The technical term “ tarka ” in the Nyāya tradition is the object of the present investigation. Diverse texts including Buddhist ones exhibit a negative estimation of activities using tarka . In contrast, more often than not, later treatises dealing with logico-epistemic problems, especially certain Naiyāyika works, identify the methodological peculiarity of Nyāya with tarka . Such an ambivalent attitude toward tarka can be understood in a coherent way if the essential features of tarka that gave rise to it can (...) be grasped. Starting from the Nyāyasūtra 1.1.40 and the explanation given in the Nyāyabhāṣya on it, the present researcher sorted out three characteristic features of tarka in the early Nyāya tradition. These three features focus on the main feature of tarka : namely, reflective analysis without requiring further factual information on the object of investigation. Based on this, the present researcher critically reviewed what promoted an understanding of tarka as a reductio ad absurdum argument or an a priori reasoning. Furthermore, certain passages from the Nyāyamañjarī , Nyāyakalikā , and Tarkasaṅgraha were examined to demonstrate that the present researcher’s interpretative understanding of tarka was adequate for explaining the usage of this term in a broad sense, with positive connotations. (shrink)

All individual terms listed as jāti-s (sophisticated ripostes) in Nyāyasūtra V a 1 have the peculiar uniform ending -sama. The interpretation of this ending here reveals a greater nuance of meaning than the hitherto customary understanding of it. It will be demonstrated that the observable semantic difference is due to a historical shift of signification as a result of an enlarging and systematizing of the thematic group of jāti-s. In this paper, I examine relevant text material, including two very important (...) manuscripts of the Nyāyabhṣya to show this semantic difference. The understanding gained by this analysis will help to trace the historical development of the complex of jāti-s within the larger context of the ancient Indian tradition of debate. (shrink)

‘Tarka’ is a technical term that occupies a significant position in the logico-epistemological traditions in India. In this paper, it is attempted to expound the exact meaning of the term, in particular in the early Nyaya tradition, on the basis of the explanations found in the Nyayabhasya. The view that the essential feature of tarka consists in the differentiating approach (vibhaga) to the matter on discourse is substantiated, and with it a possible explanation is given for the well-known ambivalent valuations (...) that tarka was often loaded with a negative connotation on the one hand and, was considered as the positive characteristic feature of the Naiyayika approach to epistemological problems on the other. In the case of tarka, the general applicability and the impression of logically exhaustive access to any given problem was combined with the danger of misuse of the reason without any quasi-formal deficiency. It is hoped that my suggestion to characterize tarka as the differentiating approach to the given matter without any factual information may give a plausible explanation for the double-pole character of tarka in the history of Indian philosophy. (shrink)

Der Autor legt eine engagierte Arbeit vor, in der er sich mit Nietzsches Kulturphilosophie auseinandersetzt. Speziell hat er die Modernekritik von Nietzsche im Visier, damit die ganzen Fragen der Décadence, das Nihilismusproblem etc. Angestoßen ist diese Problematik nicht zuletzt durch die Postmoderne-Diskussion. Diese Arbeit stellt sich das Problem, wie eine Kultur entwickelt werden kann, welche die negativen Nebenwirkungen der Moderne überwindet. Nietzsche ist dabei der wichtigste Gesprächpartner, auch M. Foucault und Th. W. Adorno treten als Gesprächpartner hinzu, so daß Nietzsches (...) Problem der Leibvergessenheit der Moderne mit Blick auf Foucaults Analyse der Disziplinierung des Leibes und Th. W. Adornos Theorie der Verdinglichung und der Ichschwäche erörtert wird. Ziel ist die Entwicklung einer Hermeneutik der Leiblichkeit, um auf dieser Grundlage eine Leibkultur zu entwickeln. Folgerichtig kulminiert die vorliegende Arbeit in einem Schlußkapitel über Leibverstehen und Leibbildung. (shrink)

In human cancers, histone methyltransferase SETDB1 (SET domain, bifurcated 1) is frequently overexpressed but its significance in carcinogenesis remains elusive. A recent study shows that SETDB1 downregulation induces de‐repression of retroelements and innate immunity in cancer cells. The possibility of SETDB1 functioning as a surveillant of retroelement expression is discussed in this study: the cytoplasmic presence of retroelement‐derived nucleic acids (RdNAs) drives SETDB1 into the nucleus by the RNA‐interference route, rendering the corresponding retroelement transcriptionally inert. These RdNAs could, therefore, be (...) signals of genome instability sent out for SETDB1 present in the cytoplasm to maintain genome integrity. (shrink)

The exhaustive explications on jāti-s (sophisticated ripostes) and their seemingly chaotic arrangement in early Indian philosophical texts arouses an expectation for a systematic taxonomy or typology. Such taxonomy would enormously increase the heuristic value of the list of jāti-s. The present article aims to reveal some interpretational problems relevant to the understanding of the jāti-s’ historical development, as well as the theoretical implications of their typology. Focusing historically on the early texts of debate manuals of Nyāya and Buddhist circles, this (...) article will excavate and explicate the vague and the obvious attempts to establish a typology of jāti-s. Given that Diṅnāga was the philosopher who shifted the history of Indian philosophy into the era of macro theory by integrating ontology and epistemology into a general system, the minimal changes of the order of the jāti-s in the list given in the Pramāṇasamuccaya, in contrast to the one found in the Nyāyamukha, will be interpreted as a paradigm shift. The rearrangement of the jāti list in the Pramāṇasamuccaya represents the paradigm shift from the debate (vāda) manual to the epistemological (pramāṇa) treatise, confirming Frauwallner’s ideas regarding the development of Diṅnāga’s thought. (shrink)

Over the past decade, ethical leadership has increasingly become one of the most popular topics in the areas of leadership and business ethics. As a result, there now exists a substantial body of empirical research addressing ethical leadership issues, but the findings reported by this body of research are highly fragmented. The topic has advanced to the stage where a review and synthesis of existing literature can provide great value and help move the scholarly conversation forward. The primary purposes of (...) this article are to review empirical findings from the ethical leadership literature utilizing a framework consisting of the antecedents, mediators, moderators and outcomes of ethical leadership, and suggest a set of interesting research opportunities, thereby facilitating future investigation. We base our synthesis on a review of 62 empirical studies on ethical leadership that were published between 2005 and mid-2015. (shrink)

The aim of this study is to examine the current profile of bioethics education in the nursing curriculum as perceived by nursing students and faculty in Korea. A convenience sampling method was used for recruiting 1223 undergraduate nursing students and 140 nursing faculty in Korea. Experience of Bioethics Education, Quality of Bioethics Education, and Demand for Bioethics Education Scales were developed. The Experience of Bioethics Education Scale showed that the nursing curriculum in Korea does not provide adequate bioethics education. The (...) Quality of Bioethics Education Scale revealed that the topics of human nature and human rights were relatively well taught compared to other topics. The Demand for Bioethics Education Scale determined that the majority of the participants believed that bioethics education should be a major requirement in the nursing curriculum. The findings of this study suggest that bioethics should be systemically incorporated into nursing courses, clinical practice during the program, and during continuing education. (shrink)

IntroductionTranscranial direct current stimulation is a noninvasive brain stimulation technique that applied to modulate brain activity and enhance motor recovery. However, the neurobiological substrates underlying the effects of tDCS on brain function remain poorly understood. This study aimed to investigate the central mechanisms of tDCS on improving the athletic performance of male rowing athletes.MethodsTwelve right-handed male professional rowing athletes received tDCS over the left primary motor cortex while undergoing regular training. The resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging data were acquired before (...) and after tDCS. Measures of amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation and regional homogeneity were calculated and compared between baseline and follow-up, as well as topological measures including global and local efficiency of functional brain networks constructed by graph theoretical analysis.ResultsMale rowing athletes showed increased isokinetic muscle strength of the left knee and left shoulder after tDCS. Increased ALFF values were found in the right precentral gyrus of male rowing athletes after tDCS when compared with those before tDCS. In addition, male rowing athletes showed increased ReHo values in the left paracentral lobule following tDCS. Moreover, increased nodal global efficiency was identified in the left inferior frontal gyrus of male rowing athletes after tDCS.ConclusionThe findings suggested that simultaneous tDCS-induced excitation over the primary motor cortex might potentially improve the overall athletic performance in male rowing athletes through the right precentral gyrus and left paracentral lobule, as well as left inferior frontal gyrus. (shrink)

本书研究了“正统思想家”董仲舒,作为统治阶级思想家,其思想成分存在许多消极的东西,作为汉代经学的开山者,他成功地建立了儒学为主体的思想体系,吸收、糅合了儒学外其他学派的东西。.

内容:外来冲击与传统中国道德伦理观的回应, 重商行为下的价值紊乱, 道德革命与政治革命, 文化断层与道德真空, 革命道德与道德革命等.

Physical literacy has received considerable attention in the field of physical education and physical activity worldwide. According to recent studies, the level of physical fitness among Chinese university students is gradually decreasing. This study aims to examine the impact of the PF level on PA and PL, as well as the relationships among PF, PA, and PL, in Chinese university students. Participants comprised 798 university students in Chongqing, China. Participants completed the tests of vital capacity, cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular strength, and (...) flexibility, according to the National Physical Fitness Measurement Standards Manual, as well as questionnaires on PA and PL. The independent t-tests were conducted to examine sex differences in the evaluated variables, and the Pearson’s correlation between each PF test and PL attributes and PA was calculated according to sex. In addition, the independent t-tests were conducted to determine whether the PF level had an effect on PL attributes and PA at various intensities. Significant sex differences were found in the PF domains of vital capacity, muscular strength, and aerobic fitness, with higher scores in men than in women, but not in the PF domain of flexibility and total PL score. Furthermore, the PF domains of muscular strength and aerobic fitness were significantly and positively correlated with the PL attributes of confidence and physical competence in both men and women, while the PF domains of vital capacity and aerobic fitness were significantly and positively correlated with the PL attribute of motivation in men. In addition, PL was significantly and positively associated with cardiorespiratory fitness, vital capacity, muscular strength, and flexibility among participants in the fit group. These findings support advocating for increased participation in PA in university students and using PL as a tool to improve PF components. (shrink)

Maximum deviation global discrimination index is a new item selection method for cognitive diagnostic computerized adaptive testing that allows for attribute coverage balance. We developed the maximum limitation global discrimination index from MDGDI, which allows for both attribute coverage balance and item exposure control. MLGDI can realize the attribute coverage balance and exposure control of the item. Our simulation study aimed to evaluate the performance of our new method against maximum global discrimination index, modified maximum GDI, standardized weighted deviation GDI, (...) and constraint progressive with SWDGDI. The results indicated that under the condition of realizing the attribute coverage balance, MDGDI had the highest attribute classification accuracy; when the selection strategy accommodated the practical constraints of the attribute coverage balance and item exposure control, MLGDI had the highest attribute classification accuracy; adding the item exposure control mechanism to the item selection method reduces the classification accuracy of the attributes of the item selection method; and compared with GDI, MMGDI, SWDGDI, CP_SWDGDI, and MDGDI, MLGDI can better achieve the attribute-coverage requirement, control item exposure rate, and attribute correct classification rate. (shrink)

The structure and “metabolism” (movement and conversion of goods and energy) of urban areas has caused cities to be identified as “super‐organisms”, placed between ecosystems and the biosphere, in the hierarchy of living systems. Yet most such analogies are weak, and render the super‐organism model ineffective for sustainable development of cities. Via a cluster analysis of 15 shared traits of the hierarchical living system, we found that industrialized cities are more similar to eukaryotic cells than to multicellular organisms; enclosed systems, (...) such as factories and greenhouses, paralleling organelles in eukaryotic cells. We further developed a “super‐cell” industrialized city model: a “eukarcity” with citynucleus (urban area) as a regulating centre, and organaras (enclosed systems, which provide the majority of goods and services) as the functional components, and cityplasm (natural ecosystems and farmlands) as the matrix. This model may improve the vitality and sustainability of cities through planning and management. (shrink)

Computerized relaxation training has been suggested as an effective and easily accessible intervention for individuals with psychological distress. To better elucidate the neural mechanism that underpins the effects of relaxation training, we investigated whether a 10-session computerized relaxation training program changed prefrontal gamma-aminobutyric acid levels and cerebral blood flow in women with psychological distress. We specifically focused on women since they were reported to be more vulnerable to develop stress-related disorders than men. Nineteen women with psychological distress but without a (...) diagnosis of psychiatric disorders received the 10-day computerized relaxation training program that consisted of 30-min cognitive-relaxation training and 10-min breathing-relaxation training per day. At baseline and post-intervention, perceived stress levels, anxiety, fatigue, and sleep quality were assessed by self-report questionnaires. Brain magnetic resonance spectroscopy and arterial spin labeling scans were also performed before and after the intervention to evaluate GABA levels and relative CBF in the prefrontal region. Levels of perceived stress, anxiety, fatigue, and sleep quality improved following 10 sessions of computerized relaxation training, resulting in a significant relief in composite scores of stress-related symptoms. The prefrontal GABA levels decreased, while relative CBF increased after the intervention. In addition, a greater increase in relative prefrontal CBF was associated with better composite scores of stress-related symptoms following the intervention. The current findings suggest that computerized relaxation training may improve stress-related symptoms through modulating the prefrontal GABA levels and CBF in women with psychological distress. (shrink)

BackgroundTemporal lobe epilepsy is the most prevalent refractory focal epilepsy and is more likely accompanied by cognitive impairment. The fully understanding of the neuronal activity underlying TLE is of great significance.ObjectiveThis study aimed to comprehensively explore the potential brain activity abnormalities affected by TLE and detect whether the changes were associated with cognition.MethodsSix static intrinsic brain activity indicators [amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation, fractional ALFF, regional homogeneity, degree centrality, global signal correlation, and voxel-mirrored homotopic connectivity ] and their corresponding dynamic indicators, (...) such as dynamic ALFF, dynamic fALFF, dynamic ReHo, dynamic DC, dynamic VMHC, and dynamic GSCorr, in 57 patients with unilateral TLE and 42 healthy volunteers were compared. Correlation analyses were also performed between these indicators in areas displaying group differences and cognitive function, epilepsy duration, and severity.ResultsMarked overlap was present among the abnormal brain regions detected using various static and dynamic indicators, primarily including increased ALFF/dALFF/fALFF in the bilateral medial temporal lobe and thalamus, decreased ALFF/dALFF/fALFF in the frontal lobe contralateral to the epileptogenic side, decreased fALFF, ReHo, dReHo, DC, dDC, GSCorr, dGSCorr, and VMHC in the temporal neocortex ipsilateral to the epileptogenic foci, decreased dReHo, dDC, dGSCorr, and dVMHC in the occipital lobe, and increased ALFF, fALFF, dfALFF, ReHo, and DC in the supplementary motor area ipsilateral to the epileptogenic foci. Furthermore, most IBA indicators in the abnormal brain region significantly correlated with the duration of epilepsy and several cognitive scale scores.ConclusionThe combined application of static and dynamic IBA indicators could comprehensively reveal more real abnormal neuronal activity and the impairment and compensatory mechanisms of cognitive function in TLE. Moreover, it might help in the lateralization of epileptogenic foci and exploration of the transmission and inhibition pathways of epileptic activity. (shrink)

PurposeThe aim of this study was to investigate and compare impulsiveness, negative emotion, cognitive function, and P300 components among gamma-hydroxybutyrate -addicted patients, heroin-dependent patients, and methadone maintenance treatment subjects.MethodsA total of 48 men including 17 GHB addicts, 16 heroin addicts, 15 MMT subjects, and 15 male mentally healthy controls were recruited. All subjects were evaluated for symptoms of depression, anxiety, impulsiveness, and cognitive function through the Patient Health Questionnaire, the Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7-item, the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale version II, the (...) Beijing version of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment, the behavioral test, and event-related potential P300 detection.Results The mean scores of BIS-II in the GHB addiction group, heroin dependence group, and MMT group were significantly higher than those of the HC group. The total scores of BJ-MOCA in GHB addiction group was the worst among the four groups, followed by heroin addiction, MMT group and HC group. The response time in the GHB addiction group was the longest among the four groups, followed by the heroin addiction, MMT, and HC groups. The amplitude and latency of P300 in GHB addiction subjects were significantly lower and longer than those of the MMT group and the HC group. For the three types of addiction, the P300 amplitudes at Fz, Cz, Pz, T5, and T6 were negatively correlated with the scores of GAD-7, PHQ-9, and BIS-II; the P300 latencies were positively correlated with the response time and negatively correlated with the scores of the BJ-MoCA.ConclusionPeople with an addiction were likely to have increased impulsiveness. The cognitive function of the GHB and heroin-addicted subjects, including the heroin detoxification and the MMT groups, was severely impaired, especially for the GHB-addicted patients. The impairment manifested as abnormalities of BJ-MoCA, response time, and P300 components. (shrink)

Conditional automated driving [level 3, Society of Automotive Engineers ] requires drivers to take over the vehicle when an automated system’s failure occurs or is about to leave its operational design domain. Two-stage warning systems, which warn drivers in two steps, can be a promising method to guide drivers in preparing for the takeover. However, the proper time intervals of two-stage warning systems that allow drivers with different personalities to prepare for the takeover remain unclear. This study explored the optimal (...) time intervals of two-stage warning systems with insights into the drivers’ neuroticism personality. A total of 32 drivers were distributed into two groups according to their self-ratings in neuroticism. Each driver experienced takeover under the two-stage warning systems with four time intervals. The takeover performance and subjective opinions for time intervals and situation awareness were recorded. The results showed that drivers in the 5-s time interval had the best takeover preparation. Furthermore, both the 5- and 7-s time intervals resulted in more rapid takeover reactions and were rated more appropriate and useful than the 3- and 9-s time intervals. In terms of personality, drivers with high neuroticism tended to take over immediately after receiving takeover messages, at the cost of SA deficiency. In contrast, drivers with low neuroticism responded safely by judging whether they gained enough SA. We concluded that the 5-s time interval was optimal for drivers in two-stage takeover warning systems. When considering personality, drivers with low neuroticism had no strict requirements for time intervals. However, the extended time intervals were favorable for drivers with high neuroticism in developing SA. The present findings have reference implications for designers and engineers to set the time intervals of two-stage warning systems according to the neuroticism personality of drivers. (shrink)

Objects: To evaluate the feasibility and effectiveness of in-bed wearable elbow robot training for motor recovery in patients with early and late subacute stroke.Methods: Eleven in-patient stroke survivors received 15 sessions of training over about 4 weeks of hospital stay. During each hourly training, participants received passive stretching and active movement training with motivating games using a wearable elbow rehabilitation robot. Isometric maximum muscle strength of elbow flexors and extensors was evaluated using the robot at the beginning and end of (...) each training session. Clinical measures including Fugl-Meyer Assessment of upper extremity, Motricity Index for upper extremities, Modified Ashworth Scale were measured at baseline, after the 4-week training program, and at a 1-month follow-up. The muscle strength recovery curve over the training period was characterized as a logarithmic learning curve with three parameters.Results: At the baseline, participants had moderate to severe upper limb motor impairment {FMA-UE [median ]: 28 } and mild spasticity in elbow flexors {MAS [median ]: 0 }. After about 4 weeks of training, significant improvements were observed in FMA-UE and MI, and the improvements were sustained at the follow-up. The elbow flexors MVC significantly increased by 1.93 Nm and the elbow extensor MVC increased by 0.68 Nm. Muscle strength recovery curve showed that patients with severe upper limb motor impairment had a greater improvement rate in elbow flexor strength than those with moderate motor impairment.Conclusion: In-bed wearable elbow robotic rehabilitation is feasible and effective in improving biomechanical and clinical outcomes for early and late subacute stroke in-patients. Results from the pilot study suggested that patients with severe upper limb motor impairment may benefit more from the robot training compared to those with moderate impairment. (shrink)

Situated within the framework of Confucian family-oriented ethics, this book explores the issue of familial partiality and specifically discusses whether it is morally praiseworthy to love one's family partially. In reviewing the tension between familial partiality and egalitarian impartiality from different perspectives while also drawing on binary metrics to understand the issue - that is, the weak and strong sense of familial partiality in Confucian moral theory - the author carefully discusses the efficacy of three major arguments to justify moral (...) partiality. It is concluded that the tree argument fails to justify moral partiality in Confucianism, the evolutionary argument only justifies moral partiality in the weak sense that we should devote more resources to our family, and the care argument fails to justify moral partiality in the strong sense that family takes priority in any case even at the expense of the principle of justice. Seeking to address the quandary, the author advances an alternative argument based on Thomas Aquinas' theory of love to interpret Confucian view of partial relationships, holding that partial treatment is assumed in partial relationships. The title will appeal to scholars and students interested in Confucianism, Chinese Philosophy, Moral Philosophy, and Comparative Philosophy. (shrink)

유한의 시간 속에서 불변의 진리를 논하다! 살아서는 경험할 수 없고 죽어서는 전할 수 없는 삶과 죽음의 근원적 연속성 ◎ 도서 소개 인문학의 세 번째 질문, “나는 어떻게 죽을 것인가?” 최재천, 김상근, 강영안, 황농문… 삶에 던져진 마지막 물음과 인문학에서 찾은 최후의 답! 인생에 관한 대단원의 물음, 나는 어떻게 죽을 것인가. 삶의 황폐화와 사회 가치의 퇴색, 현실 문제에 대한 근원적인 해결책의 부재로 현대인들은 인간과 삶, 죽음에 대한 근원적인 물음을 품기 시작했다. 그 물음 끝에 탄생한 『나는 어떻게 죽을 것인가』는 2015년 봄 플라톤 아카데미가 (...) 주최한 동명의 대중강연을 엮은 것으로, 누적 10만 명 이상 청중들의 열광적인 호응을 불러일으켰다. 1부에서 최재천, 황농문, 김애령, 김종성은 우리 삶의 영역 안에 이미 자리하고 있는 죽음의 본질을 드러내고 2부에서 김상근, 정재현, 강영안, 윤영호는 죽음을 의식하는 삶이 지닌 진정한 의미에 대해 이야기한다. 생태학자, 공학자, 철학자, 건축가, 신학자, 종교학자, 의학자 등 다양한 분야에서 섬세한 시각을 발휘하는 최고 학자 8인은 죽음을 냉철하면서도 따뜻한 시선으로 바라본다. 이를 통해 우리는 삶과 죽음이 그리 멀리 있지 않으며, 죽음에 대한 물음이 도달하는 자리가 결국 삶이라는 점을 깨닫게 된다. 죽음을 삶의 흐름이 가져오는 결과로 보든 고통스러운 삶으로부터의 해방으로 보든 죽음은 우리 삶의 영역 안에 자리하며, 궁극적으로 나를 나일 수 있게 하는 고유한 가치로 발현한다. ◎ 출판사 서평 우리는 어떻게 죽어야 할까? 아름다운 자연의 원리를 향한 8가지 용기 나는 누구인가, 어떻게 살 것인가, 어떻게 죽을 것인가. 현대인들이 잊고 살지만, 인생에서 가장 중요한 질문이다. 개인의 삶이 점점 황폐해지고 사회 가치가 희미해지는 요즘, 이러한 근원적인 물음은 우리 삶에 더욱 중요해졌다. ‘인간’을 탐구하고 ‘인생’을 공부하는 학문인 인문학 열풍이 거세진 것도 이와 같은 이유다. 그 물음 끝에 탄생한 『나는 어떻게 죽을 것인가』는 2015년 봄 플라톤 아카데미가 주최한 동명의 대중강연을 엮은 것으로, 누적 10만 명 이상 청중들의 열광적인 호응을 불러일으켰다. 마치 눈앞에서 듣는 것처럼 최재천, 김상근, 강영안, 황농문 등 이 시대를 대표하는 학자 8인이 전하는 삶의 지혜와 인문학적 통찰이 뜨거운 감동과 함께 생생하게 전해진다. 위대한 고전과 과학적 진실을 통해 삶과 죽음의 연속성을 이야기하며, 우리 일상에 맞닿은 사례들을 중심으로 죽음이 전하는 메시지를 깊이 있고 흥미롭게 해석했다. 독자들은 이 책을 통해 ‘나는 어떻게 죽을 것인가’라는 생의 마지막 물음에 잔잔한 해답을 얻을 수 있을 것이며, 삶과 죽음은 그 자체로 아름다운 자연의 원리임을 깨닫게 된다. 삶의 순간에 마주한 죽음 죽음의 숙고로 완성하는 삶 생태학자, 공학자, 철학자, 건축가, 신학자, 종교학자, 의학자 등 다양한 분야에서 섬세한 시각을 발휘하는 최고 학자 8인은 죽음을 냉철하면서도 따뜻한 시선으로 바라본다. 1부에서는 우리 삶의 영역 안에 이미 자리하고 있는 죽음의 본질이 드러난다. 원래 하나였던 자연과 인간이 공생하는 법을 알고 평안한 마음으로 살아가는 것이야 말로 아름다운 삶과 죽음을 맞이하는 자세임을 전한 최재천, 죽음을 온전히 의식하는 것이야말로 성숙한 삶을 위해 반드시 필요하다고 역설한 황농문, 받아들일 수밖에 없는 죽음을 인정하고 아름답게 사는 것이야말로 아름다운 죽음을 맞이하는 방법임을 이야기한 김애령, 삶을 오롯이 담고 있는 공간인 건축으로부터 죽음에 접근한 김종성을 통해 우리는 살아서는 절대 경험할 수 없는 죽음에 한 발짝 가까워진다. 2부에서는 죽음을 의식하는 삶의 진정한 의미에 대해 이야기한다. 죽음은 벽이 아닌 평화(Shalom)의 세계로 나아가는 문이라는 희망의 이야기를 담아낸 김상근, 죽음을 숙명과 해방의 대립 구도로 보는 것을 떠나 ‘유한한 초월’, 즉 삶 안에서 죽음을 발견해 남은 삶인 자신의 현재를 사랑하라고 말하는 정재현, 철학의 가장 중요한 임무인 멜레테 타나투, 즉 죽음에 대한 수련을 위해 현상학, 해석학, 윤리학의 시선으로 죽음을 분석한 강영안, 죽음을 절망이 아닌 희망의 순간으로 바꾸기 위해서는 의미 있는 삶을 살아야 한다는 윤영호를 통해 우리는 인간에게 허락된 유한의 시간 속에서 죽음이라는 불변의 진리를 맞이하는 법을 배운다. 이를 통해 우리는 삶과 죽음이 그리 멀리 있지 않으며, 죽음에 대한 물음이 도달하는 자리가 결국 삶이라는 점을 깨닫게 된다. ◎ 본문 중에서 오랫동안 생명에 대해 공부하면서 깨달은 점 중 하나는 지구에 존재하는 모든 생명은 하나의 공통적인 속성을 가지고 있다는 것입니다. 아이러니컬하게도 그것은 죽음입니다. ‘생명’의 가장 보편적인 속성이 바로 ‘죽음’이라는 것입니다. (21쪽) 죽음에 직면하면 온갖 자부심과 자만심, 수치스러움과 실패에 대한 두려움, 외부의 기대들이 모두 떨어져나갑니다. 그리고 진실로 중요한 것들만이 남습니다. (…) 살아 있음이 얼마나 소중한지를 알고 있기 때문입니다. (73쪽) 시간은 많은 것을 피어나게 하고 성장하게 하고 탄생하게 하고 변화하게 합니다. 또 많은 것을 파괴하고 해체하고 늙게 하고 낡게 하고 저물게 하고 죽게 합니다. (…) 인간의 시간은 존재론적인 결함이기도 하고, 유한한 자가 가지고 있는 무한한 슬픔이기도 합니다. (81쪽) 아름다운 삶은 고통이나 슬픔을 경험하지 않는 삶이 아니라 그 고통이나 슬픔을 어떻게 받아들이고 해석하고 이해하느냐를 통해 만들어가는 것입니다. 아름다운 삶은 결코 확신이나 확실성으로 가득 찬 삶이 아닙니다. 오히려 삶이 가지고 있는 그늘, 고통, 눈물, 불확실성, 연약함을 끌어안고 나아가는 것, 그것이 진정 아름다운 삶이라고 이야기할 수 있습니다. (106~107쪽) 이런 요소들이 갖춰질 때 건축물로서의 아름다움이 완성되어 제대로 빛을 발하게 됩니다. 우리의 삶 또한 이와 다르지 않다고 생각합니다. 그런 면에서 죽음 또한 우리 삶의 일부라고 말하고 싶습니다. 아름다운 삶이 있어야 아름다운 죽음이 있고, 그때 비로소 하나의 인생이 완성되는 것일 테니까요. (144쪽) 우연의 연속에 불과한 사다리 같은 인생을 살아가야 하는 우리. 그리고 그 운명이 다하면 우리는 죽음이라는 미지의 세계로 뛰어들어야 합니다. 죽음을 맞이한 우리는 그 미지의 세계를 향해 몸을 날려야 합니다. 그것이 우리 인간의 운명입니다. (163~164쪽) 예수는 분노하거나 화를 내는 것이 아니라 오히려 그들에게 평화를 기원합니다. 그것도 두 번씩이나 “샬롬”이라 고 외칩니다. 예수에게 죽음은 벽도 문도 아니었습니다. 후회와 분노를 넘어서는 평화의 길이었습니다. (187쪽) 우리의 본능은 죽음에 저항하며 삶과 죽음의 관계를 가능한 한 멀리 떼어놓으려 합니다. (…) 그런데 여기서 가장 심각한 것은 무엇보다도 삶의 바깥으로 내몰린 죽음이 오히려 삶을 일그러뜨린다는 점입니다. 그 문제를 극복하려는 노력은 곧 우리의 몫입니다. 그래서 바깥으로 내몰렸던 죽음을 삶 속으로 끌고 들어오는 새로운 시도가 필요합니다. (191쪽) 욕망으로 죽음을 덮어버리면 삶이 일그러지고 맙니다. (…) 이렇게 볼 때 죽음에 대한 생각은 삶을 더 풍요롭고 가치 있게 엮어내려는 노력입니다. 그래서 건강한 삶을 위해서는 삶에서 죽음을 보아야 합니다. 그리고 어떻게 하면 밀어냈던 죽음을 삶과 함께 엮어낼 수 있을지에 대해 지혜를 모아야 합니다. (196쪽) 우리의 몸을 이루고 있는 모든 세포들은 생성과 소멸의 과정을 거칩니다. (…) 말하자면 몸은 죽음을 받아들이면서 죽음을 살아가고 있는 것이지요. 몸을 이루고 있는 모든 세포들이 끊임없이 죽음으로써 몸 전체가 살아가는 생명의 역설을 우리 몸은 이미 실천해오고 있습니다. (209쪽) 죽지 않을 것처럼, 아직 죽지 않은 것처럼 살지 말고 이미 죽은 사람으로 살라는 것입니다. “죽음을 기억하라(Memento mori)!”는 말씀이 바로 이를 가리킵니다. 그렇게 되면 지금 사는 삶은 덤으로 사는 것입니다. 덤의 시간들, 순간들, 그것이 바로 지금입니다. 그래서 한마디로 추립니다: “자신의 현재를 사랑하라! Carpe diem!” (219쪽) 하이데거는 그 끝이 있기 때문에 오히려 내가 나 자신이 될 수 있다고 말합니다. 끝이 있으므로 해서 너와 나 구별도 없이 군중 속에 무리지어 사는 그런 삶이 아니라 비로소 누구와도 혼돈되지 않는 나 자신, 존재의 가능성을 발견하게 된다는 것입니다. 왜냐하면 그 죽음은 누구의 죽음도 아닌 나의 죽음이기 때문입니다. (246쪽) 우리가 진심으로 우리의 삶 자체를 내게 주어진 값진 선물이라 생각하고 감사한 마음으로 살아간다면, 죽음은 결코 두려움의 대상이 될 수 없을 뿐 아니라 삶이 정말로 살 만한 것이 되지 않을까 생각합니다. (253쪽) 만약에 우리가 우주라는 하나의 몸에 존재하는 세포라고 가정한다면 어떻게 될까요. 우리는 각자의 이기를 위해 존재하는 것이 아니라 우주라는 몸을 위해 서로 조화를 이루며 봉사하는 존재가 될 것입니다. (…) 서로 믿고 조화를 이루며 봉사하는 삶, 바로 이것이 의미 있는 삶이라고 생각합니다. (275~276쪽) 우리는 죽지 않기 위해 사는 것도 아니고, 죽지 못해 사는 것도 아닙니다. 죽기 위해 열심히 살아가는 것입니다. 의미 있는 삶을 살다가 아름답게 죽음을 마무리하는 것까지가 인생의 완성입니다. 나무는 죽어 새로운 생명으로 태어납니다. 다시 대지로 돌아간 우리 역시 어디선가 다른 생명으로 이어집니다. 죽음은 자연으로의 회귀이며 또 다른 시작입니다. (279쪽). (shrink)