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Global Turn and Cultural Perceptions: The Example of Islam

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Abstract

The relationship between the global turn and the perception of cultures is ambivalent and the concept of culture is highly debated, with numerous definitions in existence. The Islamic world as a whole is frequently referred to as a “culture,” the image of the Orient in the nineteenth century was always linked to an imperialist attitude, which went hand in hand with disdain for other “cultures.” The relationship between Islam and the West has been multilayered and changing and has massively and sustainably shaped the collective consciousness in Europe. As a field, Islamic Studies (Islamwissenschaft) was and is forced to fundamentally redefine itself: The only way for it to survive the challenge of globality is to distance itself from the view that the Islamic world is one uniform “cultural area” or even “culture” that can only be analyzed from the outside or on a textual basis. There is a need to replace the essentializing cultural perception of the Islamic world with empirically underpinned analyses of the local social orders within that world.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    See Ulrich Beck, Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity, London: Sage 1992 (German original: Idem, Risikogesellschaft: Auf dem Weg in eine andere Moderne, Frankfurt/Main: Suhrkamp, 2012 (21st edition)); Idem/Anthony Giddens/Scott Lash (eds.), Reflexive Modernization: Politics, Tradition and Aesthetics in the Modern Social Order, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994; Idem, World at Risk, Cambridge: Polity Press, 2009 (German original: Idem, Weltrisikogesellschaft, Frankfurt/Main: Suhrkamp, 2008).

  2. 2.

    The literature on globalization has become practically uncountable. Useful German-language introductions are provided by Ulrich Menzel, Globalisierung versus Fragmentierung, Frankfurt/Main: Suhrkamp, 1998; Anthony Giddens, Entfesselte Welt. Wie die Globalisierung unser Leben verändert, Frankfurt/Main: Suhrkamp, 2001; Jörg Dürrschmidt, Globalisierung, Bielefeld: transcript, 2002; Claus Leggewie, Die Globalisierung und ihre Gegner, Munich: Beck, 2003; Klaus Dörre, Globalisierung und Globalisierungskritik. Einführung—Zwischenbetrachtung—Perspektiven, Wiesbaden: Westdeutscher Verlag, 2004; Jürgen Osterhammel/Niels.P. Petersson, Geschichte der Globalisierung. Dimensionen, Prozesse, Epochen, Munich: Beck, 2006 (in English: Idem/Idem, Globalization: A Short History, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009) and Boike Rehbein/Hermann Schwengel, Theorien der Globalisierung. Constance: UVK Verlagsgesellschaft, 2008.

  3. 3.

    See Manuel Castells, The Information Age. Economy, Society and Culture (Volume 1: The Rise of the Network Society, Oxford/Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1996; Volume 2: The Power of Identity, Oxford/Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1997; Volume 3: End of Millennium, Oxford/Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1998).

  4. 4.

    Roland Robertson, Glocalization. Time-Space and Homogeneity, in: Mike Featherstone/Scott Lash/Roland Robertson (eds.), Global Modernities, London: Sage, 1995: 25–44.

  5. 5.

    See Benno Werlen, Gesellschaft, Handlung und Raum. Grundlagen handlungstheoretischer Sozialgeographie, Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1987.

  6. 6.

    See Robert Hauser, Kulturelle Identität in einer globalisierten Welt?, in: Andreas Metzner-Szigeth/Nicanor Ursúa (eds.), Netzbasierte Kommunikation, Identität und Gemeinschaft, Berlin: trafo Verlag Weist, 2006, pp. 315–333.

  7. 7.

    Paul L. Knox/Sallie A. Marston, Human Geography: Places and Regions in Global Context, Cambridge: Pearson, 2015 (7th edition), p. 77.

  8. 8.

    Ibid. p. 319. See also Hans Gephardt, Natur und Kultur— eine Neubestimmung des Verhältnisses, in: Hans Gephardt/Rüdiger Glaser/Ulrich Radtke/Paul Reubner (eds.), Geographie. Physische Geographie und Humangeographie, Heidelberg: Spektrum, 2011 (2nd edition), pp. 1080–1085 and Paul Reubner, Politische Geographie, op. cit., pp. 785–817.

  9. 9.

    These include the highly problematic Clark Wissler (1870–1947), Robert Harry Lowie (Robert Heinrich Löwe, 1883–1957), and Franz Boas (1858–1942). For the development of American anthropology, see Regna D. Darnell, The Development of American Anthropology 1879–1920: From the Bureau of Ethnology to Franz Boas, Ann Arbor: University Microfilms, 1970; Stanley A. Freed/Ruth S. Freed, Clark Wissler and the Development of Anthropology in the United States, in: American Anthropologist 85 (1983), pp. 800–825.

  10. 10.

    According to an online Wikipedia entry on this topic online at: www.de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulturareal (last accessed 28.11.2017).

  11. 11.

    See, for example, Martin W. Lewis/Kären E. Wigen, The Myth of Continents. A Critique of Metageography, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997; Derek Gregory, Geographical Imaginations, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998; Julia Lossau, Die Politik der Verortung. Eine postkoloniale Reise zu einer ‘Anderen’ Geographie der Welt, Bielefeld: transcript, 2002.

  12. 12.

    For more on this common dichotomization and the inherent problem with it, see Thomas Scheffler, ‘Fertile Crescent’, ‘Orient’, ‘Middle East’. The Changing Mental Maps of Southwest Asia, in: European Review of History 10 (2003), pp. 253–272; Georg Glasze/Jörn Thielmann (eds.), ‘Orient’ versus ‘Okzident’. Zum Verhältnis von Kultur und Raum in einer globalisierten Welt, Mainz: Geographisches Institut der Universität Mainz, 2006; Sybille Bauriedl, ‘Der Orient’ als Raumkonstruktion in der Geographie, in: Iman Attia (ed.), Orient- und Islambilder. Interdisziplinäre Beiträge zu Orientalismus und antimuslimischem Rassismus, Münster: Unrast, 2007, pp. 137–154; Anton Escher, Die geographische Gestaltung des Begriffs ‘Orient’ im 20. Jahrhundert, in: Burkhard Schnepel/Gunnar Brands/Hanne Schönig (eds.), Orient—Orientalistik—Orientalismus. Geschichte und Aktualität einer Debatte, Bielefeld: transcript, 2011, pp. 123–150; Michael E. Bonine/Abbas Amanat/Michael E. Gasper (eds.), Is There a Middle East? The Evolution of a Geopolitical Concept, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2012.

  13. 13.

    For more on the cultural turns, see Doris Bachmann-Medick, Cultural Turns. Neuorientierungen in den Kulturwissenschaften, Reinbek: Rowohlt, 2009 (3rd edition, with new epilogue); see also Doris Bachmann-Medick, Kultur als Text. Die anthropologische Wende in der Literaturwissenschaft, Tübingen/Basel: Francke, 2004 (2nd edition); Michael Lackner/Michael Werner (eds.), Der cultural turn in den Humanwissenschaften. Area Studies im Auf- und Abwind des Kulturalismus, Bad Homburg: Werner-Reimers-Stiftung, 1999. For a good introduction to the spatial turn, see Jörg Döring/Tristan Thielmann (eds.), Spatial Turn. Das Raumparadigma in den Kultur- und Sozialwissenschaften, Bielefeld: transcript, 2008. For more on the cultural turn in geography, see Hans Gephardt/Paul Reubner/Günter Wolkersdorfer (eds.), Kulturgeographie. Neue Ansätze und Entwicklungen, Heidelberg: Spektrum, 2003 and Don Mitchell Mitchell, Cultural Geography: a critical introduction, Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.

  14. 14.

    Based on Benedict R. Anderson, Imagined Communities. Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, London: verso, 1991 (2nd edition).

  15. 15.

    The following volume offers many enlightening and advanced approaches to the topic of hybridity: Frank Heidemann/Alfonso de Toro (eds.), New Hybridities: Societies and Cultures in Transition, Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 2006.

  16. 16.

    A leading pioneer was Carl Heinrich Becker (1876−1933). See, for example: Der Islam im Rahmen einer allgemeinen Kulturgeschichte, in: Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft 76 (1922), pp. 18–35. See: Josef van Ess, From Wellhausen to Becker. The Emergence of ‘Kulturgeschichte’ in Islamic Studies, in: Malcom H. Kerr (ed.), Levi della Vida Conferences VII: Islamic Studies: A Tradition and its Problems, Los Angeles: Undena Publications, 1979, pp. 27–51.

  17. 17.

    The following remain standard works: Norman Daniel, Islam and the West: The Making of an Image, Edinburgh: University Press, 1960; Idem, Islam, Europe and Empire, Edinburgh: University Press, 1966; Idem, The Arabs and Medieval Europe, London: Longman, 1975; Richard W. Southern, Das Islambild des Mittelalters, Stuttgart et al.: Kohlhammer, 1981; Ekkehart Rotter, Abendland und Sarazenen. Das okzidentale Araberbild und seine Entstehung im Frühmittelalter, Berlin: de Gruyter, 1986; Thierry Hentsch, Imagining the Middle East, Montreal/New York: Black Rose Books, 1992.

  18. 18.

    The next two paragraphs largely follow Stephan Conermann, Islam, in: Pim den Boer/Heinz Duchhardt/Georg Kreis/Walter Schmale (eds.), Europäische Erinnerungsorte. Volume 1: Mythen und Grundbegriffe des europäischen Selbstverständnisses, Oldenbourg: Wissenschaftsverlag, 2012, pp. 121–134, here p. 129ff. The comments are supplementary to the draft.

  19. 19.

    Jürgen Osterhammel, Wissen als Macht. Deutungen interkulturellen Nichtverstehens bei Tzvetan Todorov und Edward Said, in: Eva-Maria Auch/Stig Förster (eds.), ‘Barbaren’ und ‘Weiße Teufel’. Kulturkonflikte und Imperialismus in Asien vom 18. bis zum 20. Jahrhundert, Paderborn et al.: Schöningh, 1997, pp. 145–169, here pp. 159–160. Some overviews of the ‘orientalism debate’ and Edward Said can be found in: Isolde Kurz, Vom Umgang mit dem anderen. Die Orientalismus-Debatte zwischen Alteritätsdiskurs und interkultureller Kommunikation, Berlin: Ergon, 2000; Markus Schmitz, Kulturkritik ohne Zentrum. Edward W. Said und die Kontrapunkte kritischer Dekolonisation, Bielefeld: transcript, 2008; Alexander L. Macfie (ed.), Orientalism: A Reader, Edinburgh: University Press, 2000; Burkhard Schnepel/Gunnar Brands/Hanne Schönig (eds.), Orient—Orientalistik—Orientalismus. Geschichte und Aktualität einer Debatte, loc. cit.

  20. 20.

    Reinhart Koselleck, Einleitung, in: Otto Brunner/Werner Conze/Reinhart Koselleck (eds.), Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe, Volume 1, Stuttgart: Klett Cotta, 1979, p. XV.

  21. 21.

    The concept of the Sattelzeit (saddle time) was formulated by Reinhart Koselleck (1923–2006). For more on him and his approach, see Christof Dipper, “Die, Geschichtlichen Grundbegriffe”. Von der Begriffsgeschichte zur Theorie historischer Zeiten, in: Historische Zeitschrift 270 (2000), pp. 281–308, and Ute Daniel, Reinhart Koselleck, in: Lutz Raphael (ed.), Klassiker der Geschichtswissenschaft. Volume 2: Von Fernand Braudel bis Natalie Z. Davis, Munich: Beck, 2006, pp. 166–194.

  22. 22.

    See Talal Asad, The Construction of Religion as an Anthropological Category, in: Idem, Genealogies of Religion. Discipline and Reasons of Power in Christianity and Islam, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993, pp. 27–54. Against this backdrop, one should read Hans-Michael Haußig, Der Religionsbegriff in den Religionen. Studien zum Selbst- und Religionsverständnis in Hinduismus, Buddhismus, Judentum und Islam, Berlin: Philo, 1999.

  23. 23.

    For a very good overview of different cultural concepts, see Stephan Moebius, Kultur, Bielefeld: transcript, 2009. With inspiration one can consult Claus-Michael Ort, Kulturbegriffe und Kulturtheorien, in: Ansgar Nünning/Vera Nünning (eds.), Konzepte der Kulturwissenschaft, Stuttgart/Weimar: Metzler, 2003, pp. 19–38.

  24. 24.

    The literature on racism is only suited to specialists. For an introduction, see: Boris Barth, Rassismus, in: Institut für Europäische Geschichte (ed.), Europäische Geschichte Online (EGO), Mainz 2010-12-03, online at: www.ieg-ego.eu/barthb-2010-de.URN:u,:nbn:DE:0159-2010092160 (last accessed 28.11.2017), and Christian Geulen, Geschichte des Rassismus, Munich: Beck, 2007.

  25. 25.

    See, for example, Eric Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes. The Short Twentieth Century 1914–1991, London: Joseph, 1994; Reinhard Schulze, Geschichte der islamischen Welt im 20. Jahrhundert, Munich: Beck, 1994; John M. Roberts, The Penguin History of the Twentieth Century, London: Penguin, 2000.

  26. 26.

    For an overview, see Tilman Seidensticker, Islamismus. Geschichte, Vordenker, Organisationen, Munich: Beck, 2014, pp. 15–28, 44–51 and 72–78.

  27. 27.

    See Elizabeth S. Kassab, Contemporary Arab Thought: Cultural Critique in Comparative Perspective, New York: Columbia University Press, 2010.

  28. 28.

    A very well-informed background is provided by Lawrence Wright, The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11, New York: Knopf, 2007 and Jason Burke, Al-Qaeda: Casting a Shadow of Terror, London: Tauris, 2003.

  29. 29.

    See Tilman Seidensticker, Islamismus. Geschichte, Vordenker, Organisationen, op. cit., pp. 78–91.

  30. 30.

    The following section is taken largely from Stephan Conermann (ed.), Was ist Kulturwissenschaft? Zehn Antworten aus den ‘Kleinen Fächern’, Bielefeld: transcript, 2012, pp. 9–10.

  31. 31.

    For a summary of and further information on the issue of area studies, see Katja Mielke/Anna-Katharina Hornidge, Crossroads Studies: From Spatial Containers to Interactions in Differentiated Spatialities, in: Crossroads Asia Working Paper Series, No. 15. Bonn: Crossroads Asia, 2014, online at: www.Crossroads-asia.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Xroads_Working_Paper_15_Mielke_Hornridge_Crossroads_Studi.pdf (last accessed 28.11.2017).

  32. 32.

    I have adopted most of the following ideas and arguments from my many years of collaboration with the Department of Political and Cultural Change at the University of Bonn’s Center for Development Research.

  33. 33.

    For basic information, see: Peter Berger/Thomas Luckmann, Thomas, The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge, Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1966, and Vivien Burr, An Introduction to Social Constructionism, London: Routledge, 1995.

  34. 34.

    For basic information, see: Thirukodikaval N. Srinivasan, Human Development. A New Paradigm or Reinvention of the Wheel?, in: Human Development 84.2 (1994), pp. 238–243.

  35. 35.

    For an introduction, see: Thomas Edeling/Werner Jann/Dieter Wagner (eds.), Modern Governance. Koordination und Organisation zwischen Konkurrenz, Hierarchie und Solidarität, Wiesbaden: Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2007; Michael Haus, Transformation des Regierens und Herausforderungen der Institutionenpolitik, Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2010; Birgit Sauer, Governance. Stuttgart: UTB, 2010; David Levi-Faur (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Governance, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.

  36. 36.

    See (for further information) Kjell Y. Törnblom/Ali Kazemi (eds.), Handbook of Social Resource Theory. Theoretical Extensions, Empirical Insights, and Social Applications, New York, NY: Springer, 2012.

  37. 37.

    Good handbooks on network analysis and migration research include: John Scott/Peter J. Carrington (eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Social Network Analysis, London: Sage, 2011, Elena Fiddian-Qasmiyeh (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Refugee and Forced Migration Studies, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014; Steven J. Gold/Stephanie J. Nawyn (eds.), Routledge International Handbook of Migration Studies, London: Routledge, 2013.

  38. 38.

    Fanon, Frantz, The Wretched of the Earth, New York: Grove Press, 2004 (French original: Idem, Les damnés de la terre, Paris: Présence Africaine, 1964).

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  1. Islamic Studies, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany

    Stephan Conermann

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  1. Political Science, University of Bonn/Center for European Integration Studies (ZEI), Bonn, Germany

    Ludger Kühnhardt

  2. Political Science, History of Ideas and Contemporary History, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany

    Tilman Mayer

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Conermann, S. (2019). Global Turn and Cultural Perceptions: The Example of Islam. In: Kühnhardt, L., Mayer, T. (eds) The Bonn Handbook of Globality. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90382-8_64

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