Primary Texts and Translations

Note: Texts in this section are alphabetized according to the first name of later medieval Latin authors, according to scholarly convention. Hence “William of Ockham”, e.g., is listed in the Ws, not the Os.

• Adam Wodeham, “The Objects of Knowledge,” in The Cambridge Translations of Medieval Philosophical Texts, Volume 3: Mind and Knowldege, R. Pasnau (ed. and trans.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002, pp. 318–351. (Scholar)
• –––, Opera Theologica (10 vols.), G. Gál, et al. (eds.), Franciscan Institute, 1967–1988.
• Al-Ghazali, Al-Munqidh min adalal (Errerur et délivrance) (2^nd ed.), F. Jabre (ed. and trans.), Beirut: Commission Libanaise pour la Traduction des Chefes-d’oeuvres, 1969.
• –––, The Incoherence of thePhilosophers / Tahafut al-falasifa, a Parallel English-Arabic Text, M. E. Marmura (ed. and trans.), Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University Press, 1997.
• –––, “The Rescuer from Error”, in Medieval Islamic Philosophical Writings, M. A. Khalidi (trans.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005, pp. 59–98. (Scholar)
• Al-Haytham, The Optics of Ibn Al-Haytham (2 vols.), A. I. Sabra (ed. and trans.), London: The Warburg Insitute, 1989.
• –––, The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham, Books I-II-III: On Direct Vision. The Arabic text, edited and with Introduction, Arabic-Latin Glossaries and Concordance Tables, A. I. Sabra (ed.), Kuwait, National Council for Culture, Arts and Letters, 1983.
• –––, The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham, Books IV-V: On Reflection and Images Seen by Reflection (2 vols.), A. I. Sabra (ed.), Kuwait, National Council for Culture, Arts and Letters, 1983.
• Augustine, Against the Academicians and The Teacher, P. King (trans.), Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing, 1995.
• –––, On the Trinity, Books 8–15, G. Matthews (trans.), Cambridge University Press, 2002.
• –––, Opera Omnia, in Patrologiae Cursus Completus, Series Latina, J.-P. Migne (ed.), Paris: 1844–1864, vols. 32–47.
• Etienne Tempier, “Condemnation of 1277,” in Basic Issues in Medieval Philosophy (2^nd ed.), R. N. Bosley and M. M. Tweedale (eds.), Broadview Press, 2006, pp. 47–50. [Partial translation]. (Scholar)
• –––, “Condemnation of 1277,” in Siger de Brabant et l’averroïsme latin au XIIIeme siècle (2^nd ed.), P. Mandonnet (ed.), Institut Supérieur de Philosophie de L’Université de Louvain, 1908–1911, pp. 175–191. (Scholar)
• Henry of Ghent, “Can a Human Being Know Anything?” and “Can a Human Being Know Anything Without Divine Illumination?” in The Cambridge Translations of Medieval Philosophical Texts, Volume 3: Mind and Knowldege. R. Pasnau (ed. and trans.), Cambridge University Press, 2002, pp. 93–135. (Scholar)
• –––, Henrici de Gandavo Opera Omnia: Summa (Quaestiones Ordinariae), artt. I–V, G. A. Wilson (ed.), Leuven University Press, 2001.
• John Buridan, “John Buridan on Scientific Knowledge,” in Medieval Philosophy: Essential Readings with Commentary, G. Klima (ed.), Blackwell, 2007, pp. 143–150. (Scholar)
• –––, In Metaphysicen Aristotelis Questiones argutissimae (1588 ed.), reprinted as Kommentar zur Aristotelischen Metaphysik, Franfurt a. M.: Minerva, 1964.
• John Duns Scotus, “Concerning Human Knowledge,” in Duns Scotus: Philosophical Writings, A. Wolter (ed. and trans.), Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 1987, pp. 96–132. (Scholar)
• –––, Opera Omnia: Ordinatio (vols. I–XIV), Civitas Vaticana: Typis Polyglottis Vaticanis, 1950–2013.
• Nicholas of Autrecourt, Nicholas of Autrecourt, His Correspondence with Master Giles and Bernard of Arezzo. L. M. de Rijk (ed. and trans.), Leiden: Brill, 1994.
• Peter Aureol, “Intuition, Abstraction, and Demonstrative Knowledge,” in The Cambridge Translations of Medieval Philosophical Texts, Volume 3: Mind and Knowldege, R. Pasnau and C. Bolyard (trans.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002, pp. 178–218. (Scholar)
• –––, Scriptum super primum sententiarum (2 vols.), E. M. Buytaert (ed..), Franciscan Institute, 1952–1956.
• Siger de Brabant, Écrits de logique, de morale et de physique, Philosophes Médiévaux 14, B. C. Bazán (ed.), Louvain: Publications universitaires/Paris: Béatrice-Nauwelaerts, 1974.
• –––, Quaestiones in Metaphysicam, Philosophes Médiévaux 24, A. Mauer (ed.), Louvain: Publications universitaires/Paris: Béatrice-Nauwelaerts, 1983.
• –––, “Some Judgments Are To Be Trusted,” in Basic Issues in Medieval Philosophy (2^nd ed.), R. N. Bosley and M. M. Tweedale (eds.), Broadview Press, 2006, pp. 435–436. (Scholar)
• William Crathorn, “On the Impossibility of Infallible Knowledge,” in The Cambridge Translations of Medieval Philosophical Texts, Volume 3: Mind and Knowldege, R. Pasnau (ed. and trans.), Cambridge University Press, 2002, pp. 245–301. (Scholar)
• –––, Quästionen zum ersten Sentenzenbuch, F. Hoffman (ed.), in Beiträge zur Geschichte der Philosophie und Theologie des Mittelalters, NF 29, Münster: Aschendorff, 1988.
• William of Ockham, “Apparent Being,” in The Cambridge Translations of Medieval Philosophical Texts, Volume 3: Mind and Knowldege, R. Pasnau (ed. and trans.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002, pp. 219–244. (Scholar)
• –––, Opera Philosophica et Theologica (multiple vols.), Franciscan Institute, 1967–1989.

Secondary Sources

• Adams, M. M., 1987, William Ockham (2 vols.), Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press. (Scholar)
• Adriaenssen, H. T., 2017a, “Peter Auriol on the Inutitive Cognition of Nonexistents. Revisiting the Charge of Skepticism in Walter Chatton and Adam Wodeham,” Oxford Studies in Medieval Philosophy 5(1): 151–180. (Scholar)
• ––– (ed.), 2017b, Representation and Scepticism from Aquinas to Descartes, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Scholar)
• Beuchot, M., 2003, “Nicholas of Autrecourt,” in A Companion to Philosophy in the Middle Ages, J. E. Gracia and T. B. Noone (eds.), Blackwell, pp. 458–465. (Scholar)
• –––, 1996, “Some Traces of the Presence of Scepticism in Medieval Thought”, in Scepticism in the History of Philosophy, R. Popkin (ed.), Dordrecht: Kluwer Press, pp. 37–43. (Scholar)
• Bolyard, C., 2006, “Augustine, Epicurus, and External World Skepticism,” Journal of the History of Philosophy, 44(2): 157–168. (Scholar)
• –––, 2000, “Knowing Naturaliter: Auriol’s Propositional Foundations,” Vivarium, 38(1): 162–176. (Scholar)
• Brown, J. V., 1973, “Abstraction and the Object of the Human Intellect according to Henry of Ghent,” Vivarium, 11(1): 80–104. (Scholar)
• Burnyeat, M., 1982, “Idealism and Greek Philosophy: What Descartes Saw and Berkeley Missed,” The Philosophical Review, 91: 3–40. (Scholar)
• Côté, A., 2006, “Siger and the Skeptic,” Proceedings of the Society for Medieval Logic and Metaphysics, 6: 3–18. (Scholar)
• Curley, A. J., 1997, Augustine’s Critique of Skepticism, New York: Peter Lang Publishing. (Scholar)
• Davis, L. D., 1975, “The Intuitive Knowledge of Non-Existents and the Problem of Late Medieval Skepticism,” The New Scholasticism, 49(4): 410–430. (Scholar)
• Denery, D. G., II, 1998, “The Appearance of Reality: Peter Aureol and the Experience of Perceptual Error,” Franciscan Studies, 55: 27–52. (Scholar)
• Dutton, B., 2016, Augustine and Academic Skepticism: A Philosophical Study, Cornell: Cornell University Press. (Scholar)
• Fatoorchi, P., 2013, “On Intellectual Skepticism: A Selection of Skeptical Arguments and Tusi’s Criticisms, with Some Comparative Notes,” Philosophy East and West, 63(2): 213–250. (Scholar)
• Floridi, L., 2002, Sextus Empiricus: The Transmission and Recovery of Pyrrhonism, Oxford: Oxford University Press. (Scholar)
• Frede, M., 1988, “A Medieval Source of Modern Scepticism,” in Gedankenzeichen, Festschrift fur K. Oehler, Claussen and Daube-Schackat (eds.), Tubingen: Stauffenburg, pp. 67–70. (Scholar)
• Fuhrer, T., 1997, Augustin Contra Academicos (vel De Academicis), Bücher 2 und 3: Einleitung und Kommentar, Berlin: Walter De Gruyter. (Scholar)
• Gilson, E., 1986, Thomist Realism and the Critique of Knowledge, M. A. Wauck (trans.), San Francisco: Ignatius. (Scholar)
• Grellard, C., 2007, “Scepticism, Demonstration and the Infinite Regress Argument (Nicholas of Autrecourt and John Buridan),” Vivarium, 45(2–3): 328–342. (Scholar)
• –––, 2010, “Nicholas of Autrecourt’s Skepticism: The Ambivalence of Medieval Epistemology,”; in Rethinking the history of skepticism : the missing medieval background, H. Lagerlund (ed.), Leiden: Brill Publishing, pp. 119–144. (Scholar)
• Halevi, L., 2002, “The Theologian’s Doubts: Natural Philosophy and the Skeptical Games of Ghazali,” Journal of the History of Ideas, 63(1): 19–39. (Scholar)
• Haliva, R. (ed.), 2018, Scepticism and Anti-Scepticism in Medieval Jewish Philosophy and Thought, Berlin: De Gruyter. (Scholar)
• Heider, D., 2016, “The Notitia Intuitiva and Notitia Abstractiva
 of the External Senses in Second Scholasticism: Suárez, Poinsot and Francisco de Oviedo,” Vivarium, 54: 173–203. (Scholar)
• Hibbs, T. S., 1999, “Aquinas, Virtue, And Recent Epistemology,” Review of Metaphysics, 52(3): 573–594. (Scholar)
• Inwood, B. and Mansfield, J. (eds.), 1997, Assent and Argument: Studies in Cicero’s Academic Books, Leiden: Brill Publishing. (Scholar)
• Ivry, A., 2008, “Guide 2:24 and All That (i)jâza,” Aleph: Historical Studies in Science and Judaism, 8: 237–246. (Scholar)
• Jenkins, J. I., 1997, Knowledge and Faith in Thomas Aquinas, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Scholar)
• Karger, E., 2010, “A Buridanian Response to a Fourteenth Century Skeptical Argument and its Rebuttal by a New Argument in the Early Sixteenth Century,” in Rethinking the history of skepticism : the missing medieval background, H. Lagerlund (ed.), Leiden: Brill Publishing, pp. 215–233. (Scholar)
• –––, 2004, “Ockham and Wodeham on Divine Deception As a Skeptical Hypothesis,” Vivarium, 42(2): 225–236. (Scholar)
• Kennedy, L. A., 1985, “Late-Fourteenth-Century Philosophical Scepticism at Oxford,” Vivarium, 23(2): 124–151. (Scholar)
• –––, 1983 “Philosophical Scepticism in England in the Mid-Fourteenth Century,” Vivarium, 21(1): 35–57. (Scholar)
• Klima, G., 2010, “The Anti-Skepticism of John Buridan and Thomas Aquinas: Putting Skeptics in Their Place versus Stopping Them in Their Tracks,” in Rethinking the history of skepticism : the missing medieval background, H. Lagerlund (ed.), Leiden: Brill Publishing, pp. 145–170. (Scholar)
• –––, 2004, “The Demonic Temptations of Medieval Nominalism: Mental Representation and ‘Demon Skepticism’,” Proceedings of the Society for Medieval Logic and Metaphysics, 4: 37–44. (Scholar)
• Kogan, B. S., 2003, “Judah Halevi and his use of philosophy in the Kuzari,” in The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Jewish Philosophy, D. Frank and O. Leaman (eds.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 111–135. (Scholar)
• Kukkonen, T., 2010, “Al-Ghazali’s Skepticism Revisited,” in Rethinking the history of skepticism : the missing medieval background, H. Lagerlund (ed.), Leiden: Brill Publishing, pp. 29–60. (Scholar)
• Lagerlund, H., 2010a, Rethinking The History of Skepticism: The Missing Medieval Background, Leiden: Brill Publishing. (Scholar)
• –––, 2010b, “Skeptical Issues in Commentaries on Aristotle’s Posterior Analytics: John Buridan and Albert of Saxony,” in Rethinking the history of skepticism : the missing medieval background, H. Lagerlund (ed.), Leiden: Brill Publishing, pp. 193–232. (Scholar)
• MacDonald, S., 1993, “Theory of Knowledge,” in The Cambridge Companion to Aquinas, N. Kretzmann and E. Stump (eds.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 160–95. (Scholar)
• Machuca, D. E., and B. Reed (eds.), 2018, Skepticism: From Antiquity to the Present, New York: Bloomsbury Academic. (Scholar)
• Maier A., 1967, “Das Problem der Evidenz in der Philosophie des 14. Jahrhunderts”, Scholastik, 38 (1963): 183–225; reprinted in Ausgehendes Mittelalter II, Rome, Edizione di Storia e Letteratura, pp. 367–418. (Scholar)
• Marrone, S. P., 1985, Truth and Scientific Knowledge in the Thought of Henry of Ghent, The Medieval Academy of America. (Scholar)
• Matthews, G., 1977, “Consciousness and Life,” Philosophy, 52: 13–26. (Scholar)
• –––, 2001, “Knowledge and Illumination,” in The Cambridge Companion to Augustine, E. Stump and N. Kretzmann (eds.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 171–185. (Scholar)
• –––, 1992, Thought’s Ego in Augustine and Descartes, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. (Scholar)
• Nash, R., 1969, The Light of the Mind: St. Augustine’s Theory of Knowledge, Lexington, KY: The University Press of Kentucky. (Scholar)
• O’Daly, G., 1987, Augustine’s Philosophy of Mind, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. (Scholar)
• –––, 2001, “The Response to Skepticism and Mechanisms of Cognition,” in The Cambridge Companion to Augustine, E. Stump and N. Kretzmann (eds.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 159–170. (Scholar)
• Panaccio, C. and D. Piché, 2010, “Ockham’s Reliabilism and the Intuition of Non-Existents,” in Rethinking the history of skepticism : the missing medieval background, H. Lagerlund (ed.), Leiden: Brill Publishing, pp. 97–118. (Scholar)
• Pasnau, R., 1995, “Henry of Ghent and the Twilight of Divine Illumination,” Review of Metaphysics, 49: 49–75. (Scholar)
• –––, 1997, Theories of Cognition in the Later Middle Ages, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Scholar)
• Perler, D., 2010, “Does God Deceive Us? Skeptical Hypotheses in Late Medieval Epistemology,” in Rethinking the history of skepticism : the missing medieval background, H. Lagerlund (ed.), Leiden: Brill Publishing, pp. 171–192. (Scholar)
• –––, 1994, “What am I Thinking About? John Duns Scotus and Peter Aureol on Intentional Objects,” Vivarium, 32: 72–89. (Scholar)
• –––, 2006, Zweifel und Gewissheit: Skeptische Debatten im Mittellalter, Frankfurt am Main: Vittorio Klostermann. (Scholar)
• Pickavé, M., 2010, “Henry of Ghent and John Duns Scotus on Skepticism and the Possibility of Naturally Acquired Knowledge,” in Rethinking the history of skepticism : the missing medieval background, H. Lagerlund (ed.), Leiden: Brill Publishing, pp. 61–96. (Scholar)
• Popkin, R. H., 2003, The History of Scepticism from Savonarola to Bayle, Oxford: Oxford University Press. (Scholar)
• Porro, P., 1994, “Il Sextus latinus e l’imagine dello scetticismo antico nel medioevo,” Elenchos, 2: 229–253. (Scholar)
• Sagal, P. T., 1982, “Skepticism in Medieval Philosophy: A Perspective,” The Philosophical Forum, 14(1): 80–92 (Scholar)
• Schmitt, C. B., 1972, Cicero Scepticus: A Study of the Influence of the Academica in the Renaissance, The Hague: Martinus Nifhoff. (Scholar)
• Tachau, K., 1988, Vision and Certitude in the Age of Ockham, Leiden: Brill Publishing. (Scholar)
• Thijssen, J.M.M.H., 2000, “The Quest for Certain Knowledge in the Fourteenth Century: Nicholas Autrecourt against the Academics,” in Ancient Scepticism and the Sceptical Tradition, J. Sihvola (ed.), Acta Philosophica Fennica, 66: 1999–2023. (Scholar)
• van Ess, J., 1972, “Scepticism in Islamic Religious Thought,” in God and Man in Contemporary Islamic Thought, C. Malik (ed.), Beirut: American University of Beirut, pp. 83–98. (Scholar)
• Wittwer, R., 2016, “Sextus Empiricus’ Outlines of Pyrrhonism in the Middle Ages,” Vivarium, 54(4): 255–285. (Scholar)
• Wolfson, H. A., 1969, “Nicolaus of Autrecourt and Ghazali’s Argument against Causality,” Speculum, 44: 234–238. (Scholar)
• Wood, R., 2003, “Adam of Wodeham,” in A Companion to Philosophy in the Middle Ages, J. E. Gracia and T. B. Noone (eds.), Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 77–85. (Scholar)
• Zupko, J., 1993, “Buridan and Skepticism,” Journal of the History of Philosophy, 31: 191–221. (Scholar)
• –––, 2003, John Buridan: Portrait of a Fourteenth-Century Arts Master, Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press. (Scholar)