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The Evolutionary Optimality Challenge

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Handbook of Bioethical Decisions. Volume I

Part of the book series: Collaborative Bioethics ((CB,volume 2))

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Abstract

Human beings are a marvel of evolved complexity. When we try to enhance poorly-understood complex evolved systems, our interventions often fail or backfire. It can appear as if there is a “wisdom of nature” which we ignore at our peril. A recognition of this reality can manifest as a vaguely normative intuition, to the effect that it is “hubristic” to try to improve on nature, or that biomedical therapy is ok while enhancement is morally suspect. We suggest that one root of these moral intuitions may be fundamentally prudential rather than ethical. More importantly, we develop a practical heuristic, the “evolutionary optimality challenge”, for evaluating the plausibility that specific candidate biomedical interventions would be safe and effective. This heuristic recognizes the grain of truth contained in “nature knows best” attitudes while providing criteria for identifying the special cases where it may be feasible, with present or near-future technology, to enhance human nature.

This chapter is based closely on Bostrom and Sandberg (2009). For helpful comments on this updated version, we are grateful to Tegan McCaslin, Richard Ngo and Wes Cowley.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    At more advanced stages of technological development, it will be more reasonable to assume we can beat evolution at its own game.

  2. 2.

    See, for example, Kass (2003).

  3. 3.

    On the role of mid-level principles in one area of applied ethics, see Beauchamp and Childress (1979). Earlier work has explored the extent to which opposition to enhancements results from an (irrational) bias for the status quo (Bostrom & Ord, 2006).

  4. 4.

    This is analogous to “Chesterton’s Fence” — “There exists in such a case a certain institution or law; let us say, for the sake of simplicity, a fence or gate erected across a road. The more modern type of reformer goes gaily up to it and says, ‘I don’t see the use of this; let us clear it away.’ To which the more intelligent type of reformer will do well to answer: ‘If you don’t see the use of it, I certainly won’t let you clear it away. Go away and think. Then, when you can come back and tell me that you do see the use of it, I may allow you to destroy it.’” (Chesterton, 1929).

  5. 5.

    Which side-effects are acceptable depends, of course, on the benefits resulting from the enhancement, and these may vary between subjects depending on their goals, life plans, and circumstances.

  6. 6.

    Some individuals possess a variant allele (HbC) that provides malaria resistance without sickle-cell anemia in its homozygotic state. However, the HbC allele incurs a fitness penalty when heterozygous with either of the more prevalent alleles; and so exists only at low frequency in human populations (Wilkins & Godfrey-Smith, 2009). This suggests another enhancement option: to use genetic engineering to ensure homozygosity for the HbC allele.

  7. 7.

    Population structure (especially low-population bottlenecks) can significantly shorten the time it takes for a new allele to reach fixation.

  8. 8.

    The rapid growth of the brain in the human lineage also suggests that its size must be controlled by relatively simple genetic mechanisms (Roth & Dicke, 2005). It is noteworthy that, despite this, the selection differential for human brain weight during the Pleistocene was only 0.0004 per generation (Cavalli-Sforza & Bodmer, 1999).

  9. 9.

    Evolution might still have the last laugh if in the long run she redesigns our species to directly desire to have as many children as possible, or to have an aversion against contraceptives. Cultural evolution might beat biological evolution to the punch.

  10. 10.

    The items in the list need not be restricted to final goods; it can include characteristics that are mere means to more fundamental goods. For example, even if one holds that musicality or musical appreciation is not intrinsically good, one can still include them in the list if one believes that they tend—as a matter of empirical fact—to promote well-being, e.g. by multiplying opportunities for enjoyment.

  11. 11.

    A relevant example here is the ‘Doogie’ lab mice, genetically engineered to have enhanced memory, but which also exhibited increased sensitivity to pain—something that would likely have been a fitness disadvantage in the EEA (Lehrer, 2009).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Future of Humanity Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

    Nick Bostrom, Anders Sandberg & Matthew van der Merwe

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  1. Nick Bostrom
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  2. Anders Sandberg
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Editors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Science and Innovation in Medicine (ICIM), Universidad del Desarrollo, Santiago, Chile

    Erick Valdés

  2. Institute of Science and Innovation in Medicine (ICIM), Universidad del Desarrollo, Santiago, Chile

    Juan Alberto Lecaros

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Bostrom, N., Sandberg, A., van der Merwe, M. (2023). The Evolutionary Optimality Challenge. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J.A. (eds) Handbook of Bioethical Decisions. Volume I. Collaborative Bioethics, vol 2. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-29451-8_12

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