Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Social trust and public digitalization

  • Open Forum
  • Published:
AI & SOCIETY Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Modern democratic states are increasingly adopting new information and communication technologies to enhance the efficiency and quality of public administration, public policy and services. However, there is substantial variation in the extent to which countries are successful in pursuing such public digitalization. This paper zooms in on the role of social trust as a possible account for the observed empirical pattern in the range and scope of public digitalization across countries. Our argument is that high social trust makes it easier to digitalize the public sector to the benefit of overall society. We develop a simple game-theoretical model that specifies this positive externality from a high-trust culture and provide empirical evidence that a higher level of social trust is associated with a higher level of public digitalization. Of course, high-trust countries cannot do without the rule of law (formal rules of the game) and some institutionalized mechanisms of control and accountability. However, from our argument, it follows that one future challenge could be that control crowds out trust, so that the balance is no longer optimal. If such overcontrol occurs, public digitalization win–win situations between citizens and government can be undermined, even in high-trust countries.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Source: the chart was downloaded here https://digital-agenda-data.eu/charts/desi-components#chart={%22indicator%22:%22desi_total%22,%22breakdown-group%22:%22desi_totals%22,%22unit-measure%22:%22pc_desi%22,%22time-period%22:%222021%22} (accessed 11 February 2022); general source: The Digital Economy and Society Index (DESI), https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/desi

Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Source: Table 4

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

All data used are publicly available (form public sources. The authors are happy to share their tables and figures.

References

  • Algan, Y, Cohen, D, Davoine, E, Foucault, M, Stantcheva, S (2021) Trust in scientists in times of pandemic: Panel evidence from 12 countries. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 118(40):e2108576118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2108576118

  • Algorithm Watch/Bertelsmann Stiftung (2019) Automating society. Taking stock of automated decision-making in the EU. https://algorithmwatch.org/de/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Automating_Society_Report_2019.pdf. Accessed 11 Jan 2022

  • Algorithm Watch/Bertelsmann Stiftung (2020) Automating society report 2020. https://automatingsociety.algorithmwatch.org/. Accessed 11 Jan 2022

  • Alzahrani L, Al-Karaghouli W, Weerakkody V (2017) Analysing the critical factors influencing trust in e-government adoption from citizens’ perspective: a systematic review and a conceptual framework. Int Bus Rev 26(1):164–175

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Angermair T, Fink SC, Sylvester C (2021) The privacy, data protection and cybersecurity law review: Denmark, The Law Reviews (5 November 2021). https://thelawreviews.co.uk/title/the-privacy-data-protection-and-cybersecurity-law-review/denmark. Accessed 9 Feb 2022

  • Araujo T, Helberger N, Kruikemeier S et al (2020) In AI we trust? Perceptions about automated decision-making by artificial intelligence. AI Soc 35:611–623

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bareis J, Katzenbach C (2021) Talking AI into being: The narratives and imaginaries of national AI strategies and their performative politics. Sci Technol Human Values Online First. https://doi.org/10.1177/01622439211030007

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berryhill J, Heang KK, Clogher R, McBride, K (2019) Hello, world: Artificial intelligence and its use in the public sector. OECD working papers on public governance No. 36. OECD, Paris

  • Borsci S, Lehtola VV, Nex F et al (2022) Embedding artificial intelligence in society: looking beyond the EU AI master plan using the culture cycle. AI Soc Online First. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-021-01383-x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brennen S, Kreiss D (2014) Digitalization and digitization. Culture Digitally. https://culturedigitally.org/2014/09/digitalization-and-digitization/. Accessed 10 Jan 2022

  • Busuioc M (2021) Accountable artificial intelligence: Holding algorithms to account. Public Adm Rev 81(5):825–836

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burgess P (2022) Algorithmic augmentation of democracy: considering whether technology can enhance the concepts of democracy and the rule of law through four hypotheticals. AI Soc 37(1):97–112

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campolo A, Crawford K (2020) Enchanted determinism: Power without responsibility in artificial intelligence. Engag Sci Technol Soc 6:1–19

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Christodoulou E, Iordanou K (2021) Democracy under attack: challenges of addressing ethical issues of AI and big data for more democratic digital media and societies. Front Polit Sci (3):682945

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Council of Europe (2021) Study on the impact of digital transformation on democracy and good governance. Council of Europe, Strasbourg

    Google Scholar 

  • Crawford K, Paglen T (2021) Excavating AI: The politics of images in machine learning training sets. AI Soc 36:1105–1116

  • Danaher J (2016) The threat of algocracy: Reality, resistance and accommodation. Philos Technol 29(3):245–268

  • de Fine Licht K, de Fine Licht J (2020) Artificial intelligence, transparency, and public decision-making. AI Soc 35:917–926

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dempsey M, McBride K, Haataja M, Bryson J (2022) Transnational digital governance and its impact on artificial intelligence. In: Bullock J (ed) The Oxford Handbook of AI Governance. Oxford, Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197579329.013.16

  • Dowthwaite L, Fischer J, Perez Vallejos E, Portillo V, Nichele E, Goulden M, McAuley D (2021) Public adoption of and trust in the NHS covid-19 contact tracing app in the United Kingdom: Quantitative online survey study. J Med Internet Res 23(9):e29085

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • EC (European Commission) (2020) White paper on artificial intelligence—a European approach to excellence and trust. https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/default/files/commission-white-paper-artificial-intelligence-feb2020_en.pdf. Accessed 10 Jan 2022

  • EC (European Commission) (2022) Excellence and trust in artificial intelligence. https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/priorities-2019-2024/europe-fit-digital-age/excellence-trust-artificial-intelligence_en). Accessed 10 Jan 2022

  • European Union (EU) (2021) Proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council laying down harmonised rules on artificial intelligence (artificial intelligence act) and amending certain Union legislative acts, COM/2021/206 final. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52021PC0206. Accessed 10 Jan 2022

  • Firlej M, Taeihagh A (2021) Regulating human control over autonomous systems. Regul Gov 15(4):1071–1091

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Filgueiras F (2021) New Pythias of public administration: Ambiguity and choice in AI systems as challenges for governance. AI Soc, Online First. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-021-01201-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fukuyama F (1995) Trust: the social virtues and the creation of prosperity. Penguin, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerrits L (2021) Soul of a new machine: Self-learning algorithms in public administration. Inf Polity 26(3):237–250

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gil-Garcia JR, Flores-Zúñigac MÁ (2020) Towards a comprehensive understanding of digital government success: integrating implementation and adoption factors. Gov Inf Q 37(4):1–15

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein D, Wiedemann J (2022) Who do you trust? The consequences of partisanship and trust for public responsiveness to COVID-19 orders. Perspect Polit 20(2):412–438

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gultchin L (2018) Public artificial intelligence: A crash course for politicians and policy professionals. Tony Blair Institute for Global Change. http://institute.global/insight/renewing-centre/public-artificial-intelligence-crash-course. Accessed 11 Jan 2022

  • Gundlach E, Svendsen GT (2019) How do high and low levels of social trust affect the long- run performance of poor economies? J Int Dev 31(1):3–21

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison TM, Luna-Reyes LF (2020) Cultivating trustworthy artificial intelligence in digital government. Soc Sci Comput Rev Online First. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439320980122

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Helbing DH, Frey BS, Gigerenzer G, Hafen E, Hagner M, Hofstetter Y, Van den Hoven J, Zicari RV, Zwitter A (2018) Will democracy survive big data and artificial intelligence? In: Helbing D (ed) Towards Digital Enlightenment. Essays on the Dark and Light Sides of the Digital Revolution. Cham, Springer, pp 73–98

  • Hillman AL (2019) Public finance and public policy: Responsibilities and limitations of government, 3rd edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • IPP (2021) Public Sector Innovation. https://www.innovationpolicyplatform.org/www.innovationpolicyplatform.org/content/public-sector-innovation/index.html. Accessed 23 Feb 2022

  • Jennings W, Stoker G, Bunting H, Valgarðsson VO, Gaskell J, Devine D, McKay L, Mills MC (2021) Lack of trust, conspiracy beliefs, and social media use predict COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy. Vaccines 9(6):593

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen MF, Svendsen GT (2020) Corruption and bureaucratic reforms: “Getting to Denmark?” In: Christiansen PM, Elklit J, Nedergaard P (eds) The Oxford handbook of danish politics. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 177–192

    Google Scholar 

  • König PD, Wenzelburger G (2020) Opportunity for renewal or disruptive force? How artificial intelligence alters democratic politics. Gov Inf Q 37(3):1–11

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • König PD, Wenzelburger G (2021) Between technochauvinism and human-centrism: Can algorithms improve decision-making in democratic politics? Eur Political Sci 21(1):132–149

  • Körner K (2019) Digital politics. AI, big data and the future of democracy. Frankfurt am Main: Deutsche Bank Research

  • Kuzheleva-Sagan IP, Suchkova NA (2016) Designing trust in the Internet services. AI Soc 31:381–392

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mangor S (2020) Enforcing the GDPR in a trust-based culture like Denmark. https://openli.com/blog/enforcing-the-gdpr-in-a-trust-based-culture-like-denmark/. Accessed 9 Feb 2022

  • Nannestad P (2008) What have we learned about generalized trust, if anything? Annu Rev Polit Sci 11:413–436

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nemitz P (2018) Constitutional democracy and technology in the age of artificial intelligence. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 376(2133): 20180089.

  • North DC (1990) Institutions, institutional change and economic performance. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Noveck BS (2017) Five hacks for digital democracy. Nature 544(7650): 287–289

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nowotny H (2021) In AI we trust: power, illusion and control of predictive algorithms. Polity, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • OECD (2017) OECD digital economy outlook 2017. OECD Publishing, Paris

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Oldeweme A, Märtins J, Westmattelmann D, Schewe G (2021) The role of transparency, trust, and social influence on uncertainty reduction in times of pandemics: empirical study on the adoption of COVID-19 tracing apps. J Med Internet Res 23(2):e25893. https://doi.org/10.2196/25893

  • Olson M (1965) The logic of collective action. Harvard University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Orwell G (1949) 1984. Secker & Warburg, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Ostrom E (1990) Governing the commons. The evolution of institutions for collective action. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Ostrom E, Ahn TK (2009) The meaning of social capital and its link to collective action. In: Svendsen GT, Svendsen GLH (eds) Handbook of social capital. The troika of sociology, political science and economics. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, pp 17–35

    Google Scholar 

  • Paltieli G (2021) The political imaginary of national AI strategies. AI Soc, Online First. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-021-01258-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pasquale F (2015) The black box society. The secret algorithms that control money and information. Harvard University Press, Cambridge

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson SC (2020) Trust, transparency, and openness: How inclusion of cultural values shapes Nordic national public policy strategies for artificial intelligence (AI). Technol Soc 63:101421

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schippers B (2020) Artificial intelligence and democratic politics. Polit Insight 11(1):32–35

    Article  MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  • Simon J, Rieder G (2021) Trusting the Corona-Warn-App? Contemplations on trust and trustworthiness at the intersection of technology, politics and public debate. Eur J Commun 36(4):334–348

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Svendsen GT (2020) Collective action problem. In: Harris P, Bitonti A, Fleisher C, Skorkjær Binderkrantz A (eds) The palgrave encyclopedia of interest groups, lobbying and public affairs. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13895-0_34-1

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Svendsen GT, Svendsen GLH (eds) (2009) Handbook of social capital. the troika of sociology, political science and economics. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham

    Google Scholar 

  • Svendsen GT, Svendsen GLH (2016) Trust, social capital and the Scandinavian welfare state: explaining the flight of the bumblebee. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Svendsen GLH, Brandt US, Svendsen GT (2021) Kontrol eller tillid? Akademisk Forlag, Denmark, Copenhagen

    Google Scholar 

  • Taeihagh A (2021) Governance of artificial intelligence. Policy Soc 40(2):137–157

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Torfing J, Bentzen TØ (2022) The Danish control-trust balance in public governance. In: Krogh AH, Agger A, Triantafillou P (eds) Public governance in Denmark. Emerald Publishing, Bingley, pp 111–129

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • UN (2022) E-Government. https://publicadministration.un.org/egovkb/en-us/about/unegovdd-framework. Accessed 15 Feb 2022

  • UNESCO (2021) Draft text of the recommendation on the ethics of artificial intelligence. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000379920.page=14. Accessed 11 Jan 2022

  • von Eschenbach WJ (2021) Transparency and the black box problem: why we do not trust AI. Philos Technol 34(4):1607–1622

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • WEF (2021) Positive AI Economic Futures. Cologny/Geneva: WEF

  • Yeung K (2018) Algorithmic regulation: a critical interrogation. Regul Gov 12(4):505–523

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yeung K (2019) Why worry about decision-making by machine? In: Yeung K, Lodge M (eds) Algorithmic Regulation. Oxford, Oxford University Press. pp 21–48

  • Zak PJ, Kurzban R, Matzner WT (2005) Oxytocin is associated with human trustworthiness. Horm Behav 48:522–527

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zak PJ, Kurzban R, Ahmadi S, Swerdloff RS, Park J, Efremidze L et al (2009) Testosterone administration decreases generosity in the ultimatum game. PLoS ONE 4(12):e8330. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0008330

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Political Science, Aarhus University, Bartholins Allé 7, DK, 8000, Aarhus C, Denmark

    Kees van Kersbergen & Gert Tinggaard Svendsen

Authors
  1. Kees van Kersbergen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Gert Tinggaard Svendsen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

All authors contributed equally to the research and writing of the paper.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kees van Kersbergen.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

We declare that there are no financial or non-financial interests that are directly or indirectly related to the work submitted for publication.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

van Kersbergen, K., Tinggaard Svendsen, G. Social trust and public digitalization. AI & Soc (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-022-01570-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-022-01570-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation