Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Between Morals and Markets? An Interdisciplinary Conceptual Framework for Studying Working Conditions at Catholic Social Service Providers in Belgium and Germany

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Business Ethics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Despite sharing Catholic Social Teaching (CST) as their system of morals and both being confronted with marketisation pressures, working conditions at German and Belgian Catholic social service providers (CSSPs) of elderly care differ. We argue that an interdisciplinary approach is needed to understand such differences, as interpretation of CST is mediated by local contexts. Working conditions result from interactions shaped by each country’s respective religious, legal and socio-economic contexts, providing players with different levels of discretion and power resources. In Belgium, working conditions at Catholic elderly care providers tend to be better due to a strong Catholic trade union, encompassing labour market regulation and a universal legal system applying to all care providers. Moreover, there is strong interaction between these Catholic care providers and other Catholic institutions (“pillarisation”). By contrast, German CSSPs, operating as faith-based organisations with their own legal framework in a relatively liberalised and decentralised labour market, are able to use various flexibility practices which put pressure on working conditions. Using such practices is partially justified by the Catholic discourse on charity and altruism, stressing the particular nature of work in the Catholic care sector. Overall, the article demonstrates differences in the local application of CST. It also shows how transnational differences in working conditions at Catholic social service providers are the product of more than just local differences in the interpretation and application of CST principles, being shaped by interactions between a country’s specific religious, legal and socio-economic contexts.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. See for example https://www.boeckler.de/112437_112446.htm# or https://www.zeit.de/wirtschaft/2018-10/altenpflege-verdi-allgemeinverbindlicher-tarifvertrag-jens-spahn-hubertus-heil; https://www.zeit.de/wirtschaft/2010-09/gesundheitsbranche-leiharbeiter; https://www.faz.net/aktuell/rhein-main/frankfurt/pflege-arbeitsbedingungen-eigentlich-sittenwidrige-loehne-15136879.html; https://www.demorgen.be/nieuws/personeelstekort-en-slimme-politiek-de-uitdagingen-in-de-zorgsector-onder-de-loep~bec3763e/; https://www.demorgen.be/nieuws/zorgsector-zit-op-haar-tandvlees-wie-wil-nog-werken-in-een-structureel-onderbemande-sector~bab36414/.

  2. For more information on the Christian service community idea, see (Dahme et al. 2012; Reuter 2006; Tanner 2006; Schliemann 2000).

  3. In the context of another project on the care sector, one of the authors interviewed six sectoral experts in Belgium and Germany in 2017 and 2018.

  4. Please note: The Germany national minimum wage was introduced on 1 January 2015. Full-time employees just earning the national minimum wage (i.e. €9.19 per hour in 2019) fall below the poverty line in Germany.

  5. See for example https://www.zeit.de/wirtschaft/2010-09/gesundheitsbranche-leiharbeiter; https://www.faz.net/aktuell/rhein-main/frankfurt/pflege-arbeitsbedingungen-eigentlich-sittenwidrige-loehne-15136879.html; https://www.tagesspiegel.de/wirtschaft/ende-der-leiharbeit-bei-der-caritas-keiner-wird-weniger-verdienen/8491420.html.

  6. Minijobs are jobs paying less than €450 a month; they are tax-exempt.

  7. Less than 15 h a week.

  8. Unemployed workers who take part in a labour market reintegration programme. For each hour worked, they receive at least 1 Euro on top of their unemployment benefit. It is important to note that one-Euro-jobbers do not have an employment contract with the organisation they work for.

  9. See https://www.lauterbachpartner.de/cms/wp-content/uploads/LP_Arbeitszeit_April_2016.pdf.

  10. Please note that employees in CSSPs may also join trade unions other than the Catholic one. However, according to an expert of ACV-CSC, the majority of unionised workers in CSSPs are members of the Catholic trade union.

  11. There are a few insignificant Christian unions in Germany. Having negotiated several collective agreements in the 2000s which “smelt” of social dumping, some of them even lost their right to collectively bargain.

  12. In Germany, trade union membership fees are 1% of net monthly income.

References

  • Abela, A. V. (2001). Profit and more: Catholic social teaching and the purpose of the firm. Journal of Business Ethics, 31(2), 107–116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bjerregaard, K., Haslam, S. A., Mewse, A., & Morton, T. (2017). The shared experience of caring: A study of care-workers' motivations and identifications at work. Ageing & Society, 37(1), 113–138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, C. E., Weinberg, D. B., Leutz, W., Dossa, A., Pfefferle, S. G., & Zincavage, R. M. (2008). Nursing assistants' job commitment: Effect of nursing home organisational factors and impact on resident well-being. The Gerontologist, 48(1), 36–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bourdeaudhui, R., Janssens, F., & Vanderhaeghe, S. (2017). Werkbaar werk in de gezondheids- en welzijnszorg [Decent work in the healthcare and social service sector]. Brussel: Stichting Innovatie & Arbeid.

  • Budde, P. (2005). Kirchenaustritt als Kündigungsgrund? Diskriminierung durch kirchliche Arbeitgeber vor dem Hintergrund der Antidiskriminierungsrichtlinie 2000/78/EG [Church exit as a reason for layoff? Discrimination of Church employers in the context of the anti-discrimination directive 2000/78/EG]. Arbeit und Recht, 53(10), 353–359.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burns, D. J., Hyde, P. J., & Killett, A. M. (2016). How financial cutbacks affect the quality of jobs and care for the elderly. ILR Review, 69(4), 991–1016.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Camerino, D., Conway, P. M., Van der Heijden, B. I., Estryn-Behar, M., Consonni, D., Gould, D., et al. (2006). Low-perceived work ability, ageing and intention to leave nursing: A comparison among 10 European countries. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 56(5), 542–552.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caritas. (2019). Ihre Zukunft bei der Caritas [Your future at Caritas]. Retrieved from https://www.caritas.de/fuerprofis/arbeitenbeidercaritas/arbeitgebercaritas/faq. Accessed 12 Feb 2019.

  • Claassen, R. (2011). The commodification of care. Hypatia, 26(1), 43–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conrads, R., Holler, M., Kister, E., Kühn, D., & Schneider, D. (2016). Branchenanalyse Gesundheits- und Sozialwesen [Sector analysis on healthcare andsocial services]. Düsseldorf: Hans-Böckler-Stiftung.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cuypers, D. (2013). Het arrest Eweida e.a. van het hof te Straatsburg: Arbeid en religieuze bezwaren [The Eweida and Others ruling of the Strasbourg Court: Labour and religious objections]. Recht, Religie En Samenleving, 6(1), 107–130.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cuypers, D. (2008). Discriminatieverboden en identiteitsgebonden ondernemingen [Discrimination restrictions in faith-based organisations]. Tijdschrift voor onderwijsrecht en onderwijsbeleid, 1, 44–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dahme, H.J., Kühnlein, G., Stefaniak, A. & Wohlfahrt, N. (2012). Leiharbeit und Ausgliederung in diakonischen Sozialunternehmen. Der „Dritte Weg“ zwischen normativem Anspruch und sozialwirtschaftlicher Realität [Agency work and externalisation in social organisations linked to Diakonie. The “third way” between normative claims and socio-economic realities]. Düsseldorf: Hans-Böckler-Stiftung.

  • Die Zeit. (2018). Arbeitgeber fordern 15.000 Pflegekräfte aus dem Ausland [Employers demand attracting 15,000 care employees from abroad]. https://www.zeit.de/gesellschaft/2018-08/altenpflege-anbieter-fachkraefte-ausland. Accessed 10 Apr 2020.

  • Dobbelaere, K., & Billiet, J. (2010). Late 20th-century trends in catholic religiousness: Belgium compared with Western and Central European Nations. In L. Kenis, J. Billiet, & P. Pasture (Eds.), The transformation of the Christian churches in Western Europe 1945–2000 (pp. 146–160). Leuven: Leuven University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geerlings, D. (2010). Dienstgemeinschaft als Strukturprinzip [The service community as structural principle]. Neue Caritas, 8, 23–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guitián, G. (2015). Service as a bridge between ethical principles and business practice: A catholic social teaching perspective. Journal of Business Ethics, 128(1), 59–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greer, I., & Doellgast, V. (2017). Marketization, inequality, and institutional change: Toward a new framework for comparative employment relations. Journal of Industrial Relations, 59(2), 192–208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gregory, D. L. (1998). Catholic social teaching on work. Labor Law Journal, 49(3), 912–919.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffiths, P., Dall’Ora, C., Simon, M., Ball, J., Lindqvist, R., Rafferty, A. M., et al. (2014). Nurses’ shift length and overtime working in 12 European countries: The association with perceived quality of care and patient safety. Medical Care, 52(11), 975–981.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, P. A., & Soskice, D. (2001). Varieties of capitalism: The institutional foundations of comparative advantage. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Heimbach-Steins, M. (2009). Catholics' ethical interventions in political debates: The situation in Germany. Theological Studies, 70(1), 177–181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hellemans, S. (2011). Die katholische Kirche in Belgien und in den Niederlanden: Geschichte, Vergleich und Zukunftsperspektiven [The Catholic Churchin Belgium and the Netherlands. History, comparison and future prospects]. Zur. Debatte, 41(6), 41–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hollenbach, D. (2014). Human dignity in catholic thought. In M. Düwell, J. Braarvig, R. Brownsword, & D. Mieth (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Human Dignity: Interdisciplinary Perspectives (pp. 250–259). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hood, C. (1991). A new public management for all seasons? Public Administration, 69, 3–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Höpfl, H. (2007). A catholic work ethic? Journal of Management, Spirituality and Religion, 4(4), 398–417.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hussain, A., Rivers, P. A., Glover, S. H., & Fottler, M. D. (2012). Strategies for dealing with future shortages in the nursing workforce: A review. Health Services Management Research, 25(1), 41–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ING. (2017). De sector van de woonzorgcentra onder de loep [The nursing home sector in detail]. Retrieved from https://www.ing.be/nl/retail/my-news/economy/care-centers. Accessed 14 Feb 2019.

  • Jackson, G. (2009). Actors and institution. University of Bath School of Management Working Paper Series, 2009/07.

  • Jacobs, K., Kuhlmey, A., Greß, S., Klauber, J., & Schwinger, A. (2017). Pflege-Report 2016 [Care report 2016]. Stuttgart: Schattauer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jakobi, T. (2010). Nichts zu sagen unter’m Kreuz? Arbeitsbeziehungen bei Kirchen, Caritas und Diakonie [Nothing to say in the context of the cross? Employment relations in Churches, at Caritas and Diakonie]. Zeitschrift für Sozialreform, 56(4), 451–476.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keune, M., & Marginson, P. (2013). Transnational industrial relations as multi-level governance: Interdependencies in European social dialogue. British Journal of Industrial Relations, 51(3), 473–497.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LBC-NVK. (2015). De loon- en arbeidsvoorwarden in de ouderenzorg [Wages and working conditions in elderly care]. LBC-NVK: Antwerpen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lopez, S. H. (2006). Emotional labor and organized emotional care: Conceptualizing nursing home care work. Work and Occupations, 33(2), 133–160.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martens, R. (2005). Timing is everything: Historical contingency as a factor in the impact of catholic social teaching upon managerial practices. Journal of Business Ethics, 57(3), 285–301.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Doerflinger, N., & Pulignano, V. (2015). Temporary Agency Work and Trade Unions in Comparative Perspective: A Mixed Blessing? SAGE Open. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244015575633.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pulignano, V., & Doerflinger, N. (2018). Labour markets, solidarity and precarious work: comparing local unions' responses to management flexibility strategies in the German and Belgian metalworking and chemical industries. In V. Doellgast, N. Lillie, & V. Pulignano (Eds.), Reconstructing Solidarity: Labour unions, precarious work, and the politics of institutional change in Europe (pp. 104–123). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reich, A. (2012). With god on our side: Authenticity work in the transnational service economy. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Reuter, H. R. (2006). Kirchenspezifische Anforderungen an die privatrechtliche berufliche Mitarbeit in der Evangelischen Kirche und ihrer Diakonie [Church-related requirements regarding work under private law in the Protestant Church and Diakonie]. In: R. Anselm & J. Hermelink (Eds.), Der Dritte Weg auf dem Prüfstand. Theologische, rechtliche und ethische Perspektiven des Ideals der Dienstgemeinschaft in der Diakonie. 6. Kästorfer Management-Symposium (pp. 33–68). Göttingen: Universitätsverlag Göttingen.

  • Richardi, R. (2015). Arbeitsrecht in der Kirche. Staatliches Arbeitsrecht und kirchliches Dienstrecht (volume 7) [Labour law in the Church. Public labour law and ecclesiastical service law]. München: Beck Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richter, R. (2008). Vom BAT zum TVöD – Dornenreicher Weg (Teil 1) [The difficult path from BAT (i.e. collective agreement for public service employees) to TVöD (i.e. new and simplified collective agreement for public service employees) (part 1)]. Arbeitsrecht & Kirche, 1, 17–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schildmann, C., & Voss, D. (2018). Aufwertung von sozialen Dienstleistungen. Warum sie notwendig ist und welche Stolpersteine noch auf dem Weg liegen [Upgrading of social services. Explaining why this is necessary but difficult]. Düsseldorf: Hans-Böckler-Stiftung.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schliemann, H. (2000). Caritative Beschäftigung in unsozialen Verhältnissen? Arbeitsbeziehungen in Non-Profit-Unternehmen [Charitable employment in an antisocial context? Employment relations in non-profit organisations]. Industrielle Beziehungen, 7(3), 281–293.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schröder, W. (2017). Kollektives Beschäftigtenhandeln in der Altenpflege [Employment relations in elderly care]. Düsseldorf: Hans-Böckler-Stiftung.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simonazzi, A. (2009). Care regimes and national employment models. Cambridge Journal of Economics, 33(2), 211–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sison, A., Ferrero, I., & Guitián, G. (2016). Human dignity and the dignity of work: Insights from catholic social teaching. Business Ethics Quarterly, 26(4), 503–528.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sloan, M. M. (2012). Unfair treatment in the workplace and worker well-being: The role of coworker support in a service work environment. Work and Occupations, 39(1), 3–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spetz, J., Trupin, L., Bates, T., & Coffman, J. M. (2015). Future demand for long-term care workers will be influenced by demographic and utilization changes. Health Affairs, 34(6), 936–945.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tack, S. (2013). Het ethische beleid in zorginstellingen: Rechtspositie van de beheerder, de arts, de patiënt en de overheid bij medische beslissingen rond het levenseinde [Ethical policies in care organisations. Legal positions of the director, doctor, patient and the state with regard to end of life decicions]. Antwerp: Intersentia.

  • Tackney, C. T. (2018). Authenticity in employment relations: A theology of the workplace analysis. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion, 15(1), 82–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tanner, K. (2006). Wem diene ich, wenn ich diene? Zum Verhältnis von Individualismus und Dienstgemeinschaft [Whom do I serve when I serve? The relations between individualism and the service community]. In: R. Anselm and J. Hermelink (Eds.), Der Dritte Weg auf dem Prüfstand. Theologische, rechtliche und ethische Perspektiven des Ideals der Dienstgemeinschaft in der Diakonie. 6. Kästorfer Management-Symposium (pp. 117–128). Göttingen: Universitätsverlag Göttingen.

  • Theobald, H., Szebehely, M., & Preuß, M. (2013). Arbeitsbedingungen in der Altenpflege [Working conditions in elderly care]. Nomos Verlag: Baden-Baden.

  • Thomasset, A. (2000). Quelle identité et quelle mission pour les institutions sanitaires et sociales catholiques? Un enjeu pour la vitalité de la pensée sociale de l'église [Which identity and mission for Catholic social institutions? Challenges for the vitality of the social thinking of the Church]. In J. S. Boswell, F. P. McHugh, & J. Verstraeten (Eds.), Catholic social thought: Twilight or renaissance? (pp. 191–200). Leuven: Leuven University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thüsing, G. (2006). Kirchliches Arbeitsrecht [Ecclesiastical labour law]. München: Beck Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Torfs, R. (1992). Congregationele gezondheidsinstellingen: Toekomstige structuren naar profaan en kerkelijk recht [Health institutions of religious congregations: Future structures in accordance with secular and canon law]. Leuven: Peeters.

    Google Scholar 

  • Torfs, R. (2007). Religious entities as legal persons – Belgium. In L. Friedner (Ed.), Churches and other religious organisations as legal persons: Proceedings (pp. 45–48). Leuven: Peeters.

    Google Scholar 

  • Traxler, F., Blaschke, S., & Kittel, B. (2001). National labour relations in internationalized markets. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. (1986). Economic justice for all: Pastoral letter on catholic social teaching and the U.S. Economy. Retrieved from https://www.usccb.org/upload/economic_justice_for_all.pdf. Accesed 10 Dec 2018.

  • Van Leuven, N. (2009). Contracten en mensenrechten [Contracts and human rights]. Antwerp: Intersentia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Loon, A. (1994). Book review: Broadcasting law. A comparative study. Maastricht Journal of European and Comparative Law, 1(3), 329–333.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace. (2014). Vocation of the business leader: A reflection (Vol. 4). Vatican: Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verstraeten, J. (2011). Re-thinking the economy, a matter for love or justice. Concilium, 5, 92–102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Visintin, S., Elvira, M., & Rodriguez-Lluesma, C. (2011). Job (In)stability in the European long-term care workforce. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2697150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Visser, J. (2016). ICTWSS: Database on Institutional Characteristics of Trade Unions, Wage Setting, State Intervention and Social Pacts in 51 countries between 1960 and 2014. Retrieved from https://uva-aias.net/nl/ictwss. Accessed 12 Dec 2018.

  • Vuye, H. (2009). Scheiding kerk en staat in een multi-levensbeschouwelijke maatschappij, Historische en prospectieve studie van artikel 21 van de Grondwet [The separation between Church and state. A historical and prospective study on article 21 of the constitution]. Chroniques de droit public Publiekrechtelijke kronieken, 2009, 435–473.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wharton, A. S. (2009). The sociology of emotional labor. Annual Review of Sociology, 35, 147–165.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research was carried out in the context of an IdeaLab grant (CATSOC) from the Academic Foundation Leuven (Academische Stichting Leuven). We are grateful to Associate Editor Harry van Buren for his guidance throughout the review process as well as to the two anonymous reviewers for their constructive and helpful comments.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centre for Sociological Research, KU Leuven, Parkstraat 45, box 3601, 3000, Leuven, Belgium

    Nadja Doerflinger, Adeline Otto & Lander Vermeerbergen

  2. Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Friedrich-Henkel-Weg 1-25, 44149, Dortmund, Germany

    Nadja Doerflinger

  3. Research Unit of History of Church and Theology, KU Leuven, Sint-Michielsstraat 6, box 3101, 3000, Leuven, Belgium

    Dries Bosschaert

  4. Institute for Social Law, KU Leuven, Blijde-Inkomststraat 19, box 3409, 3000, Leuven, Belgium

    Tim Opgenhaffen

Authors
  1. Nadja Doerflinger
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Dries Bosschaert
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Adeline Otto
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Tim Opgenhaffen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Lander Vermeerbergen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nadja Doerflinger.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical Approval

This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Doerflinger, N., Bosschaert, D., Otto, A. et al. Between Morals and Markets? An Interdisciplinary Conceptual Framework for Studying Working Conditions at Catholic Social Service Providers in Belgium and Germany. J Bus Ethics 172, 15–29 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-020-04498-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-020-04498-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation