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Information and the Internet: An Analysis from the Perspective of the Science of the Artificial

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Abstract

This paper provides a novel philosophical approach to the role of information on the internet. The link information-internet is analyzed from the perspective of the sciences of the artificial, to highlight aspects of this field that Herbert Simon did not consider. The analysis follows three steps: (1) the study of the development of Artificial Intelligence as the support of internet for communication processes. This analysis is made to clarify the new communicative designs. (2) The role creativity in the new communication designs is studied. In this regard, there is an interplay between the scientific creativity of human beings making designs and technological innovation of information and communication technologies. (3) The consideration of the transverse and longitudinal novelty that exist in the types of digital communication. They are based on AI built up as a science of the artificial. These types of novelty depend on the interaction between scientific creativity and technological innovation. A central aim of this paper on communication sciences from the perspective of sciences of design is to overcome Simon´s theoretical schemes. His view is mainly focused on structural complexity (holistic complexity and near decomposability). But communicative designs of the internet phenomena require the dynamic complexity. In addition, communication on the internet is based on an internal-external duality, which goes beyond Simon’s approach on the artificial. Thus, the analysis takes into account the new types of communication (such as social networks) and their different levels (micro, meso, and macro).

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Notes

  1. Herbert Simon made important contributions to the sciences of the artificial. In this regard, Simon’s famous book (1996) should be highlighted. But, since its publication, there has been a striking expansion in the relationship between information and the internet.

  2. “The internet is the most revolutionary phenomenon in the history of ICT since the diffusion of personal computers in the 1970s. It is a basic technological change not in the sense that is simple or independent of other previous technology, as the Wheel was, but because it lays the foundation for a number of other economic, technological and social transformations, as the steam engine or the telephone did.” (Floridi 1999, p. 54).

  3. About the relations between scientific creativity and technological innovation, see Gonzalez (2013, pp. 11–40).

  4. See Dasgupta (2003, pp. 683–707).

  5. Simon (2002, pp. 587–599).

  6. Alasdair Urquhart has addressed the issue of complexity related to Artificial Intelligence. He refers both to complexity strictly speaking (“the theory of computational complexity”) and in a wide sense (“complexity theory”) that includes work on complex dynamics systems, among others. See Urquhart (2004, pp. 18–27).

  7. Among the most notorious cases of creativity of communicative design on the internet, which have favored by the technological support, are the origins and evolution of Facebook at Harvard University and Snapchat at Stanford University. See Bell (2016a, b).

  8. Cf. Franklin (2014, pp. 15–33); especially, pp. 24–27.

  9. The theory of computational complexity is based on the resources a computer need to solve a problem in terms of time (number of steps in computation) and space (amount of memory used). Cf. Urquhart (2004, pp. 18–27).

  10. Luciano Floridi established precisely as key elements for the success of the internet, among others, the following ones: “the availability and spread of ever-increasing and ever-cheaping computing power; the constant growth of the number of digital resources available online; the improvement of more reliable and cheaper ways of communication; a growing mass of users.” See Floridi (1999, p. 58.)

  11. When in 2004 Charles Ess addressed communication between intelligent agents through computers and networks, he said that such interaction requires an interface design (an Artificial Intelligence) to enable communication between man and machine. Cf. Ess (2004, pp. 76–91), especially p. 77.

  12. On the distinction between "design" and "scientific design", see Niiniluoto (1993, pp. 1–21); especially pp. 9–11; and Gonzalez (2007, pp. 41–69).

  13. The term "scientification" comes from Niiniluoto, within the framework of the Science of Design, Cf. Niiniluoto (1993).

  14. On the relationship between prediction and prescription, see Simon (1990). For other aspects of the link, cf. Gonzalez (1998, pp. 321–345).

  15. On the scientific status of the applied sciences of design, based on the role of rationality and prediction, see Gonzalez (2008b, pp. 165–186).

  16. The diversity of modes of the complexity of Rescher (1998, p. 9), both epistemological and ontological, is very useful to deepen the structural complexity of communication sciences.

  17. Cf. Rescher (1995, pp. 60–62).

  18. See, for example, Crutchfield and Van Nimwegen (1995, pp. 10742–10746); and Kryssanov et al. (2005).

  19. Cf. Gonzalez (2008c, pp. 3–59).

  20. Cf. Gonzalez (2011, pp. 39–62).

  21. These constituent elements of science are analyzed in Gonzalez (2005, pp. 3–49).

  22. About new forms of communicative relationship in mobility see Castells et al. (2007), Goggin (2006, 2012), Ito et al. (2010), Baron (2008), and Bull (2007, 2015).

  23. This approach of "real/actual and potential/future" connects with the proposal Alasdair Urquhart, when from a philosophical point of view distinguishes “between objects that exist in the purely mathematical sense (such as the Turing machine that succeeds art he imitation game), and devices that are physically constructible,” Urquhart (2004, p. 27).

  24. On the taxonomy of micro, meso, and macro in the case of the economy, see Dopfer (2004, pp. 263–279); and Lijenström and Svedin (2005).

  25. Public and private institutions now have at their fingertips information that was impossible to access the analog era, or at least tough for workload, costs and time. See Bhargava (2009).

  26. See examples as AIDR platform, a platform that helps filter automatically sorts rumors and the most relevant tweets that occur in cases of human crises, such as in the MH370 disappearance and the 2014 Chile earthquake. Imran et al. (2014).

  27. The media can extract accurate databases or information generated by its target audience through social networking information. With that information, media can know what people think, trends, tastes, needs, and expectations of their audience. This makes it possible to adapt the editorial line or the approach to the news, or recommend specific content. See Reeves (2016, pp. 150–165); Wang and Ye (2009).

  28. News content generated by citizens also introduce tensions and problems in the system that need to be controlled and resolved. See Valcke et al. (2010, pp. 119–131).

  29. In March 2014 Los Angeles Times was the first newspaper in the world to give the news of an earthquake that had occurred in California. The piece of news was not written by any journalist. A machine reported it without human intervention. Journalist and programmer Ken Schwencke was responsible for creating the algorithm that is capable of generating a short article when an earthquake occurs in less than 3 min. The program watched for alerts from the U.S. Geological Survey. Its Institute monitors seismic activity around the world and generates automatically Mad Libs-style stories from the Organization’s data. See Claiborne et all. (2015, p. 42).

    They continue developing and designing specific algorithms to report on crime stories and to generate sports news. See Young and Hermida (2015, pp. 381–397), especially p. 384; BBC World (2014), and Oremus (2014).

  30. This taxonomy can be completed with Floridi’s taxonomy. Given the diversity of communication actions that can be performed and the network, he identifies the type of communicative actions in the network, depending on the technological applications: “(1) Remote control of other computers via telnet; (2) File transfer protocol (FTP); (3) Running applications over the Web; (4) Various forms of electronic mail Exchange; (5) Publication and consultation of Web pages and other information services available online.” Floridi (1999, pp. 67–68).

  31. “Thus, the emoticons make up a semiotic system of their own, whose function is not metalinguistic but metacommunicative, since their role is not to ‘speak about what is said’ but to modify its meaning. As far as they try to reproduce extralinguistic factors occurring in any oral communication, they are comparable to prosodic features accompanying spoken words, such as nasalization, voice pitch, intonation, etc.” Floridi (1999, p. 72).

  32. See Floridi’s classification in Floridi (1999, pp. 70–71).

  33. Forums or discussion groups can be public, protected or private.

  34. Corporate intranets and extranets have changed relationships and forms of communication: (i) between the company and employees; (ii) employees each other; (iii) between the company and customers or related companies; and (iv) employees with customers or employees of related companies.

  35. An example is the movement called "Arab Spring," which gave alternative information through social networks.

  36. It allows the entry of more sectorized types of information (eg. academic information through Academia.edu), which coexists with other information.

  37. Sometimes, they force mainstream media to report matters that were not foreseen.

  38. This is the case of YouTube. It can be considered a social network with a primary content of videos. It can also be seen as a new type of television, which arises in the specific environment of the internet. At the same time, conventional broadcasters have their channels on YouTube. A novel phenomenon occurs, professionals in the analog environment share platform with individual users, in order to distribute audiovisual content that complement and feed produced.

  39. An international company (e.g., Coca–Cola) can have a global communication strategy with a campaign through television, but it wants to particularize it in each of the territories. This forces geographically restrict access to online content.

  40. On the term "glocalization," see Robertson (1995). “Time–space and homogeneity-heterogeneity”. In Featherstone et al. pp. 25–44; Wellman (2002, pp. 10–25).

  41. In this interdependence between predictions and prescriptions in communication sciences, there are similarities with other sciences of the artificial, such as economics. See Gonzalez (2015, pp. 317–341).

  42. An example of this is the success they have had, globally, filters in Snapchat social network, that allows individuals to take out photographs with them. These filters are also pinpointed, and may differ depending on the physical location where you are.

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    Maria Jose Arrojo

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This paper has been developed within the framework of the Project FFI2016-79728-P supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economics and Competitiviness. It makes explict one of the research lines of the group of philosophy and methodology of the sciences of the artificial lead by Wenceslao J. Gonzalez at the University of A Coruña. I am very grateful to him for all the suggestions made in the different stages of this paper which was prepared at the London School of Economics (CPNSS) where we discussed many aspects of this text.

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Arrojo, M.J. Information and the Internet: An Analysis from the Perspective of the Science of the Artificial. Minds & Machines 27, 425–448 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11023-016-9413-2

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