Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

On the semantics of comparison across categories

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Linguistics and Philosophy Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper explores the hypothesis that all comparative sentences— nominal, verbal, and adjectival—contain instances of a single morpheme that compositionally introduces degrees. This morpheme, sometimes pronounced much, semantically contributes a structure-preserving map from entities, events, or states, to their measures along various dimensions. A major goal of the paper is to argue that the differences in dimensionality observed across domains are a consequence of what is measured, as opposed to which expression introduces the measurement. The resulting theory has a number of interesting properties. It characterizes the notion of ‘measurement’ uniformly across comparative constructions, in terms of non-trivial structure preservation. It unifies the distinctions between mass/count nouns and atelic/telic verb phrases with that between gradable and non-gradable adjectives. Finally, it affords a uniform characterization of semantically anomalous comparisons across categories.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Bach E. (1986) The algebra of events. Linguistics and Philosophy 9(1): 5–16

    Google Scholar 

  • Bale, A. (2006, April). The universal scale and the semantics of comparison. PhD thesis, McGill University, Montreal, QC.

  • Bale A. (2008) A universal scale of comparison. Linguistics and Philosophy 31(1): 1–55

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bale A., Barner D. (2009) The interpretation of functional heads: Using comparatives to explore the mass/count distinction. Journal of Semantics 26(3): 217–252

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartsch R., Vennemann T. (1972) Semantic structures: A study in the relation between semantics and syntax. Athenaum, Frankfurt am Main

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, S. (2011). Comparison constructions. In C. Maienborn, K. von Heusinger, & P. Portner (Eds.), Semantics: An international handbook of natural language meaning (Vol. 2, Chap. 53, pp. 1341–1390). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

  • Beck, S., Krasikova, S., Fleischer, D., Gergel R., Hofstetter, S., Savelsberg C., Vanderelst, J., & Villalta, E. (2010). Crosslinguistic variation in comparison constructions. In J. van Craenenbroeck (Ed.), Linguistic variation yearbook 2009 (pp. 1–66). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

  • Berka, K. (1983). Measurement: Its concepts, theories and problems. Boston studies in the philosophy and history of science (Vol. 72). Dordrecht, Holland: D. Reidel Publishing Company.

  • Bhatt R., Pancheva R. (2004) Late merger of degree clauses. Linguistic Inquiry 35(1): 1–46

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bierwisch, M. (1989). The semantics of gradation. In M. Bierwisch, & E. Lang (Eds.), Dimensional adjectives: Grammatical structure and conceptual interpretation (pp. 71–261). Berlin: Springer-Verlag

  • Bochnak, M. R. (2010). Quantity and gradability across categories. In Proceedings of semantics and linguistic theory XX, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY (pp. 251–268), Ithaca, NY: CLC publications.

  • Bochnak, M. R. (2013). Cross-linguistic variation in the semantics of comparatives. PhD thesis, University of Chicago.

  • Bogal-Allbritten E. (2013) Decomposing notions of adjectival transitivity in Navajo. Natural Language Semantics 21: 277–314

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bolinger D. (1972) Degree Words. Mouton, The Hague

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Boolos G. (1984) To be is to be the value of a variable (or some values of some variables). Journal of Philosophy 81: 430–450

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Borer, H. (1998). Deriving passive without theta roles. In S. Laponte, D. Brentari, & P. Farell (Eds.), Morphology and its relation to phonology and syntax. Stanford, CA: CSLI Publications.

  • Borer, H. (2004). The grammar machine. In A. Alexiadou, E. Anagnostopoulou, & M. Evereart (Eds.), The unaccusativity puzzle: Explorations of the syntax–lexicon interface, (pp. 288–331). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  • Borer, H. (2005a). In name only. Structuring sense (Vol. 1). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  • Borer, H. (2005b). The normal course of events. Structuring sense (Vol. II). New York: Oxford University Press.

  • Bresnan J. (1973) Syntax of the comparative clause construction in English. Linguistic Inquiry 4(3): 275–343

    Google Scholar 

  • Cartwright H. (1975) Amounts and measures of amount. Noûs 9(2): 143–164

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caudal, P., & Nicolas, D. (2005). Types of degrees and types of event structures. In C. Maienborn & A. Wöllstein (Eds.), Event arguments: Foundations and applications (pp. 277–300). Tübingen: Niemeyer.

  • Champollion, L. (2010). Parts of a whole: Distributivity as a bridge between aspect and measurement. PhD thesis, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.

  • Chierchia, G. (1998) Plurality of mass nouns and the notion of “semantic parameter”. In S. Rothstein (Ed.), Events and grammar (pp. 53–103). Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

  • Chomsky N. (1995) The minimalist program. MIT Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Corver N. (1997) Much-support as a last resort. Linguistic Inquiry 28(1): 119–164

    Google Scholar 

  • Cresswell, M. J. (1976). The semantics of degree. In B. H. Partee (Ed.), Montague grammar (pp. 261–292). New York: Academic Press.

  • Dowty, D. (1979). Word meaning and Montague grammar (Vol. 7). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

  • Dowty, D. (1989). On the semantic content of the notion of ‘thematic role’. In G. Chierchia, B. H. Partee & R. Turner, (Eds.), Properties, types and meaning: Semantic issues (pp. 69–129). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

  • Dunbar, E., & Wellwood, A. (submitted). Addressing the ‘two interface’ problem: Comparatives and superlatives.

  • Engel R. (1989) On degrees. The Journal of Philosophy. 86(1): 23–37

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferreira, M. (2005). Event quantification and plurality. PhD thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston MA.

  • Filip, H. (2004). The telicity parameter revisited. In R. B. Young (Ed.), Proceedings of SALT XIV, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY (pp. 92–109). Ithaca, NY: CLC Publications.

  • Filip, H. (2011). Aspectual class and aktionsart. In C. Maienborn, K. von Heusinger & P. Portner (Eds.), Semantics: An international handbook of natural language meaning (pp. 1186–1217). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

  • Fults, S. (2006). The structure of comparison: An investigation of gradable adjectives. PhD thesis, University of Maryland, College Park.

  • Gillon B. (1992) Towards a common semantics for English count and mass nouns. Linguistics and Philosophy 15(6): 597–639

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gillon, B. (2004). Ambiguity, indeterminacy, deixis, and vagueness. In S. Davis, & B. Gillon (Eds.), Semantics: A reader (Chap. 10, pp. 157–187). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  • Gleitman L. (1990) The structural sources of verb meanings. Language Acquisition 1(1): 3–55

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hay, J., Kennedy, C., & Levin, B. (1999). Scale structure underlies telicity in ‘degree achievements’. In T. Matthes, & D. Strolovitch (Eds.), Proceedings of semantics and linguistic theory 9 (pp. 127–144), Ithaca, NY: CLC Publications.

  • Heim, I. (2000). Degree operators and scope. In B. Jackson, & T. Matthews (Eds.), Proceedings of SALT X, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY (pp. 40–64). Ithaca, NY: CLC Publications.

  • Heim I., Kratzer A. (1998) Semantics in generative grammar. Blackwell, Malden

    Google Scholar 

  • Henderson, R. (2013). Quantizing scalar change. In T. Snider, (Ed.), Proceedings of semantics and linguistic theory 23 (pp. 473–492). Ithaca, NY: CLC Publications.

  • Higginbotham J. (1994) Mass and count quantifiers. Linguistics and Philosophy 17(5): 447–480

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoepelman, J., & Rohrer, C. (1980). On the mass count distinction and the French imparfait and passe simple. In C. Rohrer (Ed.), Time, tense and aspect (pp. 629–645). Tuebingen: Niemeyer.

  • Husband, E. M. (2012). On the compositional nature of states (Vol. 188). Linguistik Aktuell/Linguistics Today.

  • Katz, G. (2005). Attitudes toward degrees. In E. Maier, C. Bary, & J. Huitink (Eds.), Proceedings of Sinn und Bedeutung 9 (pp. 183–196).

  • Kennedy C. (1999) Projecting the adjective: The syntax and semantics of gradability and comparison. Garland, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy C. (2007) Vagueness and grammar: The semantics of relative and absolute gradable adjectives. Linguistics and Philosophy 30(1): 1–45

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy, C., & Levin, B. (2008) Measure of change: The adjectival core of degree achievements. In L. McNally, & C. Kennedy (Eds.), Adjectives and adverbs: Syntax, semantics and discourse (pp. 156–182). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  • Kennedy C., McNally L. (2005) Scale structure, degree modification, and the semantics of gradable predicates. Language 81(2): 345–381

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kenny A. (1963) Action, emotion, and will. Routledge & Kegan Paul, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Klein, E. (1991). Comparatives. In A. von Stechow, & D. Wunderlich (Eds.), Semantics: An international handbook of contemporary research (Chap. 32, pp. 673–691). New York: Walter de Gruyter.

  • Kratzer, A. (1996). Severing the external argument from its verb. In J. Rooryck, & L. Zaring (Eds.), Phrase structure and the lexicon (pp. 109–137). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

  • Kratzer, A. (2004). Telicity and the meaning of objective case. In J. Guéron, & J. LeCarme (Eds.), The syntax of time (pp. 389–423). Boston, MA: MIT Press.

  • Krifka, M. (1989). Nominal reference, temporal constitution and quantification in event semantics. In R. Bartsch, J. van Benthem, & P. van Emb de Boas (Eds.), Semantics and contextual expression (pp. 75–115). Stanford, CA: CSLI Publications.

  • Krifka, M. (2003). Bare NPs: Kind-referring, indefinites, both, or neither? In R. B. Young, & Y. Zhou (Eds.), Proceedings of SALT XIII, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY (pp. 180–203). Ithaca, NY: CLC Publications.

  • Landman F. (2000) Events and plurality. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Norwell

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Lasersohn P. (1999) Pragmatic halos. Language 75: 522–551

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lassiter, D. (to appear). Measurement and modality: The scalar basis of modal semantics. Oxford University Press.

  • Link, G. (1983). The logical analysis of plurals and mass terms: A lattice-theoretical approach. In R. Baeuerle, C. Schwarze, & A. von Stechow (Eds.), Meaning, Use and Interpretation of Language (pp. 302–323). Berlin: DeGruyter.

  • Link, G. (1987). Algebraic semantics for event structures. In J. Groenendijk, M. Stokhof, & F. Veltman (Eds.), Proceedings of the sixth Amsterdam Colloquium (pp. 243–262). Amsterdam: ILCC.

  • Marantz A. (1984) On the nature of grammatical relations. MIT Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Moltmann F. (2009) Degree structure as trope structure: A trope-based analysis of positive and comparative adjectives. Linguistics and Philosophy 32(1): 51–94

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morzycki, M. (2005). Size adjectives and adnominal degree modification. In E. Georgala, & J. Howell (Eds.), Proceedings of SALT XV, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY (pp. 116–133). Ithaca, NY: CLC Publications.

  • Mourelatos A. (1978) Events, processes, and states. Linguistics and Philosophy 2: 415–434

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nakanishi K. (2007) Measurement in the nominal and verbal domains. Linguistics and Philosophy 30: 235–276

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Panzeri, F., & Foppolo, F. (2012). Can children tell us something about the semantics of adjectives? In M. Aloni, et al. (Eds.), Amsterdam Colloquium 2011. LNCS (Vol. 7218, pp. 170–179). Berlin: Springer.

  • Panzeri, F., Foppolo, F., & Guasti, M. T. (2013). Acquisition meets comparison: an investigation of gradable adjectives. In I. Caponigro, & C. Cecchetto (Eds.), From grammar to meaning: The spontaneous logicality of language (Chap. 10, pp. 266–293). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  • Parsons, T. (1990). Events in the semantics of english: A study in subatomic semantics. Current studies in linguistics series (Vol. 19, p. 334). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

  • Piñón, C. (2008). Aspectual composition with degrees. In L. McNally, & C. Kennedy (Eds.), Adjectives and adverbs: Syntax, semantics and discourse (Chap. 8, pp. 183–219). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  • Pietroski P. (2005) Events and semantic architecture. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Pietroski P. (2010) Concepts, meanings, and truth: First nature, second nature, and hard work. Mind & Language 25(3): 247–278

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pietroski, P. (2012). Semantic monadicity with conceptual polyadicity. In M. Werning, W. Hinzen, & E. Machery (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of compositionality (Chap. 6, pp. 129–148). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  • Pietroski, P. M. (2015). Framing event variables. Erkenntnis, 80(1), 31–60.

  • Ramchand G. (1997) Aspect and predication. Oxford Clarendon Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramchand, G. (2003). First phase syntax. Oxford: Oxford University and University of Tromso.

  • Rappaport Hovav, M. (2008). Lexicalized meaning and the internal temporal structure of events. In S. Rothstein (Ed.), Crosslinguistic and theoretical approaches to the semantics of aspect (pp. 13–42). Amsterdam: Benjamins.

  • Reichenbach H. (1947) Elements of symbolic logic. Free Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Rett, J. (2008, October). Degree modification in natural language. PhD thesis, Rutgers, New Brunswick, NJ.

  • Rett, J. 2013. Similatives and the argument structure of verbs. Natural Language and Linguistic Theory, 31, 1101–1137.

  • Ritter, E., & Rosen, S. T. (1998). Delimiting events in syntax. In M. Butt & W. Geuder (Eds.), The projection of arguments: Lexical and compositional factors (pp. 135–164). Stanford: CSLI Publications.

  • Rothstein S. (2004) Structuring events. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Rullmann, H. (1995). Maximality in the semantics of wh-constructions. PhD thesis, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA.

  • Ryle G. (1949) The concept of mind. Barnes and Noble, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Schein, B. (2002). Events and the semantic content of thematic relations. In G. Preyer, & G. Peter (Eds.), Logical form & language (pp. 263–344). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  • Schein, B. (2003). Adverbial, descriptive reciprocals. In J. Hawthorne (Ed.), Language and philosophical linguistics. Philosophical perspectives (Vol. 17). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  • Schmidt, L. A., Goodman, N. D., Barner, D., & Tenenbaum, J. B. (2009). How tall is tall? Compositionality, statistics, and gradable adjectives. In N. Taatgen, H. van Rijn, L. Schomaker & J. Nerbonne (Eds.), Cognitive Science Society (CogSci 2009) (Vol. 31, pp. 3151–3156). Red Hook, NY: Curran Associaties, Inc.

  • Schwarzschild, R. (2002). The grammar of measurement. In B. Jackson (Ed.), Proceedings of SALT XII, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY (pp. 225–245). Ithaca, NY: CLC Publications.

  • Schwarzschild R. (2005) Measure phrases as modifiers of adjectives. Recherches Linguistiques de Vincennes 34: 207–228

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwarzschild R. (2006) The role of dimensions in the syntax of noun phrases. Syntax 9(1): 67–110

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwarzschild R., Wilkinson K. (2002) Quantifiers in comparatives: a semantics of degree based on intervals. Natural Language Semantics 10(1): 1–41

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solt, S. (2009). Much support and more. In M. Aloni, H. Bastiaanse, T. de Jager, & K. Schulz (Eds.), Proceedings of the 17th Amsterdam colloquium (pp. 446–455). Berlin: Springer.

  • Solt, S. (2014). Q-adjectives and the semantics of quantity. Journal of Semantics. doi:10.1093/jos/fft018.

  • Taylor B. (1977) Tense and Continuity. Linguistics and Philosophy 1(2): 199–220

    Google Scholar 

  • van Hout, A. (2000). Event semantics in the lexicon-syntax interface. In C. Tenny & J. Pustejovsky (Eds.), Events as grammatical objects: The converging perspectives of lexical semantics, logical semantics and syntax (pp. 239–282). Stanford: CSLI Publications.

  • Vendler Z. (1957) Verbs and times. Philosophical Review 66: 143–160

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verkuyl H. (1972) On the compositional nature of aspect. Reidel, Dordrecht

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Villalta E. (2008) Mood and gradability: an investigation of the subjunctive mood in Spanish. Linguistics and Philosophy 31(4): 467–522

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • von Heusinger K. (1997) Definite descriptions and choice functions. Logic, Language and Computation 5: 61–91

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • von Stechow A. (1984) Comparing semantic theories of comparison. Journal of Semantics 3(1): 1–77

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wellwood A. (2014, August). Measuring predicates. PhD thesis, University of Maryland, College Park.

  • Wellwood A., Hacquard V., Pancheva R. (2012) Measuring and comparing individuals and events. Journal of Semantics 29(2): 207–228

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wheeler S. C. (1972) Attributives and their modifiers. Noûs 6(4): 310–334

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Winter Y. (2001) Flexibility principles in Boolean semantics: The interpretation of coordination, plurality, and scope in natural language. MIT Press, Boston MA

    Google Scholar 

  • Zucchi S., White M. (2001) Twigs, sequences and the temporal constitution of predicates. Linguistics and Philosophy 24: 223–270

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Linguistics, Northwestern University, 2016 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA

    Alexis Wellwood

Authors
  1. Alexis Wellwood
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Alexis Wellwood.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Wellwood, A. On the semantics of comparison across categories. Linguist and Philos 38, 67–101 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10988-015-9165-0

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10988-015-9165-0

Keywords

Search

Navigation