsbourne, M. and E. K. Warrington: 1964, ‘Observations in Colour Agnosia’, Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychology 27, 296–99.
Levine, D. N.: 1978, ‘Prosopagnosia and Visual Object Agnosia: A Behavioral Study’, Brain and Language 5, 341–65.
Lewandowsky, M.: 1908, ‘Uber Abspaltung des Farbensinnes’, Mtschr. Psychiat. 23, 488–93.
Lissauer, H.: 1880, ‘Ein Fall von Seelenblindheit nebst einen Beitrag zur Theorie Derselben’, Arch. Psychiat. Nervenkr. 21, 222–70.
Lu, C. and D. H. Fender: 1972, ‘The Interaction of Color and Luminance in Stereoscopic Vision’, Investigative Opth. 11, 482–90.
Marr, D.: 1976, ‘Early Processing of Visual Information’, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. B. 275, 483–524.
Marr, D.: 1982, Vision, Freeman, San Francisco.
Marr, D. and E. C. Hildreth: 1980, ‘Theory of Edge Detection’, Proc. R. Soc. London B. 214, 501–24.
Marr, D. and K. Nishihara: 1978, ‘Representation and Recognition of the Spatial Organization of Three Dimensional Shapes’, Proc. R. Soc. London. B. 290, 269–94.
Marr, D. and K. Nishihara: 1978, ‘Visual Information Processing, Artificial Intelligence and the Sensorium of Sight’, Technology Review 8, 2–22.
Meadows, J. C.: 1974, ‘Disturbed Perception of Colours Associated with Localized Cerebral Lesions’, Brain 97, 615–32.
Mesulam, M. and N. Geschwind: 1977, ‘On the Possible Role of Neocortex and Its Limbic Connections in the Process of Attention and Schizophrenia: Clinical Cases of Inattention in Man and Exp. Anatomy in Monkeys’, J. Psychiat. Res. 74, 249–59.
Milner, B.: 1958, ‘Psychological Defects Produced by Temporal Lobe Excision’, Proc. Assoc. Res. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 36, 244–57.
Mollon, J. D.: 1979, ‘The Theory of Colour Vision’, in K. Connolly (ed.), Psychology Survey No. 2, George Allen & Unwin, London, pp. 128–50.
Newcombe, F. and G. Ratcliff: 1974, ‘Agnosia, A Disorder of Object Recognition’, in F. Michel and B. Schott (eds.), Les Syndromes de Diconnexion Calleuse chez l'homme, Colloque International de Lyon.
Newcombe, F. and W. R. Russell: 1969, ‘Dissociated Visual Perceptual and Spatial Deficits in Focal Lesions of the Right Hemisphere’, Journal of Neurology and Neurosurgical Psychiatry 32, 73–81.
Nielsen, J. M.: 1937, ‘Unilateral Cerebral Dominance as Related to Mind blindness: Minimal Lesion Capable of Causing Visual Agnosia for Objects’, Arch. Neurol. Psychiat. 38, 108–35.
Nishihara, K.: 1983, ‘Recognition of Shape of Visible Surfaces’, in O. L. Braddick and A. C. Sleigh, Physical and Biological Processing of Images, Springer-Verlag, pp. 335–39.
Patterson, A. and O. L. Zangwill: 1944, ‘A Case of Topographical Disorientation Associated with a Unilateral Cerebral Lesion’, Brain 68, 188–211.
Pick, A.: 1908, ‘Über Störungen der Orientierung am eigenen Korper’, Arbeiten aus der deutschen psychiatrischen, Universitat-Klinik in Prag., Karger, Berlin.
Ratcliff, G. and Cowey: 1979, ‘Disturbances of Visual Perception Following Cerebral Lesions’, in D. J. Osborne (ed.), Research in Psychology of Medicine, Academic Press, New York, pp. 307–14.
Ratcliff, G. and F. Newcombe: 1982, ‘Object Recognition: Some Deductions from the Clinical Evidence’, in A. W. Ellis (ed.), Normality and Pathology in Cognitive Function, Academic Press, London and New York.
Riddock, G.: 1917, ‘Discussion of Visual Perception Due to Occipital Injuries, with Special Reference to Appreciation of Movement’, Brain 40, 15–57.
Rondot, R. and A. Tzavaras: 1969, ‘La prosopagnosie apres vingt annees d'etudes cliniques et neuropsychologiques’, J. Psychol. Norm. Path. 2, 133–65.
Ross, E. D.: 1980, ‘Sensory-Specific and Fractional Disorders of Recent Memory in Man I: Isolated Loss of Recent Visual Memory’, Archives of Neurology, 193–200.
Rubens, A.: 1979, Agnosia in Clinical Neuropsychology, K. M. Hellman and E. Valenstein (eds.), Oxford Press, New York pp. 223–67.
Schneider, G. T.: 1968, ‘Two Visual Systems’, Science, 895–902.
Smith, E., R. Shoben, and T. Ripps: 1974, ‘Structure and Process in Semantic Memory’, Psy. Rev. 81, 214–41.
Stevens, K.: 1979, ‘Surface Perception from Local Analysis of Texture and Contour’, MIT Ph.D. thesis.
Teuber, M. L.: 1959, ‘Some Alterations in Behavior after Cerebral Lesions in Man’, Evolution of Nervous Control, AAAS, Washington, pp. 157–94.
Teuber, H. L.: 1975, ‘Effects of Brain Injury on Human Behavior’, in D. B. Tower (ed.), The Nervous System, Vol. 2, The Clinical Neuroscience, Raven Press, New York.
Torre, V. and T. Poggio, 1985, ‘On Edge Detection’, in Trans. Anal. Mach. Intell., in press.
Trevarthen, C.: 1968, ‘Two Mechanisms of Vision in Primates’, Psychol. Forsch. 31, 299–337.
Tulving, E.: 1972, ‘Episodic and Semantic Memory’, in E. Tulving and W. Donaldson (eds.), Organization of Memory, Academic Press, New York.
Ullman, S.: 1979, The Interpretation of Visual Motion, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Ungerleider, L. and M. Mishkin: 1984, ‘Two Cortical Visual Systems’, in D. J. Ingle, M. A. Goodale and R. Mansfield, (eds.), Analysis of Visual Behavior, MIT Press, pp. 549–86.
Vaina, L. M.: 1985, ‘Towards a Computational Theory of Semantic Memory’, in L. Vaina and J. Hintikka (eds.), Cognitive Constraints of Communication. D. Reidel, Dordrecht.
Vaina, L. M.: 1983, ‘From Shapes and Movements to Objects and Actions’, Synthese 54, 3–36.
Vaina, L. M.: 1987, ‘Visual Texture for Recognition’, in L. M. Vaina (ed.), Matters of Intelligence, D. Reidel, Dordrecht.
Vaina, L. M.: 1988, ‘The Effects of Right Occipital-Parietal Lesions on Visual Motion Perception’, Investigative Opthalmology and Visual Science 28, 000–000.
Vaina, L. M.: 1989, ‘Visual Motion Deficits in Patients with Right-Occipital Parietal Lesions’, Biol. Cyb. 61(5), 347–59.
Vaina, L. M. and Y. Bennour: 1985, ‘Visual Recognition of Arm Movements: A Computational Analysis’, Perceptual and Motor Skills 60, 203–06.
Vaina, L. M. and S. Zlateva: 1990, ‘The Largest Convex Patches: A Boundary Based Method for Obtaining Object Parts’, Biological Cybernetics 62, 1–12.
Vaina, L. M., R. Tootell, M. Le May and D. Bienfang: 1989, ‘Functional Streams in Human Visual Cortex: Clinical Evidence for a Segregation of Color and Motion Processing’, Investigative Opthalmology and Visual Science 29.
Warrington, E. K.: 1975, ‘The Selective Impairment of Semantic Memory’, Quart. Journ. of Exp. Psych. 27, 635–57.
Warrington, E. K.: 1985, ‘Visual Deficits Associated with Occipital Lobe Lesions in Man’, Experimental Brain Research Supplementum Series 11.
Warrington, E. K. and M. James: 1967, ‘Disorders of Visual Perception in Patients with Localized Cerebral Lesion’, Neuropsychologia 5, 253–266.
Warrington, E. K. and T. Shallice: 1984, ‘Category Specific Semantic Impairments’, Brain 107, 829–54.
Warrington, E. K. and A. Taylor: 1973, ‘The Contribution of the Right Parietal Lobe to Object Recognition’, Cortex 9, 152–64.
Warrington, E. K. and A. Taylor: 1978, ‘Two Categorical Stages of Object Recognition’, Perception 7, 695–705.
Watson, A. B., K. M. Heilman, J. C. Cauthen, and F. A. King: 1973, ‘Neglected after Cingulectomy’, Neurology 23, 1003–7.
Wolpert, Z. F. D.: 1924, ‘Die simultagnosie: storung der geramtauffassung’, Gesamte-Neural u. Psyc. 93, 397–415.
Zihl, J., P. Von Cramon, and N. Mai: 1983, ‘Selective Disturbance of Movement Vision after Bilateral Brain Damage’, Brain 106, 313–40.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
I thank Carole Graybill for editorial help.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Vaina, L.M. ‘What’ and ‘where’ in the human visual system: Two hierarchies of visual modules. Synthese 83, 49–91 (1990). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00413688
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00413688