References
“Review of J.Müller, Handbuch der Physiologie des Menschen für Vorlesungen,” Brit. For. Med. Rev. 5 (1838), 75–116; quotation on pp. 82–84. (The Handbuch was originally published in two volumes by J. Hölscher, Koblenz: 1833–1837.)
Ibid., p. 84.
J.Müller, Handbuch der Physiologie des Menschen für Vorlesungen,” Brit. For. Med. Rev. 5 (1838), pp. 85–86.
Ibid., p. 89.
G.Valentin, Handbuch der Entwickelungsgeschichte des Menschen, (Berlin: August Rücker, 1835), p. 573.
G.Valentin, Handbuch der Entwickelungsgeschichte des Menschen, (Berlin: August Rücker, 1835), pp. vii-viii.
G.Valentin, Handbuch der Entwickelungsgeschichte des Menschen, (Berlin: August Rücker, 1835), pp. 573–574.
G.Valentin, Handbuch der Entwickelungsgeschichte des Menschen, (Berlin: August Rücker, 1835), p. 581. See also p. 587.
For a general discussion see Alexander Gode-vonAesch, Natural Science in German Romanticism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1941). For more detailed discussions of the impact of romantic ideas upon German biology see Timothy Lenoir, “The Göttingen School and the Development of Transcendental Naturphilosophie in the Romantic Era,” Stud. Hist. Biol., 5 (1981), 111–205; idem, “Teleology without Regrets. The Transformation of physiology in Germany: 1790–1847,” Stud. Hist. Phil. Sci., 12 (1981), 293–354.
The doctrine of parallelism is discussed in E. S.Russell, Form and Function: A Contribution to the History of Animal Morphology (London: John Murray, 1916), pp. 72 ff.; Stephen Jay Gould, Ontogeny and Phylogeny (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, Harvard University Press, 1977), esp. chap. 3.
See WalterPagel, “The Speculative Basis of Modern Pathology: Jahn, Virchow, and the Philosophy of Pathology,” Bull. Hist. Med., 18 (1945), 1–43.
Carl FriedrichHeusinger, System der Histologie (Eisenach: J. F. Bärecke, 1822), p. 19.
JohannesMüller, Ueber den feinen Bau und die Formen der krankhaften Geschwülste (Berlin: G. Reimer, 1838), p. 8.
JohannesMüller, Ueber den feinen Bau und die Formen der krankhaften Geschwülste (Berlin: G. Reimer, 1838), pp. 1–2. See also R. Rössle, “Die pathologische Anatomie des Johannes Müller,” Sudhoff's Arch., 22 (1929), 24–47, esp. pp. 29–30; Rudolf Virchow, “Johannes Müller, the Physiologist: An Eloge Pronounced in the Hall of the University of Berlin,” Edinburgh Med. J., 4 (1858–9), 425–463, 527–544, esp. pp. 539–540. The attempt to draw parallels between embryological and oncological phenomena is discussed in L. J. Rather, The Genesis of Cancer: A Study in the History of Ideas (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), pp. 77–78; and Frederick B. Churchill, “Rudolf Virchow and the Pathologist's Criteria for the Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics,” J. Hist. Med., 31 (1976), 117–148, esp. pp. 123–132.
“Review of Müller's Handbuch,” p. 77.
“Review of R.Owen, Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Invertebrate Animals,” Edinburgh Med. Surg. J., 61 (1844) 195–200; quotation on p. 196.
RichardOwen, Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Invertebrate Animals (London: Longman, 1843), pp. 5–6.
RichardOwen, Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Vertebrate Animals. Part 1: Fishes (London: Longman, 1846), pp. 2–3.
Carl FriedrichHeusinger: System der Histologie (Eisenach: J. F. Bärecke, 1822), p. 10.
Quoted in J. V.Pickstone, ‘Absorption and Osmosis: French Physiology and Physics in the Early Nineteenth Century,” Physiologist, 20 (1977), 30–37; quotation on p. 33. See also Michael Gross, “The Lessened Locus of Feelings: A Transformation in French Physiology in the Early Nineteenth Century,” J. Hist. Biol., 12 (1979), 231–271, especially pp. 258–262.
R. D.Grainger, “Microscopic Researches in Anatomy,” London Med. Gazette, n. s. 1 (1842–3), 167–172; quotation on p. 168. Richard Dugard Grainger (1801–1865) was a surgeon who in 1823 took over from his brother the private medical school on Webb Street, London. He closed the establishment in 1842, when St. Thomas's Hospital appointed him lecturer in general anatomy and physiology. One of the original 300 Fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1837. Grainger published works on general anatomy and on the physiological antomy of the nervous system.
Richard DugardGrainger, Observations on the Cultivation of Organic Science (London: Samuel Highley, 1848), p. 29.
MartinBarry, “Further Observations on the Unity of Structure in the Animal Kingdom, and on the Congenital Anomalies, including ‘Hermaphrodites’; with some Remarks on Embryology, as Facilitating Animal Nomenclature, Classification, and the Study of Comparative Antomy,” Edinburgh New Phil. J., 22 (1837), 345–364; quotation on p. 363. Martin Barry (1802–1855) studied medicine at Edinburgh, Paris, Heidelberg, Berlin, and London. He was a member of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh and received his doctorate in medicine in 1833. He lectured on physiology at St. Thomas's Hospital, London, in 1852 and became House Surgeon to the Royal Maternity Hospital, Edinburgh, in 1853. On the roots of German embryology in romanticism see Owsei Temkin, “German Concepts of Ontogeny and History around 1800,” in idem, The Double Face of Janus, and Other Essays in the History of Medicine (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977), pp. 373–389; Bernard Balan, L'Ordre et le temps: l'anatomie comparée et l'histoire des vivants au XIX e siècle (Paris: J. Vrin, 1979), pp. 246–251.
RichardOwen, Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Vertebrate Animals. Part 1: Fishes (London: Longman, 1846), p. 367.
WilliamSharpey, “Anatomy and Physiology: Introductory Lecture,” Lancet, 1 (1840–1), 73–78, 142–147, 281–284, 425–428, 489–492; quotations on pp. 428, 491. William Sharpey (1802–1880) studied anatomy in Edinburgh, Paris, and Germany before becoming professor of anatomy and physiology at London in 1836, a post he held for 38 years.
Lenoir, “Teleology without Regrets,” p. 313.
See JosephSchiller, Physiology and Classification: Historical Relations (Paris: Maloine, 1980), pp. 61–63. For a contemporary summary of this literature see Karl Friedrich Burdach et al., Die Physiologie als Erfahrungswissenschaft, 6 vols. (Leipzig: Leopold Voss, 1828–40), II, 407–408.
John V.Pickstone, “Globules and Coagula: Concepts of Tissue Formation in the Early Nineteenth Century,” J. Hist. Med., 28 (1973), 336–356. Some writers preferred the notion that fibres, rather than globules, were the primitive tissue element; however, this was more true of medical authors than of the “biological” thinkers under discussion here. See L. J. Rather, “Some Relations between Eighteenth-Century Fiber Theory and Nineteenth-Century Cell Theory,” Clio Medica, 4 (1969), 191–202.
See Balan, L'Ordre et le temps, pp. 226–228.
[Thomas SouthwoodSmith], “Life and Organization,” West. Rev., 7 (1827), 208–226; quotation on p. 212. Thomas Southwood Smith (1788–1861) entered the Edinburgh Medical School in 1812, and received his M. D. degree in 1816. He combined the profession of medicine with the Unitarian ministry and was active in sanitary reform and efforts to improve the conditions of the poor. A founding member of the Useful Knowledge Society, he published popular works on physiology.
[Thomas SouthwoodSmith], “Life and Organization,” West. Rev., 7 (1827), pp. 217–218.
Ibid., pp. 219, 225–226.
Ibid., p. 226.
TheodorSchwann, Microscopical Researches into the Accordance in the Structure and Growth of Animals and Plants, trans. Henry Smith (London: Sydenham Society, 1847), pp. x, 2, 34, 191, 196–197.
RichardOwen, Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Vertebrate Animals. Part 1: Fishes (London: Longman, 1846), pp. 25–26.
RichardOwen, Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Vertebrate Animals. Part 1: Fishes (London: Longman, 1846), p. 30. See also William Sharpey, “On a Peculiar Motion excited in Fluids by the Surfaces of Certain Animals”, Edinburgh Med. Surg. J., 34 (1830), 113–122; idem, “Account of the Discovery by Purkinje and Valentin of Ciliary Motions in Reptiles and Warm-Blooded Animals; with Remarks and Additional Experiments”, Edinburgh New Phil. J., 19 (1835), 114–129. For a discussion of the significance of ciliary motion see Mikulâs Teich, “Purkyně and Valentin on Ciliary Motion: An Early Investigation in Morphological Physiology”, Brit. J. Hist. Sci., 5 (1970), 168–177.
RichardOwen, Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Vertebrate Animals. Part 1: Fishes (London: Longman, 1846), p. 46.
RichardOwen, Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Vertebrate Animals. Part 1: Fishes (London: Longman, 1846), pp. 362, 365–366.
RichardOwen, Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Vertebrate Animals. Part 1: Fishes (London: Longman, 1846), p. 370.
RichardOwen, Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Vertebrate Animals. Part 1: Fishes (London: Longman, 1846), p. 368. See also Owen, Lectures on the Vertebrate Animals, pp. 10–11.
On von Baer see Russell, Form and Function, chap. 9.
Karl ErnstvonBaer, Uber Entwickelungsgeschichte der Thiere (Königsberg: Bornträger, 1828), p. 223.
See Lenoir, “Teleology without Regrets”, pp. 329–330.
DovOspovat, “The Influence of Karl Ernst von Baer's Embryology, 1828–1859: A Reappraisal in the Light of Richard Owen's and William B. Carpenter's ‘Palaentological Application of Von Baer's Law’”, J. Hist. Biol., 9 (1976), 1–28.
MartinBarry, “On the Unity of Structure in the Animal Kingdom”, Edinburgh New Phil. J., 22 (1837), 116–141; quotation on p. 118.
MartinBarry, “On the Unity of Structure in the Animal Kingdom”, Edinburgh New Phil. J., 22 (1837), pp. 121–122 (all italics are in the original unless otherwise stated).
MartinBarry, “On the Unity of Structure in the Animal Kingdom”, Edinburgh New Phil. J., 22 (1837), pp. 126–127.
William B.Carpenter, “On the Unity of Function in Organized Beings”, Edinburgh New Phil. J., 23 (1837), 92–114; quotation on p. 99.
Ibid., p. 100.
Ibid., p. 101.
William B.Carpenter, “On the Unity of Function in Organized Beings”, Edinburgh New Phil. J., 23 (1837), pp. 103–104, 106; Schwann, Microscopical Researches, p. x.
William B.Carpenter, “On the Unity of Function in Organized Beings”, Edinburgh New Phil. J., 23 (1837), pp. 111–113.
[William B.Carpenter], “Review of Mikroscopische Untersuchungen über die Uebereinstimmung in der Struktur und dem Wachstum der Thiere und Pflanzen”, Brit. For. Med. Rev., 9 (1840), 495–528; quotation on p. 495.
Ibid., p. 526.
See ArthurHughes, A History of Cytology (London and New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1959), pp. 6–11.
Churchill, “Rudolf Virchow”, p. 122; see also Rather, Genesis of Cancer, p. 77.
See LudwigFleck, Genesis and Development of a Scientific Idea (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979) for an extended demonstration of the dependence of observation on prior assumptions and training.
R. D.Grainger, ‘Microscopic Researches in Anatomy”, London Med. Gazette, n. s. 1 (1842–3), pp. 167–168.
JohnQuekett, Lectures on Histology, Delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons of England, in the Sessions 1850–51 (London: Hippolyte Bailliere, 1852), pp. 2–3.
William B.Carpenter, A Manual of Physiology, Including Physiological Anatomy for the Use of the Medical Student (London: John Churchill, 1846), pp. 17–18.
William B.Carpenter, The Microscope and Its Revelations (London: John Churchill, 1856), p. 13.
William B.Carpenter, A Manual of Physiology, Including Physiological Anatomy for the Use of the Medical Student (London: John Churchill, 1846), p. 26.
William B.Carpenter, A Manual of Physiology, Including Physiological Anatomy for the Use of the Medical Student (London: John Churchill, 1846), p. 31.
William B.Carpenter, A Manual of Physiology, Including Physiological Anatomy for the Use of the Medical Student (London: John Churchill, 1946), p. 123.
William B.Carpenter, A Manual of Physiology, Including Physiological Anatomy for the Use of the Medical Student (London: John Churchill, 1846), pp. 407–408.
On the early history of neurone theory see ArmandoAndreoli, Zur geschichtlichen Entwicklung der Neuronen-Theorie (Basel: Benno Schwabe, 1961), pp. 9–11; Edwin Clarke and C. D. O'Malley, The Human Brain and Spinal Cord: An Historical Study Illustrated by Writings from Antiquity to the Twentieth Century (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1968), pp. 39–42.
“The Scientific Value of the Microscope,” Prospective Rev., 6 (1850), 1–47; quotation on pp. 42–43. The author of this anonymous review was probably William Carpenter.
William B.Carpenter, The Microscope and Its Revelations (London: John Churchill, 1856), p. 28.
See EverettMendelsohn, “Physical Models and Physiological Concepts: Explanation in Nineteenth-Century Biology,” Brit. J. Hist. Sci., 2 (1965), 201–219; idem, “Cell Theory and the Development of General Physiology,” Arch. Int. Scis., 16 (1963), 419–429. For a general discussion of nineteenth-century attempts to find a histological basis for functions see K. E. Rothschuh, “Von der Histomorphologie zur Histophysiologie,” in V. Kruta, ed., J. E. Purkyně, 1787–1869 (Brno: Universita Jan Evangelisty Purkinjě, 1971), pp. 197–211.
R. D. Grainger, “Gland,” in R. B. Todd, ed., Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology, 2 (1839), 480–494; quotation on pp. 481–482. Grainger refers to the French translation of Meckel's work on general anatomy: J.-F. Meckel, Manuel d'anatomie génerale, descriptive et pathologique, trans. A. J. L. Jourdan and G. Breschet, 3 vols. (Paris: J. B. Baillière, 1825), I, 515.
Sharpey's career is discussed in D. W.Taylor, “The Life and Teaching of William Sharpey (1802–1880) ‘Father of Modern Physiology’ in Britain,” Med. Hist., 15 (1971), 126–153, 241–259.
Quoted ibid., p. 150.
See, for example, John Phillips Potter, Lectures on Anatomy and Physiology, 1836–7 [by William Sharpey], University College London MSS (hereafter UCL MSS), MS. ADD. 285/1, pp. 7, 116–118.
Taylor, “Life of Sharpey,” p. 152.
Müller's ideas were readily available to English readers after 1839 via a précis and commentary by Samuel Solly on Müller's major work on glands: John [sic] Müller, The Intimate Structure of Secreting Glands, trans. S. Solly (London: Joseph Butler, 1839).
Potter, Lectures on Anatomy and Physiology, pp. 165–167.
Notes on Lectures on Physiology, 1842–3 by William Sharpey, UCL MSS, MS. ADD. 278., pp. 73–75.
Joseph Lister, Notes of William Sharpey's Lectures on Physiology, delivered at University College London, 1849, Wellcome Institute Library, p. 133. Sharpey's views on secretion were published in JonesQuain, Elements of Anatomy, ed. RichardQuain and WilliamSharpey, 2 vols. (London: Taylor, Walton, and Maberly, 1848), I, ccxcvii-cccvii.
JamesPaget, “Report on the Results Obtained by the Use of the Microscope in the Study of Human Anatomy and Physiology. Part I,” Brit. For. Med. Rev., 14 (1842), 259–296; quotation on p. 292.
See J.Henle, Allgemeine Anatomie. Lehre von den Mischungs und Formebestandtheilen des menschlichen Körpers (Leipzig: Leopold Voss, 1841), pp. 821, 890–891.
Grainger, “Microscopic Researches,” p. 170. For Goodsir's views on secretion see John Goodsir, “The Structure and Function of the Intestinal Villi,” reprinted in his Anatomical Memoirs, ed. William Turner, 2 vols. (Edinburgh: Adam and Charles Black, 1868), II, 393–402.
L. S.Jacyna, “John Goodsir and the Making of Cellular Reality,” J. Hist. Biol., 16 (1983), 75–99.
William B.Carpenter, “Report on the Results Obtained by the Use of the Microscope in the Study of Anatomy and Physiology. Part II. On the Origin and Function of Cell,” Brit. For. Med. Rev., 15 (1843), 259–281; quotation on p. 279.
William B.Carpenter, A Manual of Physiology, Including Physiological Anatomy for the Use of the Medical Student (London: John Churchill, 1846), pp. 408–410.
ThomasWilliam, “On the Physiology of Cells,” Guy's Hosp. Repts., 4 (1846), 273–331; quotation on pp. 278–279. Thomas Williams (1819–1865) entered Guy's Hospital as a student in 1837, and received his M.D. degree at London University in 1840. He held the post of tutor at Guy's and was one of the earliest microscopists to work at the hospital. He joined Grainger's Webb Street school around 1843; when it closed he went into practice in South Wales.
ThomasWilliams, “On the Physiology of Cells,” Guy's Hosp. Repts., 4 (1846), pp. 275–276.
ThomasWilliams, “On the Physiology of Cells,” Guy's Hosp. Repts., 4, (1846), pp. 276–277. fig. 1.
Ibid., p. 279.
ThomasWilliams, “On the Physiology of Cells,” Guy's Hosp. Repts., 4 (1846), pp. 320–321.
Ibid., p. 322.
Sharpey, “Anatomy and Physiology,” p. 491.
Edward Ballard, Notes of Lectures on Anatomy and Physiology at University College London, 1840-1 [by William Sharpey], 2 vols., UCL MSS, MS. ADD. 286/1-2, I, 10.
Thomas Hodgkin (1798–1866) studied medicine at Guy's Hospital and in Paris and Edinburgh, where he graduated with an M.D. in 1823. In 1825 he was appointed curator of the Museum of Pathology at Guy's; he also gave lectures in pathology at the hospital. Hodgkin was a member of the senate of London University from 1837 to his death. He gradually dropped out of practice and devoted most of his time to philanthropic activities. For a brief account of his career see MichaelRose, Curator of the Dead: Thomas Hodgkin (1798–1866) (London: Peter Owen, 1981).
ThomasHodgkin, “The History of an Unusually-Formed Placenta, and Imperfect Foetus, and of Similar Examples of Monstrous Productions,” Guy's Hosp. Repts., 1 (1836), 218–226; quotation on pp. 224–225.
Balan, L'Ordre et le temps, p. 225.
G.Andral, Précis d'anatomie pathologique, 2 vols., (Paris: Chez Gabon, 1829), I, 233–236.
ThomasHodgkin, “On the Anatomical Characters of some Adventitious Structures,” Medico-Chirurg. Trans., 15 (1829), 265–338; quotation on p. 265.
ThomasHodgkin, “On the Anatomical Characters of some Adventitious Structures,” Medico-Chirurg. Trans., 15, (1829), pp. 275–292.
ThomasHodgkin, “On the Anatomical Characters of some Adventitious Structures,” Medico-Chirurg. Trans., 15 (1829), pp. 293–294, 322.
ThomasHodgkin, “Review of ‘On the Anatomical Characters of some Adventitious Structures’,” Edinburgh Med. Surg. J., 34 (1830), 164–174; quotation on p. 174.
RobertCarswell, Pathological Anatomy: Illustrations of the Elementary Forms of Disease (London: Longman, 1838), fasc. x, pp. 8–9.
ThomasHodgkin, “On the Anatomical Characters of some Adventitious Structures, being an Attempt to Point out the Relation between the Microscopic Characters and those which are discernible by the Naked Eye,” Medico-Chirurg. Trans., 26 (1843), 242–285; quotation on pp. 257–258.
On Müller's oncology see Rather, Genesis of Cancer, pp. 88–90.
ThomasHodgkin, “On the Anatomical Characters of some Adventitious Structures, being an Attempt to Point out the Relation between the Microscopic Characters and those which are discernible by the Naked Eye,” Medico-Chirurg. Trans., 26 (1843), pp. 245–246.
Ibid., p. 257.
Ibid., p. 263.
ThomasHodgkin, “On the Anatomical Characters of some Adventitious Structures, being an Attempt to Point out the Relation between the Microscopic Characters and those which are discernible by the Naked Eye,” Medico-Chirurg. Trans., 26 (1843), pp. 267–268, 274. Hodgkin refers to Martin Barry, “Researches in Embryology. Third Series: A Contribution to the Physiology of Cells,” Phil. Trans. pt. 1 (1840), 529–593.
ThomasHodgkin, “On the Anatomical Characters of some Adventitious Structures, being an Attempt to Point out the Relation between the Microscopic Characters and those which are discernible by the Naked Eye,” Medico-Chirurg. Trans., 26 (1843), pp. 283–284.
Carpenter, “On the Unity of Function,” p. 92.
MartinBarry, “Further Observations on the Unity of Structure in the Animal Kingdom, and on the Congenital Anomalies, including ‘Hermaphrodites’; with some Remarks on Embryology, as Facilitating Animal Nomenclature, Classification, and the Study of Comparative Anatomy,” Edinburgh New Phil. J., 22 (1837), pp. 73–74.
Richard DugardGrainger, Observations on the Cultivation of Organic Science (London: Samuel Highley, 1848), p. 7.
William B.Carpenter, A Manual of Physiology, Including Physiological Anatomy for the Use of the Medical Student (London: John Churchill, 1846), pp. 14–16.
William B.Carpenter, A Manual of Physiology, Including Physiological Anatomy for the Use of the Medical Student (London: John Churchill, 1846), pp. 17–18.
[JohnForbes], “Review of William Carpenter's Manual of Physiology,” Brit. For. Med. Rev., 21 (1846), 480–483; quotation on p. 482.
“Scientific Value of the Microscope,” pp. 45–46.
See DovOspovat, “Perfect Adaptation and Teleological Explanation: Approaches to the Problem of the History of Life in the Mid-Nineteenth Century,” Stud. Hist. Biol., 2 (1978), 33–56.
See L. S.Jacyna, “Principles of General Physiology: The Comparative Dimension to British Neuroscience in the 1830s and 1840s,” Stud. Hist. Biol., 7 (1984), 47–92; esp. pp. 60–68.
Richard D.French, “Some Problems and Sources in the Foundations of Modern Physiology,” Hist. Sci., 10 (1971), 28–55; quotation on pp. 28–29.
RichardOwen, Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Vertebrate Animals. Part 1: Fishes (London: Longman, 1846), pp. 362, 4.
Sharpey, “Anatomy and Physiology,” p. 75.
M. JeannePeterson, The Medical Profession in Mid-Victorian London (Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1978), pp. 149–154.
Owen to Paget, 29 June 1849, Paget MSS, Wellcome Institute Library, ff. 365–370; quotations on ff. 365–366, 367–368.
L. S.Jacyna, “Images of John Hunter in the Nineteenth Century,” Hist. Sci. (1983), 21 (1983), 85–108.
M. JeannePeterson, The Medical Profession in Mid-Victorian London (Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1978), pp. 150–151.
MartinBarry, “Further Observations on the Unity of Structure in the Animal Kingdom, and on the Congenital Anomalies, including ‘Hermaphrodites’; with some Remarks on Embryology, as Facilitating Animal Nomenclature, Classification, and the Study of Comparative Anatomy,“ Edinburgh New Phil. J. 22 (1837), pp. 75–76.
MartinBarry, “Further Observations on the Unity of Structure in the Animal Kingdom, and on the Congenital Anomalies, including ‘Hermaphrodites’; with some Remarks on Embryology, as Facilitating Animal Nomenclature, Classification, and the Study of Comparative Anatomy,” Edinburgh New Phil. J., 22 (1837), pp. 76–77.
Forbes, “Review of Carpenter's Manual of Physiology,” p. 482.
Richard DugardGrainger, Observations on the Cultivation of Organic Science (London: Samuel Highley, 1848), pp. 46–47, 57.
MartinBarry, “Further Observations on the Unity of Structure in the Animal Kingdom, and on the Congenital Anomalies, including ‘Hermaphrodites’; with some Remarks on Embryology, as Facilitating Animal Nomenclature, Classification, and the Study of Comparative Anatomy,” Edinburgh New Phil. J., 22 (1837), pp. 362–364.
William B.Carpenter, A Manual of Physiology, Including Physiological Anatony for the Use of the Medical Student (London: John Churchill, 1848), pp. v-vi.
[JohnForbes], “Review of William Carpenter's Manual of Physiology,” Brit. For. Med. Rev., 21 (1846), pp. 480–481.
Lois N.Magner, A History of the Life Sciences (New York and Basel: Marcel Dekker, 1979), p. 214.
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Jacyna, L.S. The romantic programme and the reception of cell theory in Britain. J Hist Biol 17, 13–48 (1984). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00397501
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00397501