Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Models in science and mental models in scientists and nonscientists

  • Articles
  • Section on “Commonsense and Scientific Reasoning”
  • Published:
Mind & Society Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper examines the form of mental representation of scientific theories in scientists and nonscientists. It concludes that images and schemas are not the appropriate form of mental representation for scientific theories but that mental models and perceptual symbols do seem appropriate for representing physical/mechanical phenomena. These forms of mental representation are postulated to have an analogical relation with the world and it is this relationship that gives them strong explanatory power. It is argued that the construct of naïve theories as used in developmental psychology may be the appropriate form of mental representation for non physical/mechanical domains. The paper adopts a strong form of psychologism in the philosophy of science and argues that model-based approaches to scientific theories are more appropriate forms of representation for scientific theories than the formalist approaches that dominate current philosophy of science.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Anderson, J.R. & Bower, G.H. (1973)Human Associative Memory (Washington DC, V.H. Winston).

    Google Scholar 

  • Andersson, B. (1986) The experiential gestalt of causation: A common core to pupils' preconceptions in science,European Journal of Science Education, 8, pp. 155–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barsalou, L.W., Yeh, W., Luka, B.J., Olseth, K.L., Mix, K.S. & Wu, L.-L. (1993) Concepts and meaning,CLS 29 (Chicago Linguistic Society), 2 (The Parasession), pp. 23–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barsalou, L.W. (1999) Perceptual symbol systems,Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22, pp. 577–609.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartlett, F.C. (1932)Remembering (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Bell, J. (1986) John Bell, in P.C.W. Davies & J.R. Brown (Eds)The Ghost in the Atom (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press), pp. 45–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bohm, D. (1986) David Bohm, in P.C.W. Davies & J.R. Brown (Eds),The Ghost in the Atom (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press), pp. 118–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boltzmann, L. (1886/1974) The second law of thermodynamics, in B. McGuinness (Ed.),Ludwig Boltzmann: Theoretical Physics and Philosophical Problems: Selected Writings (Dordrecht, Holland, D. Reidel), pp. 13–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boltzmann, L. (1892/1974) On the methods of theoretical physics, in B. McGuinness (Ed.),Ludwig Boltzmann: Theoretical Physics and Philosophical Problems: Selected Writings (Dordrecht, Holland, D. Reidel), pp. 5–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boltzmann, L. (1899/1974) On the development of the methods of theoretical physics in recent times, in B. McGuinness (Ed.),Ludwig Boltzmann: Theoretical Physics and Philosophical Problems: Selected Writings (Dordrecht, Holland, D. Reidel), pp. 77–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boltzmann, L. (1902) Models,The New Volumes of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 10th edition, Vol. 30 (London, Adam and Charles Black), pp. 788–91

    Google Scholar 

  • Brewer, W.F. (1999a) Perceptual symbols: The power and limitations of a theory of dynamic imagery and structured frames,Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22, pp. 611–2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brewer, W.F. (1999b) Scientific theories and naive theories as forms of mental representation: Psychologism revived,Science & Education 8, pp. 489–505.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brewer, W.F. (2000) Bartlett's concept of the schema and its impact on theories of knowledge representation in contemporary cognitive psychology, in A. Saito (Ed.),Bartlett, Culture and Cognition (Hove UK, Psychology Press), pp. 69–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brewer, W.F. & Mishra, P. (1998) Science, in W. Bechtel & G. Graham (Eds),A Companion to cognitive Science (Oxford, Blackwell), pp. 744–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brewer, W.F. & Nakamura, G.V. (1984) The nature and functions of schemas, in R.S. Wyer Jr. & T.K. Srull (Eds),Handbook of Social Cognition, Vol. 1 (Hillsdale NJ, Erlbaum), pp. 119–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buchdahl, G. (1964) Theory construction: The work of Norman Robert Campbell,Isis, 55, pp. 151–2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, N.R. (1913)Modern Electrical Theory, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, N.R. (1920/1957)Foundations of Science (New York, Dover) (originally published asPhysics: The Elements, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1920).

    Google Scholar 

  • Carey, S. (1985)Conceptual Change in Childhood (Cambridge MA, TheMit Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Clement, J. (2000) Model based learning as a key research area for science education,International Journal of Science Education, 22, pp. 1041–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Collins, A. (1985) Component models of physical systems, inProceedings of the Seventh Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, Irvine CA, pp. 80–9.

  • Collins, A.M. & Quillian, M.R. (1969) Retrieval time from semantic memory,Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 8, pp. 240–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Craik, K.J.W. (1943)The Nature of Explanation (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Cushing, J.T. (1991) Quantum theory and explanatory discourse: Endgame for understanding,Philosophy of Science, 58, pp. 337–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Kleer, J. & Brown, J.S. (1981) Mental models of physical mechanisms and their acquisition, in J.R. Anderson (Ed.),Cognitive Skills and their Acquisition (Hillsdale NJ, Erlbaum), pp. 285–309.

    Google Scholar 

  • Driver, R. & Easley, J. (1978) Pupils and paradigms: A review of literature related to concept development in adolescent science students,Studies in Science Education, 5, pp. 61–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Driver, R., Guesne, E. & Tiberghien, A. (Eds) (1985)Children's Ideas in Science (Milton Keynes UK, Open University Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Duhem, P. (1914/1991)The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory, trans. by P.P. Wiener (Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press) (original work published 1914).

    Google Scholar 

  • Eddington, A.S. (1928)The Nature of the Physical World (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Einstein, A. (1959) Autobiographical notes, in P.A. Schilpp (Ed.),Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist, Vol. 1 (New York, Harper), pp. 2–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feynman, R.P. (1985) “Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!” (New York, Norton).

    Google Scholar 

  • Feynman, R.P., Leighton, R.B. & Sands, M. (1964)The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol. 2:Mainly Electromagnetism and Matter (Reading MA, Addison-Wesley).

    Google Scholar 

  • Gentner, D. & Stevens, A.L. (Eds.) (1983)Mental Models (Hillsdale NJ, Erlbaum).

    Google Scholar 

  • Gholson, B., Shadish, W.R. Jr., Neimeyer, R.A. & Houts, A.C. (Eds.) (1989)Psychology of Science (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Giere, R.N. (1992)Cognitive Models of Science, Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science, Vol. 15 (Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, J.K. & Boulter, C.J. (1998) Learning science through models and modelling, in B.J. Fraser & K.G. Tobin (Eds.),International Handbook of Science Education, Vol. 1 (Dordrecht, Holland, Kluwer), pp. 53–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gobert, J.D. & Buckley, B.C. (2000) Introduction to model-based teaching and learning in science education,International Journal of Science Education, 22, pp. 891–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gopnik, A. & Meltzoff, A.N. (1997)Words Thoughts, and Theories (Cambridge MA, TheMit Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Gopnik, A. & Wellman, H.M. (1992) Why the child's theory of mind reallyis a theory,Mind & Language, 7, pp. 145–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hempel, C.G. (1966)Philosophy of Natural Science (Englewood Cliffs NJ, Prentice-Hall).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hesse, M. (1967) Models and analogy in science, in P. Edwards (Ed.),Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Vol. 5 (New York, Macmillan), pp. 354–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson-Laird, P.N. (1980) Mental models in cognitive science,Cognitive Science, 4, pp. 71–115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson-Laird, P.N. (1983)Mental Models (Cambridge MA, Harvard University Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Karmiloff-Smith, A. & Inhelder, B. (1975) “If you want to get ahead, get a theory”,Cognition, 3, pp. 195–212.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, M.J. (1972) Mechanical explanation at the end of the nineteenth century,Centaurus, 17, pp. 58–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leatherdale, W.H. (1974)The Role of Analogy, Model and Metaphor in Science (Amsterdam, North-Holland).

    Google Scholar 

  • Maxwell, J.C. (1890) Address to the mathematical and physical sections of the British Association, in W.D. Niven (Ed.),The Scientific Papers of James Clerk Maxwell (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press), pp. 215–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • McAllister, J.W. (1996)Beauty & Revolution in Science (Ithaca NY, Cornell University Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • McMullin, E. (1968) What do physical models tell us?, in B. van Rootselaar & J.F. Staal (Eds),Logic, Methodology and Philosophy of Science III (Proceedings of the Third International Congress for Logic, Methodology and Philosophy of Science, Amsterdam 1967) (Amsterdam, North-Holland), pp. 385–96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mellor, D.H. (1968) Models and analogies in science: Duhemversus Campbell?Isis, 59, pp. 282–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nagel, E. (1961)The Structure of Science (New York, Harcourt, Brace and World).

    Google Scholar 

  • Nash, L.K. (1963)The Nature of the Natural Sciences (Boston, Little, Brown).

    Google Scholar 

  • Nussbaum, J. & Novick, S. (1982) Alternative frameworks, conceptual conflict and accommodation: Toward a principled teaching strategy,Instructional Science, 11, pp. 183–200.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perner, J. (1991)Understanding the Representational Mind (Cambridge MA, TheMit Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Pfundt, H. & Duit, R. (1991)Bibliography: Students' Alternative Frameworks and Science Education, 3rd ed. (Kiel, Germany, Institute for Science Education, University of Kiel).

    Google Scholar 

  • Posner, G.J., Strike, K.A., Hewson, P.W. & Gertzog, W.A. (1982) Accommodation of a scientific conception: Toward a theory of conceptual change,Science Education, 66, pp. 211–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reiner, M., Chi, M.T.H. & Resnick, L. (1988) Naive materialistic belief: An underlying epistemological commitment. inProceedings of the Tenth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (Hillsdale NJ, Erlbaum), pp. 544–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Root-Bernstein, R.S. (1985) Visual thinking: The art of imagining reality,Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 75 (Part 6), pp. 50–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rumelhart, D.E. (1980) Schemata: The building blocks of cognition, in R.J. Spiro & B.C. Bruce and W.F. Brewer (Eds)Theoretical Issues in Reading Comprehension (Hillsdale NJ, Erlbaum), pp. 33–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwitzgebel, E. (1999) Children's theories and the drive to explain,Science & Education, 8, pp. 457–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shepard, R.N. (1978) Externalization of mental images and the act of creation, in B.S. Randhawa & W.E. Coffman (Eds.),Visual Learning, Thinking, and Communication, (New York, Academic Press), pp. 133–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, A.L. & Gentner, D. (1983) Introduction, in D. Gentner & A.L. Stevens (Eds),Mental Models (Hillsdale NJ, Erlbaum), pp. 1–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Suppe, F. (Ed.) (1977),The Structure of Scientific Theories, 2nd ed. (Urbana IL, University of Illinois Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomson, J.J. (1930)Tendencies of Recent Investigations in the Field of Physics (London, British Broadcasting Corporation).

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomson, W. (Lord Kelvin) (1884)Lectures on Molecular Dynamics (Baltimore MD, Johns Hopkins University).

    Google Scholar 

  • Vosniadou, S. & Brewer, W.F. (1994) Mental models of the day/night cycle,Cognitive Science, 18, pp. 123–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wellman, H.M. (1990)The Child's Theory of Mind (Cambridge MA, TheMit Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, M.D., Hollan, J.D. & Stevens, A.L. (1983) Human reasoning about a simple physical system, in D. Gentner & A.L. Stevens (Eds.),Mental Models, (Hillsdale NJ, Erlbaum), pp. 131–53.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 603 E. Daniel St., 61820, Champaign, IL, USA

    William F. Brewer

Authors
  1. William F. Brewer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Brewer, W.F. Models in science and mental models in scientists and nonscientists. Mind & Society 2, 33–48 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02512358

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02512358

Keywords

Search

Navigation