Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

The Impact of Islamic Feminism in Empowering Women’s Entrepreneurship in Conflict Zones: Evidence from Afghanistan, Iraq and Palestine

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Business Ethics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The impact of Islam upon women’s entrepreneurship in conflict zones is woefully absent from the entrepreneurship literature. This is due to the absence of published scholarship about this context rather than the absence of Muslim women’s entrepreneurship there. To address the gap in the literature, we offer a contextualized analysis and contribution by adopting an Islamic feminism lens and explore how Islamic feminism empowers women entrepreneurs and their entrepreneurial activities and behaviours in conflict zones. We argue that Islamic feminism is a process of ‘ijtihad’ shaping the business ethics of Muslim women entrepreneurs operating in conflict zones and removing the traditional, patriarchal, colonial and other cultural layers with which Islam has been veiled. The findings from the 16 Muslim women entrepreneurs operating in Afghanistan, Iraq and Palestine and participating in our study reveal that Islamic religiousness plays a critical role in shaping the Muslim women’s entrepreneurial behaviour and their ability to endure the hardships of living in a conflict zone. Within all three research contexts, the participants interpreted and practiced their Islamic religiousness in ways consistent with Islamic Feminism principles and that deviated from patriarchal Islam dominating their conflict zones. This paper contributes to the growing research areas on Islamic feminist foundations for business ethics and women’s entrepreneurship in conflict zones by exploring how Islamic feminism empowers women entrepreneurs in Muslim conflict zones.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abu-Lughod, L. (2013). Do Muslim women need saving? Harvard University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Acker, J., Barry, K., & Esseveld, J. (1983). Objectivity and truth: Problems in doing feminist research. Women’s Studies International Forum, 6(4), 423–435.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Adisa, T., Abdulraheem, I., & Isiaka, S. (2019). Patriarchal hegemony: Investigating the impact of patriarchy on women’s work-life balance. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 34(1), 19–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmed, L. (1991). Women and gender and Islam. Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ahmed-Ghosh, H. (2013). A history of women in Afghanistan: Lessons learnt for the future or yesterdays and tomorrow: Women in Afghanistan. Journal of International Women’s Studies, 4(3), 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Al-Dajani, H., & Marlow, S. (2013). Empowerment and entrepreneurship: A theoretical framework. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research, 19(5), 503–524.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Dajani, H., Carter, S., Shaw, E., & Marlow, S. (2015). Entrepreneurship among the displaced and dispossessed: Exploring the limits of emancipatory entrepreneuring. British Journal of Management, 26(4), 713–730.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Dajani, H., Akbar, H., Carter, S., & Shaw, E. (2019). Defying contextual embeddedness: Evidence from displaced women entrepreneurs in Jordan. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 31(3–4), 198–212.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alexander, A., & Welzel, Ch. (2011). Islam and patriarchy: How robust is Muslim support for patriarchal values? International Review of Sociology, 21(2), 249–276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Hibri, A. (1997). Islam, law and custom: Redefining Muslim women’s rights. American University Journal of International Law and Policy, 12(1), 1–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ali, A., & Al-Owaihan, A. (2008). Islamic work ethic: A critical review. Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal, 15(1), 5–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alkhaled, S., & Berglund, K. (2018). ‘And now I’m free’: Women’s empowerment and emancipation through entrepreneurship in Saudi Arabia and Sweden. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 30(7–8), 877–900.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Sharmani, M. (2014). Islamic Feminism: Transnational and national reflections. Approaching Religion, 4(2), 83–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Althalathini, D., Al-Dajani, H., & Apostolopoulos, N. (2020). Navigating Gaza’s conflict through women’s entrepreneurship. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 12(4), 297–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Audretsch, D., Bönte, W., & Tamvada, J. (2013). Religion, social class, and entrepreneurial choice. Journal of Business Venturing, 28(6), 774–789.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Badran, M. (1986). Islam, patriarchy, and feminism in the Middle East. Trends in History, 4(1), 49–71

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Badran, M. (2009). Feminism in Islam: Secular and religious convergences. Oneworld.

    Google Scholar 

  • Balog, A., Baker, L., & Walker, A. (2014). Religiosity and spirituality in entrepreneurship: A review and research agenda. Journal of Management, Spirituality and Religion, 11(2), 159–186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bandiera, L., Chandra, V., Fosque, J., & von der Goltz, J. (2019). Jobs in Iraq: A primer on job creation in the short-term. World Bank.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Barlas, A. (2002). Believing women in Islam: Unreading patriarchal interpretations of the Quran. University of Texas Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barlas, A. (2008). Engaging Islamic feminism: Provincializing feminism as a master narrative. In A. Kynsilehto (Ed.), Islamic feminism: Current perspectives (pp. 15–24). Tampere Peace Research Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bastian, B., Sidani, Y., & El-Amine, Y. (2018). Women entrepreneurship in the Middle East and North Africa: A review of knowledge areas and research gaps. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 33(1), 14–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beekun, R., & Badawi, J. (2005). Balancing ethical responsibility among multiple organization stakeholders: The Islamic perspective. Journal of Business Ethics, 60, 131–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bentzen, J. (2020). In crisis, we pray: Religiosity and the COVID-19 pandemic. CEPR Discussion Paper No. DP14824.

  • Boros, R. (2008). Afghan women entrepreneurs: At the crossroads between globalisation and local traditions. International Journal of Business and Globalisation, 2(4), 373.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3, 77–101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bullough, A., & Renko, M. (2017). A different frame of reference: Entrepreneurship and gender differences in the perception of danger. Academy of Management Discoveries, 3(1), 21–41

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bush, S. (2011). International politics and the spread of quotas for women in legislatures. International Organization, 65, 103–137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Central Intelligence Agency. (2020). The World Factbook https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/401.html. Accessed 7 October 2020.

  • Central Statistics Organization. (2018). Afghanistan living conditions survey 2016–17. Kabul.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chant, S. (2014). Exploring the “feminisation of poverty” in relation to women’s work and home-based enterprise in slums of the Global South. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 6(3), 296–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, C., Everson-Rose, S., Suglia, S., & Hajyahia, M. (2010). Association between exposure to political violence and intimate partner violence in the occupied Palestinian territory: A cross-sectional study. The Lancet, 375, 310–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dana, L. (2010). Entrepreneurship and religion. Edward Elgar.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Daou, A., Joseph, J., Yousif, D., Fathallah, R., & Reyes, G. (2019). Intellectual capital and resilience in torn societies. Journal of Intellectual Capital, 20(4), 598–618.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, M. (2013). Entrepreneurship: An Islamic perspective. International Journal Entrepreneurship and Small Business, 20(1), 63–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Vita, L., Mari, M., & Poggesi, S. (2014). Women entrepreneurs in and from developing countries: Evidences from the literature. European Management Journal, 32(3), 451–460.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deakin, H., & Wakefield, K. (2014). Skype interviewing: Reflections of two PhD researchers. Qualitative Research, 14(5), 603–616.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dinç, A. (2012). Immediate economic history of Iraq: Effects of the recent global crisis on the oil sector of Northern Iraq. Management, 7(2), 155–171.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dodd, S., & Gotsis, G. (2007). The interrelationships between entrepreneurship and religion. The International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation, 8(2), 93–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Du, H., & Chi, P. (2016). War, worries, and religiousness. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 7(5), 1–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dy, A., Marlow, S., & Martin, L. (2017). A Web of opportunity or the same old story? Women digital entrepreneurs and intersectionality theory. Human Relations, 70(3), 286–311.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Esposito, J. L. (1975). Women’s rights in Islam. Islamic Studies, 14(2), 99–114.

    Google Scholar 

  • Essers, C., & Benschop, Y. (2009). Muslim businesswomen doing boundary work: The negotiation of Islam, gender and ethnicity within entrepreneurial contexts. Human Relations, 62(3), 403–423.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fish, M. S. (2002). Islam and authoritarianism. World Politics, 55, 4–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Giménez, D., & Calabrò, A. (2017). The salient role of institutions in Women’s entrepreneurship: A critical review and agenda for future research. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 14(4), 857–882.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gioia, D., Corley, K., & Hamilton, A. (2013). Seeking qualitative rigor in inductive research: Notes on the Gioia methodology. Organizational Research Methods, 16(1), 15–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glas, S., Spierings, N., & Scheepers, P. (2018). Re-Understanding Religion and Support for Gender Equality in Arab Countries. Gender & Society, 32(5), 686–712.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gleditsch, N., & Rudolfsen, I. (2016). Are Muslim countries more prone to violence? Research & Politics, 3(2), 1–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grau, B. (2016). Supporting women’s movements in Afghanistan: Challenges of activism in a fragile context. Gender & Development, 24(3), 409–426.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gümüsay, A. (2014). Entrepreneurship from an Islamic perspective. Journal of Business Ethics, 130(1), 199–208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gursoy, D., Altinay, L., & Kenebayeva, A. (2017). Religiosity and entrepreneurship behaviours. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 67, 87–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hafez, S. (2019). The Tour-de-Force scholarship of Saba Mahmood. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 87(4), 982–989.

    Google Scholar 

  • Halstead, J. (2007). Islamic values: A distinctive framework for moral education? Journal of Moral Education, 36(3), 283–286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Helmke, G., & Levitsky, S. (2004). Informal institutions and comparative politics: A research agenda. Perspectives on Politics, 2(04), 725–740.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henry, C., Foss, L., & Ahl, H. (2016). Gender and entrepreneurship research: A review of methodological approaches. International Small Business Journal, 34(3), 217–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hiltermann, J. (2019). The MENA region’s intersecting crises: What next? Global Policy, 10(2), 29–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holmén, M., Min, T., & Saarelainen, E. (2011). Female entrepreneurship in Afghanistan. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 16(3), 307–331.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ibarra-Colado, E. (2006). Organization studies and epistemic coloniality in Latin America: Thinking otherness from the margins. Organization, 13, 463–488.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ILO. (2018). Constraints and good practice in women’s entrepreneurship in MENA. International Labour Office, Impact Report Series, Issue 10. Geneva.

  • Inglehart, R., & Norris, P. (2003). The true clash of civilizations. Foreign Policy Magazine, 34(2), 67–74

    Google Scholar 

  • International Labour Organization. (2019). ILOSTAT database. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.CACT.FE.ZS?locations=1A-PS. Accessed 21 June 2020.

  • Ismaeel, M., & Blaim, K. (2012). Toward applied Islamic business ethics: Responsible halal business. Journal of Management Development, 31(10), 1090–1100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, T., & Vriens, L. (2013). Islam: Governing under Sharia. Council on Foreign Relations. www.cfr.org/religion/islam-governing-undersharia/p8034. Accessed 7 October 2020.

  • Kalemci, R., & Kalemci Tuzun, I. (2017). Understanding Protestant and Islamic work ethic studies: A content analysis of articles. Journal of Business Ethics, 158, 999–1008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kausar, Z. (2014). Battle of books! Diverse trends in Muslim thought on women’s issues: Need bias cleansing. Journal of International Women Studies, 15(2), 165–181.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kayed, R., & Hassan, M. (2010). Islamic entrepreneurship: A case study of Saudi Arabia. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 15(4), 379–413.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koburtay, T., Syed, J., & Haloub, R. (2018). Implications of religion, culture, and legislation for gender equality at work: Qualitative insights from Jordan. Journal of Business Ethics, 164(3), 421–436.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kock, U., Sumlinski, M., & Qassis, H. (2012). West Bank and Gaza: Labor market trends, growth and unemployment. International Monetary Fund.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuckartz, U. (2014). Basic concepts and the process of qualitative text analysis. In U. Kuckartz (Ed.), Qualitative text analysis. A guide to methods, practice and using software (pp. 37–64). SAGE Publications.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Le Miere, J. (2017). Countries at War Right Now: US, Russia Lead List Of Nations Involved in Conflicts, International Business Times. Available Online https://www.ibtimes.com/countries-war-right-now-us-russia-lead-list-nations-involved-conflicts-2495501. Accessed 18 October 2020.

  • Lorde, A. (1984). The master’s tools will never dismantle the master’s house. In S. Mann & A. Paterson (Eds.) (2016), Reading Feminist theory from modernity to postmodernity. Oxford University Press.

  • Marlow, S., & Swail, J. (2014). Gender, risk and finance: Why can’t a woman be more like a man? Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 26(1–2), 80–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Menon, N., & Rodgers, Y. (2015). War and women’s work: Evidence from the conflict in Nepal. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 59(1), 51–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mernissi, F. (1987). Beyond the veil: Male–female dynamics in a modern Muslim Society. Indiana University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Metcalfe, B. (2008). Women, management and globalization in the Middle East. Journal of Business Ethics, 83(1), 85–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miles, M., & Huberman, A. (1994). Qualitative data analysis. (2nd ed.). Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mimouni, F. (2010). Implications of Islam on management theory and practice: A case study of two organizations in the Middle East. Lambert Academic Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mir-Hosseini, Z. (2006). Muslim women’s quest for equality: Between Islamic law and feminism. Critical Inquiry, 32(4), 629–645.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moghadam, V. (2003). Modernizing women: Gender and social change in the Middle East. Lynne Rienner Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muhanna, A. (2013). Agency and gender in Gaza masculinity, femininity and family during the second intifada. Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nielsen, J. (2019). Feminist research methods: Exemplary readings in the social sciences. Routledge.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Pew Research Center. (2017). Christians remain world’s largest religious group, but they are declining in Europe. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/05/christians-remain-worlds-largest-religious-group-but-they-are-declining-in-europe/. Accessed 15 January 2020.

  • Possumah, B., Ismali, A., & Shahimi, S. (2013). Bringing work back in Islamic ethics. Journal of Business Ethics, 112(2), 257–270.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pratt, M. (2009). From the editors: For the lack of a boilerplate: Tips on writing up (and reviewing) qualitative research. Academy of Management Journal, 52(5), 856–862.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ritchie, H. (2016). Unwrapping institutional change in fragile settings: Women entrepreneurs driving institutional pathways in Afghanistan. World Development, 83, 39–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sabella, A., & El-Far, M. (2019). Entrepreneuring as an everyday form of resistance: An exploration of the experiences of Palestinian women street vendors in the occupied Old City of Jerusalem. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 25(6), 1212–1235.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sa’di, A., & Abu-Lughod, L. (2007). Nakba: Palestine, 1948, and the Claims of Memory. Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Samaroo, D. (2018). The political participation of Palestinian women in official and non-official organizations in limited horizon. ICSR Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saroglou, V. (2002). Religion and the five factors of personality: A meta-analytic review. Personality and Individual Differences, 32(1), 15–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seedat, F. (2013). Islam, feminism, and Islamic feminism: Between inadequacy and inevitability. Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion, 29(2), 25–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sharan, T., & Wimpelmann, T. (2014). Women’s rights and political representation: Past achievements and future challenges. PRIO Paper. Oslo: PRIO.

  • Syed, J., & Metcalfe, B. (2015). Guest Editors’ Introduction: In Pursuit of Islamic akhlaq of business and development. Journal of Business Ethics, 129(4), 763–767.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Syed, J., & Van Buren, H. (2014). Global business norms and Islamic views of women’s employment. Business Ethics Quarterly, 24(2), 251–276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Temple, B., & Young, A. (2004). Qualitative research and translation dilemmas. Qualitative Research, 4(2), 161–178.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ter Haar, G. (2011). Religion and development. C. Hurst and Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tlaiss, H. (2015). How Islamic business ethics impact women entrepreneurs: Insights from four Arab Middle Eastern countries. Journal of Business Ethics, 129(4), 859–877.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tlaiss, H., & McAdam, M. (2020). Unexpected lives: The intersection of Islam and Arab women’s entrepreneurship. Journal of Business Ethics.

  • Tracey, P. (2012). Religion and organization: A critical review of current trends and future directions. The Academy of Management Annals, 6(1), 87–134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Transparency International. (2020). Corruption Perceptions Index 2019. https://images.transparencycdn.org/images/2019_CPI_Report_EN_200331_141425.pdf. Accessed 7 October 2020.

  • Treanor, L., & Marlow, S. (2019). Paws for thought? Analysing how prevailing masculinities constrain career progression for UK women veterinary surgeons. Human Relations, 74(1), 105–130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Uygur, S. (2009). The Islamic work ethic and the emergence of Turkish SME owner-managers. Journal of Business Ethics, 88(1), 211–225.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Nes, F., Abma, T., Jonsson, H., & Deeg, D. (2010). Language differences in qualitative research: Is meaning lost in translation? European Journal of Ageing, 7(4), 313–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vilardo, V., & Bittar, S. (2018). Country gender profile—Iraq: A situation analysis on gender equality and women’s empowerment in Iraq. Research report, Oxfam and UN Women Iraq.

  • Wadud, A. (2006). Inside the gender Jihad: Women’s reform in Islam. One World.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wellalage, N. H., Locke, S., & Samujh, H. (2019). Corruption, gender and credit constraints: Evidence from South Asian SMEs. Journal of Business Ethics, 159(1), 267–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Welter, F. (2020). Contexts and gender—Looking back and thinking forward. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 12(1), 27–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wildeman, J., & Tartir, A. (2014). Unwilling to change, determined to fail: Donor aid in occupied Palestine in the aftermath of the Arab uprisings. Mediterranean Politics, 19(3), 431–449

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • World Bank. (2011). World Development report 2011: Conflict, security and development. World Bank.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Zelekha, Y., Avnimelech, G., & Sharabi, E. (2014). Religious institutions and entrepreneurship. Small Business Economics, 42(4), 747–767.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK

    Doaa Althalathini

  2. Mohammed Bin Salman College for Business and Entrepreneurship, King Abdullah Economic City, Saudi Arabia

    Haya Al-Dajani

  3. Neapolis University Paphos, Paphos, Cyprus

    Nikolaos Apostolopoulos

Authors
  1. Doaa Althalathini
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Haya Al-Dajani
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Nikolaos Apostolopoulos
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Haya Al-Dajani.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Althalathini, D., Al-Dajani, H. & Apostolopoulos, N. The Impact of Islamic Feminism in Empowering Women’s Entrepreneurship in Conflict Zones: Evidence from Afghanistan, Iraq and Palestine. J Bus Ethics 178, 39–55 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-021-04818-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-021-04818-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation