Abstract
Im is known for arguing, on the basis of core neo-Confucian beliefs concerning a shared human nature, that women are equally capable of mastering the Confucian classics, cultivating themselves, and thereby becoming “female sages.” Throughout her varied writings, she defends this idea, offering highly original, powerful interpretations of a range of philosophical issues and historical cases that bring out neglected aspects of Confucian moral life. In most of her writings, she makes clear that the Confucian moral ideal requires not only acting in certain ways but also with a particular sensitivity and style. Her insights deepen our understanding of the Confucian tradition but also contribute in original and important ways to contemporary moral philosophy.
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Notes
- 1.
A complete translation and study of the life and philosophy of Im Yunjidang can be found in Ivanhoe and Wang (2023, Oxford University Press). For short introductions to the life and thought of Yunjidang, which offer alternative interpretations of their sense and significance, see Hyeon Gim (2004), Kim (2011), and Kim (2014, 2017).
- 2.
Tae Sa was the exemplary wife of King Mun (C. Wen) 文. Tae Im was the wife of Gye Ryeok (C. Ji li) 季歷 and mother of King Mun of Ju (C. Zhou) 周. See personal missive #25 on Gang Jeongildang 姜靜一堂 1772–1832) in this volume.
- 3.
Byeongju was adopted out to his younger uncle, Im Hyeong 任逈 (1698–1742 CE), the fourth son of his grandfather. Im Seongju wrote an epitaph for him. See Nokmun jip (Collected works of Nokmun 鹿門集) 24.6a-7b.
- 4.
Her father’s accusation may well have been a result of the factional politics of the time. Im Yunjidang’s father belonged to the Old Doctrine (Noron 老論) faction, which, along with the Young Doctrine (Soron 少論) faction represented a schism among the earlier Westerners (Seoin 西人), a faction that dominated Korea in the seventeenth century. Largely as a result of a rift between Song Siyeol 宋時烈 (1607–89 CE) (see footnote 13), one of the most powerful and influential Westerners, and his student Yun Jeung 尹拯 (1629–1714 CE), the Westerners divided into the Young Doctrine faction, which opposed Song Siyeol, and the Old Doctrine faction, which supported him. In 1727, the Young Doctrine faction wrested power from the Old Doctrine. The accusation against Yunjidang’s father occurred in the same year as this power change. Details of this event can be found in the Daily Record of the Grand Secretariat (Seungjeongwon ilgi 承政院日記) and the Veritable Records of Joseon Dynasty (Joseon Wangjo Sillok 朝鮮王朝實錄). Cf. Gim (2019, 58–9).
- 5.
The Classic of Filial Piety (Hyogyeong; C. Xiaojing 孝經) is a text espousing the virtue of filial piety that is cast as a conversation between Confucius and his disciple, Master Jeung (Jeungja; C. Zengzi 曾子). It may date from the fourth century BCE though is more likely a product of the early Han dynasty. For a translation, see Makra (1961).
- 6.
The Biographies of Eminent Women (Yeollyeojeon; C. Lienüzhuan 列女傳) is a work by the Han dynasty scholar Yu Hyang (C. Liu Xiang) 劉向 (77–6 BCE) that contains 125 biographical accounts of exemplary women taken from early Chinese histories. For a translation, see Kinney (2014).
- 7.
The Elementary Learning (Sohak; C. Xiaoxue 小學) was compiled in 1187 by Yu Jajing (C. Liu Zicheng) 劉子澄, a disciple of Ju Hui, at his master's command. It outlines the process of moving from the cultivation of the self to bringing peace to all-under-Heaven described in the Great Learning (Daehak; C. Daxue 大學). It was adopted as a centerpiece of official scholarship by the Joseon dynasty.
- 8.
The Four Books (Saseo; C. Sishu 四書) are a collection of classic texts that Ju Hui promoted as the basic curriculum of Confucianism and adopted in the Ming and Qing dynasties as the basis for the civil service examination. They are the Great Learning, Doctrine of the Mean (Jungyong; C. Zhongyong 中庸), Analects (Noneo; C. Lunyü 論語), and Mencius (Maengja; C. Mengzi 孟子).
- 9.
See the Postscript (bal; C. ba 跋) by Im Jeongju in the Extant Writings of Im Yunjidang (Yunjidang yugo 允摯堂遺稿) Appendix (burok; C. fulu 附錄), 7b-8a.
- 10.
The current name of the place of her tomb is Mujang 茂長 Village, in the Hojeo 好楮 District of Wonju.
- 11.
The double burden, double shift, or double duty most often refers to the workload of people who both earn money, but who are also responsible for significant amounts of unpaid domestic labor. For this idea see Hochschild (1989). In Im’s case, it refers to her work at learning and self-cultivation while shouldering extensive responsibilities and work in the domestic realm. In the case of Gang Jeongildang, these senses are combined; she supported her family through her needlework, fulfilled the formidable duties of a married woman, and pursued her education, largely on her own initiative. See Chap. 18 Gang Jeongildang in this volume.
- 12.
See the postscript by Sin Gwang’u in the Extant Writings of Im Yunjidang, Appendix, 6b.
- 13.
Seo Yeongsuhap was a mathematician and a poet. Hundreds of her poems are preserved in an anthology, included as an appendix to her husband’s memoir.
- 14.
Yi Bingheogak, a gentry woman, wrote An Encyclopedia for the Inner Quarters (Gyuhap chongseo 閨閤叢書), which is both a compendium of homemaking tasks in general and in particular, an important cookbook of the period. It includes detailed descriptions of essential items for late Joseon dynasty homemakers and is priceless resource for research into food culture going back more than 200 years.
- 15.
Song Siyeol 宋時烈 (1607–89 CE), also known by his penname Uam 尤庵 was a prominent Joseon stateman, scholar, and philosopher. He played a central role in what is known as the Rites Controversy (Yesong 禮訟), which concerned the proper period of time the Queen Consort had to wear mourning attire after the death of her stepson King Hyojong 孝宗 (r. 1649–59 CE). Song was executed by the royal court for writing an inflammatory letter to the King Sukjong 肅宗 (r. 1674–1720 CE).
- 16.
Yulgok 栗谷 is the pen name of Yi I 李珥 (1536–84 CE), one of the two most prominent Confucian scholars of the Joseon dynasty, the other being his older contemporary Yi Hwang 李滉 (1501–70 CE), whose pen name was Toegye 退溪.
- 17.
Analects 5.24.
- 18.
This passage from the Analects is commented upon in interesting ways by a wide range of Confucians, including Ju Hui in China and disciples of Song Siyeol in Korea who touch on some of the same points, though none treats the passage with the care and comprehensiveness of Yunjidang. Cf. Classified Sayings of Master Ju (Juja eoryu; C. Zhuzi yulei 朱子語類) 29.29a–32a and Gwon Shangha’s 權尙夏 (1641–1721 CE) “Response to Min Seong’yu” (Dap Min Seong’yu 答閔聖猷) in The Collected Works of Hansujae (Hansujae jip 寒水齋集) 7.32b–33a. Thanks to Hanna Kim for pointing out and discussing some of these earlier precedents.
- 19.
The translation follows the original text, though the implied reference is broader: “parents and siblings.”
- 20.
On Gyo (C. Wen Jiao) 溫嶠 (288–329 CE). See footnote #44.
- 21.
Gi-material is commonly translated “psycho-physical matter,” “vital energy,” “vital matter”; in neo-Confucian philosophy, it is one of fundamental constituents of the phenomenal world. We leave it Romanized in its Korean pronunciation since there really is no adequate English translation. We provide the Chinese Romanization of chi to be consistent with other entries in this volume. The Pinyin Romanization for this character is qi.
- 22.
For more on the Four-Seven Debate, see footnote #72 below.
- 23.
Song Neungsang 宋能相 (1709–58 CE) was a late Joseon dynasty philosopher and a direct descendent of Song Siyeol. His ancestral home was Eunjin 恩津; his given name (ja; C. zi 字) was Saryong 士龍, and his pen names were Unpyeong 雲坪 and Donghaeja 東海子. Song Neungsang knew and exchanged views with Yunjidang’s brother Im Seongju 任聖周; both were members of the Old Doctrine faction.
- 24.
Han Gyejin (1689 CE–?). His ancestral home was Cheongju 清州; his given name was Gyemyeong 季明. He was a younger brother of Han Wonjin 韓元震 (1682–1751 CE), pen name Namdang 南塘, and studied under Gwon Sangha 權尙夏 (1641–1721 CE), pen name Suam 遂菴 and Hansujae 寒水齋, who is known as the foremost disciple of Song Siyeol. Han attained the rank of Third Minister (chamui 參議) in the Ministry of Taxation. Han Gyejin was also a friend of Im Seongju.
- 25.
In translating traditional Korean institutional titles, we follow the Korean History Thesaurus and the Glossary of Korean Studies maintained by the National Institute of Korean History and the Academy of Korean Studies respectively. When a variety of translations are given, we follow the one used in the English version of the Veritable Records of Joseon Dynasty.
- 26.
Gongja’s favorites disciple An Yeon was admired for his ability to live under such conditions as well. See Analects 6.11 and Mencius 4B29.
- 27.
A heroic wife is literally a “female knight or scholar” (yeosa 女士). See the Book of Poetry, Mao #247. In the corpus of Korean neo-Confucian funeral orations and tomb inscriptions (myojimyeong 墓誌銘), yeosa often was used to praise a woman’s intelligence and virtuous deeds, describing them as comparable to what the best male Confucian scholars (sa 士) might achieve. Jeong Hyun (C. Zheng Xuan) 鄭玄 and Gong Yeongdal (C. Kong Yingda) 孔穎達, in their commentaries on this passage, explain a yeosa as a woman with scholarly deeds (士行), who therefore is able to produce a worthy and wise (賢智) son.
- 28.
Cf. Analects 9.21, “The Master said of Anja (C. Yanzi) 顔子, ‘Alas! I saw his constant progress; I never saw him stop short.’” Like Lady Han, Anja, who is also known as An Yeon, died young; he was the favorite disciple of Gongja.
- 29.
Cf. the “Common Possession of Pure Virtue” (Ham yu il deok; C. Xian you yi de 咸有一德), section of the Book of History (Sangseo C. Shangshu 尚書), which says in part, “Oh! It is difficult to have faith in Heaven; its mandate is not constant!” (嗚呼! 天難諶, 命靡常).
- 30.
Gim (2019, 95–6) points out that the story of Choe and Hong was well known and discussed in several other Korean works and speculates that Yunjidang may have heard of it from her brothers. Gim further notes that Yunjidang elaborated the tale by including the conversation between the two women in which they decided to take revenge, offering the important insight that by letting the two women speak for themselves, Yunjidang presents them as full moral agents who were perfectly at ease not only to criticize but punish a man they regarded as morally reprehensible.
- 31.
See the Book of Poetry, Mao #68.
- 32.
The theme of this discourse concerns Analects 5.24.
- 33.
Literally, the character translated here as “upright” means “straight” (jik; C. zhi) 直. Cf. Analects 13.18.
- 34.
Cf. Chapter one of the Doctrine of the Mean, which cautions, “The noble person is watchful over himself when alone.”
- 35.
See section eleven under the hexagram Gon (C. Kun) 坤 in the Book of Changes.
- 36.
This is quote from Jeong I (C. Cheng Yi) 程頤 cited by Ju Hui in his commentary on Analects 5.23. See Ju Hui, Collected Commentaries on the Analects, 5.36a.
- 37.
See Analects 11.8, “When An Yeon died, An Ro begged [for] the carriage of the Master to sell and get an outer shell for his son’s coffin.”
- 38.
This is part of Ju Hui’s commentary on Analects 5.23. See Ju Hui, Collected Commentaries on the Analects 5.36a.
- 39.
In Mencius 4A17, Maengja argues that one clearly should override the general standing prohibition against men and women touching one another in exceptional cases such as one presented to him, in which one’s sister-in-law is at risk of drowning right in front of one.
- 40.
This is part of Ju Hui’s commentary on Analects 5.23. See Ju Hui Collected Commentaries on the Analects, 5.36a.
- 41.
Cf. Analects 13.18 in which Gongja describes a son who conceals his father’s wrongdoing and claims “uprightness is found in doing just this.”
- 42.
Analects 6.19.
- 43.
On Gyo, whose courtesy name was Taejin (C. Taizhen) 太真, known formally as Honorable Chungmu (C. Zhongwu) of Sian (C. Shi’an) (Sian Chungmu gong; C. Shian Zhongwu gong 始安忠武公), was a renowned general and governor who lived during the Jin dynasty (265–420 CE).
- 44.
Yu Yak (C. You Ruo) 有若 was a disciple of Gongja. He was a native of No (C. Lu). His courtesy name was Jayak (C. Ziruo) 子若.
- 45.
Analects 1.2.
- 46.
This line appears in the sixteenth biography Yeoljeon je sibyuk (C. Liezhuan di shiliu) 列傳第十六 of the History of the Later Han (Hu Han Seo; C. Hou Han Shu) 後漢書, chapter 26 (gwon isib yuk; C. juan ershi liu) 卷二十六.
- 47.
Cf. Analects 1.2.
- 48.
Yu Gon (271–318 CE) was a Jin general who for years fought but ultimately lost Byeong (C. Bing) Province 并州 (what is now modern central and northern Shanxi Province) to the Han Jo (C. Han Zhao) 漢趙 (304–29 CE), a Southern Hyungno (C. Xiongnu) 匈奴 state and adversary of the Jin.
- 49.
Dan Pilje (?-321 CE) was the governor of Yu (C. You) Province 幽州 (what is now modern Beijing, Tianjin, and northern Hebei).
- 50.
When Sama Eop (C. Sima Ye) 司馬鄴 or 司馬業, who became Emperor Min of Jin 晉愍帝 (300–18 CE), the last Western Jin monarch, was captured by the Han Jo former officials like Yu Gon, Dan Pilje and others plotted together to re-establish the Jin dynasty to their own advantage. Dan killed Yu in 318 when he came to believe Yu posed a threat to his own designs on power. The Prince of Nang Ya is Sama Ye (C. Sima Rui) 司馬睿 (276–322 CE; r. 317–22 CE) who became Emperor Won (C. Yuan) of Jin 晉元帝. When the Hyungno (C. Xiongnu) 匈奴 captured Jang An (C. Chang An) 長安 (in 316 CE), the capital of Jin, the Emperor, Sama Ye was forced to abdicate the throne. Sama Ye, had escaped from Jang An to Geon'gang (C. Jiankang) 建康 (present day Nanjing) and declared himself the new Emperor of Jin.
- 51.
In other words, Yu Gon commissioned On Gyo to make his way to Geon’gang to present Sama Ye, the Prince of Nang Ya, with his petition to assume the imperial title, which subsequently he did.
- 52.
On the concept of self-centeredness, see footnote #67 below.
- 53.
Book of Poetry, Mao #202.
- 54.
Jin Yeong (C. Chen Ying) 陳嬰 (?–183 BCE) lived at the very end of the Jin (C. Qin) 秦 dynasty (221–206 BCE) and the beginning of the Han 漢 dynasty (202 BCE–9 CE; 25–220 CE). As the Jin collapsed, a group of people who were leading the revolt came to him and urged him to declare himself king. His mother though advised him against this arguing that since the overthrow of the Jin was not complete, to accept such a sudden rise in status would pose great peril. He followed his mother’s advice and refused to accept the title of king.
- 55.
Mencius 7A35.
- 56.
The idea being both that the only reputation worth having is to be a moral person and that good people do in fact often attain a kind of immortality for their good deeds.
- 57.
Better known as Jegal Ryang (C. Zhuge Liang) 諸葛亮 (181–234 CE), his courtesy name was Gongmyeong (C. Kongming) 孔明. He was a politician, military strategist, writer, engineer and inventor who lived during the Three Kingdoms 三國時代 (220–80 CE) period in China. Recognized as the most accomplished strategist of his era, his reputation as an intelligent and learned scholar grew even while he lived in relative seclusion.
- 58.
Emperor Soyeol (C. Zhaolie) 昭烈皇帝 is the posthumous name of Yu Bi (C. Liu Bei) 劉備 (161–223 CE), whose courtesy name was Hyundeok (C. Xuande) 玄德. He founded the state of Chok Han (C. Shu Han) 蜀漢 (221–263 CE) during the Three Kingdoms Period.
- 59.
This strategy pitted different states against one another in ways that all contributed to the victory of the lord he served.
- 60.
Dong Jungseo (C. Dong Zhongshu) 董仲舒 (179–104 BCE) was a Han dynasty Chinese scholar. He is traditionally associated with the promotion of Confucianism as the official ideology of the Chinese imperial state.
- 61.
These lines appear in Dong Jungseo’s Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunchu beollo; C. Chunqiu fanlu 春秋繁露) 17.14a.
- 62.
See the “Counsels of the Great Yu” (Dae U Mo; C. Da Yu Mo 大禹謨) section of the Book of History.
- 63.
The term “primordial unity” or “calm unity” (dam il; C. zhan yi 湛一) is first found in the Western Inscription by Jang Jae (C. Zhang Zai) 張載 (1020–1077 CE) and refers to the original source or state of gi.
- 64.
“Self-centeredness” is a translation of sa (C. si) 私. It refers to the tendency to give preference to oneself and one’s needs and desires in ways that violate what is morally “correct,” which is how one would act if one were perfectly in accord with one’s nature and the mandate of Heaven. Those who are able to overcome self-centeredness realize their nature and the mandate and form “one body” (ilche; C. yiti 一體) with Heaven, earth, and all things.
- 65.
The “unvarying standard” refers to the inherent moral disposition of the heart-mind. It is first found in the Book of Poetry (Mao #260). This verse is quoted in Mencius 6A6, which employs the variant 秉夷. The Four Sprouts are the nascent moral dispositions first described by Maengja in Mencius 2A6.
- 66.
The quoted section is a close paraphrase of Ju Hui’s Preface to his Doctrine of the Mean in Sections and Sentences (Jungyong janggu; C. Zhongyong zhangju 中庸章句).
- 67.
This is a reference to Mencius 5A4, which teaches that one “must not insist on a term so as to distort the meaning of a sentence” if one wants to understand the meaning of the Book of Poetry.
- 68.
As Yunjidang makes clear in what follows, she rejects any interpretation that strongly separates the nature and heart-mind. It becomes clear that she attributes such a view to the school associated with Yi Toegye, the rival of the school of Yi Yulguk to which she and her brothers belonged. Yunjidang was critical of Toegye’s view that pattern-principle and gi-material are separable. For more details of the Four Seven Debate in English, see Michael C. Kalton et al., trans., The Four-Seven Debate: An Annotated Translation of the Most Famous Controversy in Korean Neo-Confucian Thought (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994) and Hyoungchan Kim, “The Li-Qi 理氣 Structure of the Four Beginnings,” in Youngsun Back and Philip J. Ivanhoe eds., Traditional Korean Philosophy: Problems and Debates (London and New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2017).
- 69.
Here the reference is to the views of Toegye and his school. See prior note.
- 70.
Cf. Mencius 5A7.
- 71.
Analects 12.1.
- 72.
Chapter eight of the Doctrine of the Mean.
- 73.
The expression “accumulated a reservoir of authenticity and prolonged effort,” first appears in the “Encouraging Learning” (Gwon hak; C. Quan xue 勸學) chapter of the Xunzi. It is quoted in a number of later sources, including the Reflections on Things at Hand (Geunsarok; C. Jinsilu 近思錄).
- 74.
Analects 9.11, where An Yeon says this of himself, “[The master has] broadened me with culture and restrained me with the rites. Even when I feel a desire to abandon his learning, I cannot.”
- 75.
Chapter twenty-two of the Doctrine of the Mean, says that “One who is perfectly sincere hits the mark without making effort and grasps it without having to reflect.”
- 76.
When only 29 years old An Yeon’s hair turned white; he died a few years later, leading Gongja to exclaim, “Heaven has forsaken me! Heaven has forsaken me!” (Analects 11.9).
- 77.
The two fundamental forces in the universe, associated with Heaven and earth respectively.
- 78.
Bok Hui is a mythological cultural hero who (along with his sister Yeowa C. Nüwa 女娲) is credited with creating humanity and inventing hunting, fishing and cooking.
- 79.
The “Divine Farmer” Sin Nong is a mythological Chinese deity in Chinese folk religion; more generally, he is venerated as a mythical sage ruler of prehistoric times.
- 80.
Emperor Geol was the last wicked ruler of the Ha (C. Xia) 夏 dynasty.
- 81.
Emperor Ju was the last wicked ruler of the Sang (C. Shang) 商 dynasty.
- 82.
Robber Cheok, of the Spring and Autumn Period, was commonly used as a stock figure of an amoral brigand.
- 83.
For the idea that we inherently have an innate good nature, see Mencius 6A6.
- 84.
Identified as those who come into the world with the greatest natural talent. See Analects 16.9.
- 85.
The term “primordial unity” or “calm unity” (dam il; C. zhan yi 湛一) is first found in the Western Inscription (Seomyeong; C. Ximing 西銘) by Jang Jae (C. Zhang Zai) 張載 and refers to the original source or state of gi.
- 86.
To establish a commitment (ipji; C. lizhi 立志) and earnestly practice (dokhaeng; C. duxing 篤行) are regular themes in classical Confucian texts. See for example Mencius 5B1 and Chap. 20 of the Doctrine of the Mean respectively.
- 87.
See the opening chapter of the Great Learning.
- 88.
See the opening chapter of the Doctrine of the Mean.
- 89.
The idea is that noble people do not regard the lower parts of their nature as their true or destined nature. See, Mencius 7B24.
- 90.
See Mencius 4A10 for people who do violence to and throw themselves away.
- 91.
See Analects 9.24.
- 92.
Cf. Mencius 7A16.
- 93.
Analects 6.3 The first part of this sentence combines a line from the Book of Changes and one from the Analects. See the Image Commentary (Sang jeon; C. Xiang zhuan 象傳) on the hexagram Bok (C. Fu) 復 in the Book of Changes and Analects 6.3.
- 94.
Duke Gwak (C. Guo) 郭公, whose name was Jang Bo (C. Zhang Fu) 長父, was minister to King Ryeo (C. Li) 厲 (r. 877–841 BCE or 857–842 BCE) of the Ju Dynasty. King Ryeo brought disaster on his state and himself; while the details are unknown, Duke Gwak is blamed for failing to control the king’s bad behavior and settle competition among his ministers.
- 95.
The following analysis of courage owes much to Mencius 1B3 and 2A2.
- 96.
“Blood and gi-material courage” is a kind of courage uninformed by pattern-principle and so morally blind and impetuous. This type of courage is described and criticized in the Mencius; roughly, it is what today we would “macho” courage. Yunjidang is not suggesting that a noble person lacks the ability to stand up to physical threats; rather, she thinks this is something only moral courage enables one to do, in the right way, for the right reason, to the right extent, etc.
- 97.
This invokes the story of Cook Jeong (C. Ding) 丁 in Chapter Three of the Jangja (C. Zhuangzi) 莊子, whose knife is said to be “without thickness” (muhu; C.wuhou 無厚) and so can easily move through the openings in the ox carcass he is carving.
- 98.
The demons of the four directions that Emperor Sun traditionally is said to have driven off. See the Canon of Sun chapter of Book of History (Sangseo; C. Shangshu 尚書) and the Chronicle of Zou (Jwajeon; C. Zouzhuan 左傳), Eighteenth Year of Duke Mun (C. Wen) 文.
- 99.
The last lines of Ju Hui’s comment on Mencius 6A15 say, “The Heavenly ruler will be calm, and every part of one’s body will heed its commands.” See Collected Commentaries on the Mencius (Maengja jipju; C. Mengzi jizhu 孟子集注). The “Heavenly ruler” refers to the heart-mind.
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Ivanhoe, P.J., Wang, H.Y. (2023). Im Yunjidang of Korea 任允摯堂 1721–1793. In: Waithe, M.E., Boos Dykeman, T. (eds) Women Philosophers from Non-western Traditions: The First Four Thousand Years. Women in the History of Philosophy and Sciences, vol 19. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28563-9_17
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