Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Gendering the Pandemic: Women’s Health Disparities From a Human Rights Perspective

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Health Care Analysis Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

As COVID-19 keeps impacting the world, its impact is felt differently by people of different sexes and genders. International guidelines and research on gender inequalities and women’s rights during the pandemic have been published. However, data from Taiwan is lacking. This study aims to fill the gap to increase our knowledge regarding this issue and provide policy recommendations. This study is part of a more extensive project in response to the fourth state report concerning the implementation of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women in Taiwan in 2022. We have drawn on the guidelines and documents published by the United Nations human rights bodies, conducted interviews with advocacy and professional practitioners, and hosted a study group comprising students and teachers from the National Taiwan University College of Public Health to supplement the interview data. The data were analyzed thematically. The results include five themes: (1) particular health risks to carers (primarily women); (2) COVID-related measures’ impact on women’s health and health behaviors; (3) highly gendered psychological maladjustment; (4) increase in gender-based violence and domestic violence; and (5) mental health inequities and intersectionality. The study has global implications for societies of similar sociopolitical contexts and developmental statuses. To truly live up to the standard of CEDAW and other international human rights principles, we ask that central and local government be more aware of these lived experiences and adjust their policies accordingly, accounting for gender sensitivity.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Here, sex refers to variation in the biological attributes that characterize female, male, and intersex, and how they are expressed; gender connotes the social, behavioral, and cultural attributes, expectations, and norms associated with sexed bodies.

  2. The official abbreviations for both the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and its monitoring organ, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, are the same as “CEDAW”.

  3. The contributors to the Joint Report include the Garden of Hope Foundation, Kaohsiung Pride Association, Kaohsiung Women Awakening Association, League for Persons with Disabilities, Modern Women’s Foundation, Taiwan Alliance to Promote Civil Partnership Rights, and Young Women’s Christian Association of Taiwan–besides the Mental Health Association in Taiwan, for which the two co-authors are responsible.

  4. In fact, among the so-called nine core international human rights, in addition to CEDAW, Taiwan has also internalized, through treaty ratification or an Enforcement Act, the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD); International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR); International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR); Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC); and Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD). There is an ongoing debate around whether and how to internalise the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT).

  5. Article 12 of the CEDAW:

    1. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in the field of health care in order to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women, access to health care services, including those related to family planning.

    2. Notwithstanding the provisions of paragraph I of this article, States Parties shall ensure to women appropriate services in connection with pregnancy, confinement and the post-natal period, granting free services where necessary, as well as adequate nutrition during pregnancy and lactation.

  6. Article 13 of the CEDAW:

    States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in other areas of economic and social life in order to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women, the same rights, in particular:

    (a) The right to family benefits;

    (b) The right to bank loans, mortgages and other forms of financial credit;

    (c) The right to participate in recreational activities, sports and all aspects of cultural life.

  7. According to CEDAW’s General Recommendation No 28, different treatment explicitly based on the grounds of sex and gender differences constitutes direct discrimination against women; indirect discrimination occurs when a policy “appears to be neutral as it relates to men and women, but has a discriminatory effect in practice on women” due to pre-existing inequalities [5, para 16].

  8. These organizations have provided support regarding information and consultation services, policy advocacy initiatives, and networking of people who are in need and agencies who offer professional help.Taiwan Association of Family Caretakers: https://www.familycare.org.tw/book/10729l; Taoyuan Lifeline Association: http://www.1995line.org.tw/; Taiwan Counseling Psychologist Union: https://www.tcpu.org.tw/; Taiwan Women’s Link: http://twl.ngo.org.tw/; Taiwan Nurses Union: https://sites.google.com/twnu.org/tnu/%E9%A6%96%E9%A0%81; Mental Health Association: https://www.mhat.org.tw/.

  9. Later, the CECC cancelled the alert-level system on 24 February 2022.

  10. The English versions of all the shadow/parallel reports submitted by civil society organizations can be found at: http://www.cedaw.org.tw/en/en-global/download/index/4.

  11. See also Conclusions and Recommendations of the International Review Committee announced on 1 December 2022, following the Review of Taiwan’s Fourth Report on the Implementation of CEDAW (which did not happen yet when the article was written). Available at: https://gec.ey.gov.tw/Page/8311232E3E16856.

References

  1. Alon, T., Doepke, M., Olmstead-Rumsey, J. and Tertilt, M. 2020. “The impact of COVID-19 on gender equality” (NBER Working Paper No. 26947). US: National Bureau of Economic Research.

  2. Bottorff, J. L., Oliffe, J. L., Robinson, C. A., & Carey, J. (2011). Gender relations and health research: A review of current practices. International Journal for Equity in Health, 10, 60. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-9276-10-60

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  3. CEDAW, 1999. General Recommendation No. 24: Article 12 of the Convention (Women and Health), A/54/38/Rev.1, chap. I.

  4. CEDAW, 2004. General Recommendation No. 25 on Article 4, Paragraph 1, of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, on Temporary Special Measures.

  5. CEDAW, 2010. General Recommendation No. 28 on the Core Obligations of States Parties under Article 2 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, CEDAW/C/GC/28.

  6. CESCR, 2000. General Comment No. 14: The Right to the Highest Attainable Standard of Health (Art. 12 of the Covenant), E/C.12/2000/4.

  7. CESCR. 2005. General Comment No. 16: The Equal Right of Men and Women to the Enjoyment of All Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Art. 3 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights). E/C.12/2005/411.

  8. CESCR, 2016. General Comment No. 22 on the Right to Sexual and Reproductive Health (article 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), E/C.12/GC/22.

  9. Chang, C.-F. (2022). Salary and sacrifices: Analyzing labor outcomes of medical personnel from a gender perspective. National Taiwan University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Chen, I.-T. (2021). Why “chá lǐ wáng” (king of the teahouse) goes to the teahouse everyday? Rethinking intimacies in the “cháshì (teahouse) culture”. Forum in Women’s and Gender Studies, 115, 33–40. https://doi.org/10.6256/fwgs.202110_(115).05

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Chen, Tzu-Hua. 2021a. “The side effect of counter-COVID-19 measures: Domestic violence”. Modern Women Foundation, 30 June 2021a. Available at: https://www.38.org.tw/news_detail.asp?mem_auto=590&p_kind=%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E6%B6%88%E6%81%AF&p_kind2=%E5%AA%92%E9%AB%94%E5%A0%B1%E5%B0%8E&p_kind3=%E7%84%A1

  12. Chen, Yi. (2021). Loneliness: Childbirth experiences of a mother tested COVID-19 positive. Forum in Women’s and Gender Studies, 115, 64–69. https://doi.org/10.6256/fwgs.202110_(115).08

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Chiang, Chen-Yin, Hung, Hui-Fen, Chang, Chin-Fen, and Kuo, Hui-Yu. 2021. The situations of and welfare support for middle-aged and older women under the COVID-19 pandemic context: Final report. Taipei: Foundation of Women’s Rights Promotion and Development.

  14. Chiu, Shu-Yi. 2020. COVID-infected medical staff couples were witchhunted: Nurse in Isolation Ward lamented that our society has not progressed at all since SARS. Common Health. https://www.commonhealth.com.tw/article/81198

  15. CRPD. 2018. General Comment No. 6 on Equality and Non-discrimination. CRPD/C/GC/6.

  16. Dowling, E. (2021). Caring in times of a global pandemic: Introduction. Historical Social Research, 46(4), 7–30. https://doi.org/10.12759/hsr.46.2021.4.7-30

    Article  MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  17. Evagora-Campbell, M., et al. (2021). From routine data collection to policy design: Sex and gender both matter in COVID-19. The Lancet, 397(10293), 2447–2449.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Goonesekere, S. W. E. (2019). The indivisibility of rights and substantive equality for women. In Niamh Reilly (Ed.), International Human Rights of Women (pp. 1–23). Springer, Singapore: International Human Rights.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Guney, G., Davies, D., & Lee, P.-H. (2022). Introduction. In G. Guney, D. Davies, & P. H. Lee (Eds.), Towards Gender Equality in Law (pp. 1–12). Palgrave Macmillan.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  20. Guney, G., Lee, P.-H., & Davies, D. (2022). Conclusion. In G. Guney, D. Davies, & P. H. Lee (Eds.), Towards Gender Equality in Law (pp. 227–246). Palgrave Macmillan.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  21. Hellum, A., & Aasen, H. S. (Eds.). (2013). Women’s Human Rights: CEDAW in International, Regional and National Law. Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Hyde, J. S. (2016). Women, Men, Work, and Family: Expansionist Theory Updated. In S. M. McHale, V. King, J. Van Hook, & A. Booth (Eds.), Gender and Couple Relationships (pp. 93–109). Springer International Publishing.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  23. Jensen, A., Stromme, M., Moyassari, S., Chadha, A. S., Tartaglia, M. C., Szoeke, C., & Ferretti, M. T. (2022). COVID-19 vaccines: Considering sex differences in efficacy and safety. Contemporary Clinical Trials, 115, 106700. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cct.2022.106700

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Kan, M.-Y., Zhou, M., Kolpashnikova, K., Hertog, E., Yoda, S., & Jiweon. (2022). Revisiting the gender revolution: time on paid work, domestic work, and total work in East Asian and Western Societies 1985–2016. Gender & Society, 36(3), 368–396. https://doi.org/10.1177/08912432221079664

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Kim, S., Kim, J. H., Park, Y., Kim, S., & Kim, C. Y. (2020). Gender analysis of COVID-19 outbreak in South Korea: A common challenge and call for action. Health Education & Behavior, 47(4), 525–530.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Kristal, T., & Yaish, M. (2020). Does the coronavirus pandemic level the gender inequality curve? (It doesn’t). Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 68, 100520.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Lee, P.-H. (2021). The significance of cultural competence in public health: COVID-19 contact tracing as an example. Taiwan Journal of Public Health, 40(5), 474–478. https://doi.org/10.6288/TJPH.202110_40(5).110066

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Lee, P.-H., & Kao, Y.-C. (2022). Health Apartheid during COVID-19: A Decolonial Critique of Racial Politics between Taiwan and the WHO. International Journal of Taiwan Studies, 5(2), 375–402. https://doi.org/10.1163/24688800-05020006

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Lui, C.-W., & Chang, C.-F. (2020). Gendering the Job Demands-Resources Model: Work-Family Conflict in Taiwan. Families, Relationships and Societies, 9(3), 431–450.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Madrigal-Borloz, Victor. 2020a. “ASPIRE Guidelines on COVID-19 response and recovery free from violence and discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity”. United Nations Human Rights Special Procedures (Geneva: United Nations Human Rights Special Procedures).

  31. Madrigal-Borloz, Victor. 2020b. “Violence and discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity during the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic.” United Nations General Assembly (Geneva: United Nations General Assembly). Available at: https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N20/197/62/PDF/N2019762.pdf?OpenElement.

  32. Ministry of Health and Welfare. 2018. “2017 Older adults’ life survey: Primary family caretaker report.” https://dep.mohw.gov.tw/dos/lp-5095-113-xCat-y106.html

  33. Ministry of Health and Welfare. 2021a. “Statistics”. https://dep.mohw.gov.tw/DOPS/lp-1303-105.html (last visited 27 September 2022).

  34. Ministry of Health and Welfare. 2021b. “Year 110 Volunteer Services Data.”https://dep.mohw.gov.tw/DOS/cp-5112-70678-113.html

  35. Ministry of Health and Welfare. 2021c. “Central Epidemic Command Center Daily COVID-19.”https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uZqAy0satDU

  36. Mofokeng, Tlaleng. 2021. “Report of the Special Rapporteur on the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health. Sexual and reproductive health rights: Challenges and opportunities during the COVID-19 pandemic.” United Nations General Assembly (Geneva).

  37. Moreira, D. N., Pinto, M., & da Costa. (2020). The impact of the Covid-19 pandemic in the precipitation of intimate partner violence. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 71, 101606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2020.101606

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. New Taipei City Social Welfare Department. 2016. “Women caretakers”https://ge.sw.ntpc.gov.tw/ge/ge/family_detail/246452

  39. OCED. 2017. “Women make up most of the health sector workers but they are under- represented in high-skilled jobs.” https://www.oecd.org/gender/data/women-make-up-most-of-the-health-sector-workers-but-they-are-under-represented-in-high-skilled-jobs.htm

  40. OHCHR, and WHO. 2008. “ Fact Sheet No. 31: The Right to Health.” https://www.ohchr.org/en/publications/fact-sheets/fact-sheet-no-31-right-health

  41. Šimonović, Dubravka. 2020. “Report of the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences. Intersection between the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic and the pandemic of gender-based violence against women, with a focus on domestic violence and the “peace in the home” initiative.” United Nations General Assembly (Geneva).

  42. Spini, A., Giudice, V., Brancaleone, V., Morgese, M. G., De Francia, S., Filippelli, A., Ruggieri, A., et al. (2021). Sex-tailored pharmacology and COVID-19: Next steps towards appropriateness and health equity. Pharmacological Research, 173, 105848. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2021.105848

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. Su, Z., Cheshmehzangi, A., McDonnell, D., Šegalo, S., Ahmad, J., & Bennett, B. (2022). Gender inequality and health disparity amid COVID-19. Nursing Outlook, 70(1), 89–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Tai, P.-F. (2021). Treatment of disadvantaged groups of people in Wanhua: The differences between SARS and COVID-19. Forum in Women’s and Gender Studies, 115, 12–22. https://doi.org/10.6256/fwgs.202110_(115).03

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Thurmond, V. A. (2001). The point of triangulation. Journal of nursing scholarship, 33(3), 253–258.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Walby, S. (2005). Introduction: Comparative gender mainstreaming in a global era. International Feminist Journal of Politics, 7(4), 453–470. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616740500284383

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Wenham, C., Smith, J., & Morgan, R. (2020). COVID-19: The gendered impacts of the outbreak. Lancet, 395(10227), 846–848. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30526-2

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  48. WHO, 2020b. “Infodemic.” https://www.who.int/health-topics/infodemic#tab=tab_1

  49. Yaron, Lee. 2021. The Damages of COVID Will Stay With Israeli Women for Years. Haaretz. https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2021-03-08/ty-article/violence-and-discrimination-pandemic-effects-will-stay-with-israeli-women-for-years/0000017f-e5e8-d97e-a37f-f7ed26630000

  50. Yeh, Ming-Jui, and Feng-Yi Liu. 2022. “Others’ children are expendable.” Comparing childcare sector with health and long-term sectors in Taiwan.” Children & Society n/a (n/a). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/chso.12626.

Download references

Acknowledgements

We are grateful for the Journal editors’ guidance and reviewers’ feedback. We sincerely thank all the interview participants, the “COVID and CEDAW” study group members, and friends and colleagues from other civil society and women’s rights organizations. We much appreciate the logistical and bursary support from the Foundation of Women’s Rights Promotion and Development and the Mental Health Association in Taiwan. Previous drafts were presented at the annual meeting of the Taiwan Society for Medical Anthropology and that of the Taiwanese Feminist Scholars Association in 2022; we thank the participants for their constructive feedback and critical comments.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Global Health Program, National Taiwan University, Room 713, No. 17, Xu-Zhou Road, Taipei, 10055, Taiwan

    JhuCin Rita Jhang & Po-Han Lee

Authors
  1. JhuCin Rita Jhang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Po-Han Lee
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Po-Han Lee.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Jhang, J.R., Lee, PH. Gendering the Pandemic: Women’s Health Disparities From a Human Rights Perspective. Health Care Anal 32, 15–32 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10728-023-00463-x

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10728-023-00463-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation