Abstract
This paper describes the early history of magnetochemistry: the search for chemical effects of magnetism in the nineteenth century. Some early researchers, such as Johann Wilhelm Ritter, attempted to reproduce with magnets the effects that had been produced by electricity and Volta’s battery. For several decades, researchers successively reported positive results and denied claims concerning the effect of magnetism in oxidation, electrolysis, reduction of metals from saline solutions, crystallisation, change of colour of vegetable tinctures and other chemical reactions. In the two last decades of the nineteenth century some effects were accepted as real, and a thermodynamic theory of the influence of magnetic fields upon chemical reactions was developed. Finally, Dragomir Hurmuzescu was able to create reproducible experiments and measured the electromotive force between two electrodes, with or without the presence of magnetic fields, confirming the existence of the phenomenon and obtaining results compatible with the theoretical predictions. Afterwards, this magnetochemical effect was accepted as real, but the effect was weak and its practical importance was negligible. The subject was gradually forgotten.
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Notes
No papers on this subject have been found in the database of the History of Science Society. Books on the history of chemistry, such as Partington’s History of chemistry, do not mention the search for chemical effects of magnetism in the nineteenth century. In recent books, such as Meyer’s A history of electricity and magnetism or Electrochemistry, past and present by Stock and Orna, there is also no information about this episode (Partington 1961–1970; Meyer 1971; Stock and Orna 1989). A very short and incomplete historical account is presented by Perov et al. (2004), beginning in 1881.
One can still find a description of this subject in Bhatnagar and Mathur’s textbook, Physical principles and applications of magnetochemistry (1935), but Pierce Selwood’s Magnetochemistry (1956) does not describe this phenomenon. During the largest part of the twentieth century, the subject was forgotten. Some influences of magnetic fields on chemical reactions have been recently studied, but there is no general agreement about the phenomena and their explanation (Fahidy 1983, 1990, 1999; Tacken and Janssen 1995; Waskaas 1996; Yamamoto et al. 1996, 1999; Debos et al. 2000; Hinds et al. 2002; Perov et al. 2002, 2004; Lu et al. 2003, 2005; Coey 2003; Rhen et al. 2004; Alemany and Chopart, 2007; Koza et al. 2008; Lu and Yang 2008).
Dan Christensen presented a very able general account of the relationship between Ørsted and Ritter (Christensen 1995). I described in a detailed way their collaboration concerning magnetochemistry and other related subjects, as well the influence of Naturphilosophie in their thought (Martins 2007).
The decomposition of water by a voltaic pile was discovered in 1800 by William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle, but Ritter independently had also discovered the same effect (Motelay 1922, p. 335).
In 1822 Maschmann had already suggested that the magnetic field of the Earth could have some influence upon geological structures: “We do not know where those observations will lead us; but I have some reasons to believe that the geologist who follows those researches could in time find out how metals are formed in Nature’s workshop” (Maschmann 1822, p. 239). In his second paper (Hunt 1846b) Hunt referred to the French translation of Maschmann’s paper, and it is likely that this paper provided the starting point of his researches.
Many years later, commenting another similar experiment made by Fossati, Morris Loeb remarked: “I fail to see any significance in the experiment of placing one of two gas-voltameters, or one of two cells containing an iron solution, in a magnetic field, and looking for a difference in the amount of decomposition when a current is passed through the couple in series. Surely no such result could be expected in the face of the universally acknowledged Law of Faraday, unless, indeed, a magnetic field were imagined to alter the quantivalence of the elements” (Loeb 1891, p. 147).
Ten years later Ira Remsen put his laboratory notebooks at the disposal of F. A. Wolff, remarking that “the results have been disappointing […] my direct interest in the matter having long since ceased” (Wolff 1895, p. 133, footnote by Ira Remsen).
It seems that Gross did not remark that the magnetic potential energy of a piece of iron close to a magnet is negative.
The opposite was observed, however, when sulphydric acid and hydrochloric acid were used.
In some circumstances, when iron is immersed in concentrated nitric acid, it does not exhibit any reaction and becomes afterward protected from rusting. According to Andrews, this phenomenon was discovered in 1790 by Keir, who communicated it to the Royal Society (Andrews 1890, p. 117).
The method used by Rowland and Bell was different from that of Nichols and Franklin. The later measured the electromotive force after the galvanometer attained a steady position—and that occurred only some time after the magnetic field was turned on. Rowland and Bell measured the effect immediately after the magnetic field was turned on.
Nichols attempted to use cobalt and nickel electrodes, but the observed effects were very small.
Of course, the two bismuth electrodes are not in direct contact, but Grimaldi probably assumed that the intermediate conductor (the wire connecting the two electrodes to the galvanometer, and the wire inside the galvanometer) produced no net effect.
The results presented in this paper were first presented by Wolff in his Ph.D. thesis, in June 1893.
Dragomir Hurmuzescu (1865–1954) was a student of Gabriel Lippmann and obtained his Ph.D. in Paris, in 1896. Afterward he returned to his country, where he was professor of the University of Jassy from 1897 to 1913. From this year to 1937 he was professor of the University of Bukarest.
Only the field produced by the electromagnet was measured. The field on the electrode could be slightly different.
In this case, the divergence of the magnetic field close to the surface of the electrode was expected to be very small or null, and the magnetic field should produce no attraction of magnetic salts toward the free surface of the electrode.
This quantity is not constant: it depends on the magnetic field applied to the metal. However, for weak magnetic fields it may be regarded as a constant.
Hurmuzescu knew that magnetisation changes the volume of magnetic solids and liquids. Hence, there is a mechanical work related to magnetisation. In a later paper (Hurmuzescu 1897–1898), he measured this effect and developed a more complete theoretical analysis of the phenomenon.
It is well known that sometimes an effect can only be reproduced in one single laboratory, by people who obtained their training under the same supervisor.
This notice was reproduced in a number of journals: Aus dem Intelligenzblatte der Allgem. Litterat. Zeit. Den 5ten Febr. 1806. Annalen der Physik 22: 223–224, 1806; Extract of a letter to professor Pictet, from a Correspondent at Munich, upon some galvanico-magnetic experiments recently made by M. Ritter. Philosophical Magazine 25: 368–369, 1806; Estrato d’una lettera scritta da Monaco in Baviera al Sig. Prof. Picted di Ginevra su alcuni sperimenti galvanico-magentici fatti recentemente dal Sig. Prof. Ritter. Nuova Scelta d’Opuscoli 1: 334–336, 1806.
This paper was translated into German as: Versuche und Beobachtungen über einige chemische Wirkungen der galvanischen Electricität. Annalen der Physik 6: 360–368, 1800.
This was Duhem’s PhD thesis. It was also published in book form: Théorie nouvelle de l’aimantation par influence fondée sur la thermodynamique. Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1888.
This periodical had two different titles. It was also called Jahrbuch der Chemie und Physik, from volume 30 onwards (with a new numbering of the volumes). Journal für Chemie und Physik 56 corresponded to Jahrbuch der Chemie und Physik 26.
This is a short account of Erdman’s paper in the Bibliothèque Universelle.
A short abstract of this paper was published as: Sopra una corrente galvanica ottenuta col bismuto in un campo magnetico. Nota preliminare. Atti della Reale Accademia dei Lincei, Rendiconti 5 (sem. 1): 28–29, 1889. Reproduced in: Il Nuovo Cimento 25: 191, 1889.
Hurmuzescu himself presented a wrong reference for this article (vol. 5, p. 119) in a later paper (Hurmuzescu, 1900, p. 562). The wrong reference was reproduced by several authors.
The same work was also published as: Force electromotrice d’aimantation. Annales Scientifiques de l’Université de Jassy 1: 5–14, 1900–1901.
A translation was published in Nicholson’s Journal: Experiments on magnetism; by Mr. Ritter, of Jena. Communicated by Dr. Orsted, of Copenhagen. A Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, and the Arts [2] 8: 184–186, 1804.
Ørsted’s paper was reproduced in the Journal für Chemie und Physik 29: 275–281, 1820. It was reprinted in LARSEN, A. (ed.). The discovery of electromagnetism made in the year 1820 by H. C. Oersted. Copenhagen, 1920. This book also contains facsimile reprints of early translations (German, French, English, Italian) of Ørsted’s work.
This paper is an abstract of Paillot’s PhD thesis: Recherches sur les forces électromotrices d’aimantation. Lille: I. Danel, 1901.
This paper was also published in American Journal of Science [3] 36: 39–47, 1888.
This paper was also published in the London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine [5] 35: 473–489, 1893.
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The author is grateful to the Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) and to the São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) for supporting this research.
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de Andrade Martins, R. The rise of magnetochemistry from Ritter to Hurmuzescu. Found Chem 14, 157–182 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10698-011-9127-8
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10698-011-9127-8