Abstract
Among the means of valid cognition, the one which appears first in every enumeration, which was considered as being the basis of all other means of knowledge and which was considered as a legitimate method of knowledge by all schools of Indian thought is perception (pratyakṣa). With regard to perception, we can naturally expect such questions as ‘what is it to perceive’ or ‘what do we mean when we say that something is perceived’. It is generally believed that the philosophical theories of perceptions are really theories about what we mean by ordinary perceptual statements. In considering our knowledge about the external world, the philosopher tends to consider the way in which perception can and does provide us with the knowledge and the nature, extent and certainty of knowledge it provides us with. It is a well acknowledged fact that perception is the fundamental source of knowledge. In Buddhist epistemology, a systematic discussion on perception is found in the writings of Dignāga’s Pramāṇasamuccaya with vṛitti, who belongs to Yogācāra school of Buddhism of Mahayana tradition. An attempt has been made in this paper to explain and examine critically the first chapter of Pramāṇasamuccaya with vṛitti, i.e., perception with special reference to Non-Buddhist schools, namely Nyāyayikas, Vaiśeṣikas, Sāṁkhyans and Mīmāṁsakas. To explain it, the paper has been divided into three sections. Section I deals with Dignāga’s theory of perception and examination of non-Buddhist school's theory of perception, section II deals with Dignāga’s examination of nature of Perception with reference to non-Buddhists schools and section III deals with conclusion.
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Notes
Vidyabhusana Satish Chandra., A History of Indian Logic (Ancient, Mediaeval and Modern Schools), New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1920, Introduction, p. XIII.
Anuṣṭubh is a meter and a metrical unit, found in both Vedic and Classical Sanskrit poetry, but with significant differences. By origin, an anuṣṭubh stanza is a quatrain of four lines. Each line, called a pāda (lit. 'foot'), has eight syllables.
In this paper, I am considering Non-Buddhist schools as Nyāyayikas, Vaiśeṣikas, Sāṁkhyans and Mīmāṁsakas only. I am not dealing the schools of Yoga and Advaitins even though they are non-Buddhist schools.
akṣam akṣaṁ praiti vartata iti pratyakṣam, (Nyāya-mukha, cited in Dignāga on perception)., p.77.
Dignāga’s Pramāṇasamuccaya, I, Ka.4 ab; Nyāya-mukha (cited in Dignāga on Perception), p. 77 & 87.
Dignāga’Pramāṇasamuccaya, Ka.3a; Dignāga on Perception by M.Hattori; Verse 3, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1968.
tasya viṣayaḥ svalakṣaṇam, Dharmakīrti’s Nyāyabindu 1.11. (ed.) Dalsukh Malvania, Patna: Kashi Prasad Jayaswal Research Institute, 1955.
Dignāga on Perception, Translated by M.Hattori, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1963, p.28.
Ibid. p.28.
Visaya svarūpa nuvidhyai paricchedakamatma samvedyam pratyakṣameti, H.N.Randle, Fragments from Dignāga, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, First Indian Reprint, 1981, p.9. anādhigata visayam pramāṇam.
Th.Stcherbatsky., Buddhist logic, Vol., I, New York: Dover Publications, 1962, p.158.
Dharmakīrti’s (4). Nyāyabindu with Dharmottara’s Nyāyabindutīkā, and Durveka Miśra’s Dharmottarapradīpa, (ed.) Dalsukh Malvania, Tibetan Sanskirt works Series 2, Kashi Prasad Jayaswal Research Institute, Patna, 7.16.
In fact Dignāga does not deny non-illusiveness in toto. He treated it separately, just as there are logical fallacies or illicit inferences, just so are their fallacies of perception, but they are not produced by the senses, but by the intellect. They are firstly illusions proper, secondly all empirical perception is a transcendental illusion, for it consists in mistaking an objectivized image for external reality, thirdly all inferences and its result is illicitly treated as sense-perception and lastly all memory and all desires, since they are called forth by former experience are produced by the understanding.
Indriyārtha sannikarṣotpanaṃ jñānam avyapadeśyam avyabhicāri vyavasāyātmakaṃ pratyakṣam, Jha Ganganath, Nyāyasūtras of Gotama, Allahabad: Eng.Translation. 1.1.4, 1917–19.
Ātma-indriya-artha-sannikarṣāt-yat- niṣpadyate- tat- anyāt. Sinha Nandalal., The Vaiśeṣika sūtras of Kaṇāda, Allahabad: published by Sudhindranath Basu, Bahadurganj. III.1.18, 1923.
Tayoḥ niṣpattih pratyakṣa-lai ṇgikābhyām, Ibid., X.1.3.
Yatsambandha siddhamtadakarollekhivijñānam tat pratyakṣam, Sāṃkhya pravacana sūtra of Kapila, I.89. Sinha Nandalal., (tr.), The Philosophy of the Hindus, Allahabad: published by Sudhindranath Vasu, Bahadurganj. 1915. (Containing 1) Sāṃkhya-Pravachana sutram, with the vṛitti of Aniruddha and the Bhasya of Vijnana Bhiksu and Extracts from the Vritti-sara of Mahadeva Vedantin, 2) Tatva Samasa/ 3) Sāṃkhya 4) Panchasikha).
Sāṃkhya pravacana bhāṣya, Ibid., I.89.
Prativisayadhyavasayodrṣtam, Sāṃkhya Kārika., 5.
Sāṃkhyatattvakaumudi of Vācaspati Miśra., 5.
Sat-saṃprayoge puruṣasya indriyāṇāṁ buddhi-janma tat pratyakṣm animittaṁ vidyamāno- palambhanatvāt, The Mīmāṁsa sūtra of Jaiminī, (tr.) by Pandit Mohan Lal Sandal, Allahabad: Published by Panini Office, I.i.4, 1923.
Miśra Vācaspati., Nyāyavārttikatātparyatīka, Varanasi: (ed.) Pt.Rajeshwar Shastri Dravid, Chaukhamba Sanskrit Series, 1925, p.128.
Jannirvikalpākhyaṁ tadatīndriyamiṣyate, Visvanatha’s Bhāṣapariccheda, Siddhantamuktavali, Bombay: Nirnaya Sagar Press, p.58.
Viśiṣṭavaiśiṣtyajñānam prati hi viśeṣaṇatāvacchedaka-prakārakaṁ jñānaṁ karaṇaṁ, etc. Gaṅgeśa. Tattvacintāmaṇi, Calcutta: Bibliotheca Indica, I, p.812.
Savikalpakaṁca viśiṣtajñānaṁ yathā gaurayamiti, Gaṅgeśa’s 1893Tattvacintāmaṇi, Calcutta: Bibliotheca Indica, I p.839.
Tasmāt ya eva vastvātmā savikalpakasya gocaraḥ sa eva nirvikalpakasya śabdollekhavivarjitaḥ …Iha śabdānusandhānamātramabhyadhikaṁ paraṁ, viṣaye na tu bhedo’sti savikalpāvikalpayoḥ, Bhattacharya Janaki Vallabha., Jayanta Bhāṭṭa’s Nyāya-Mañjarī, New Delhi: Vol.I, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1978, p.99.
Dravye tāvat trividhe mahatyanekadravyavattodbhūtārūpaprakāśacatuṣṭayasannikarṣād dharmādisāmagṛye ca svarūpālo canamātram. Praśastapādabhāṣya, (ed.) by Gopinath Kaviraja and Dhudhiraj Shastri, Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series No.384, Vidyavilas Press edition, Benares, 1929, pp 552–553.
Kintu sāmānyaṁ viśeṣam cabhayamapi gṛhnāti. Kshetresachandra Chattopadhyaya, (ed.) Praśastapāda- bhāṣya, Nyāyakaṇdalī, Varanaseya Sanskrit Vishwavidyalaya, Varanasi, 1963, p.446.
Yadi paramidaṁ sāmānyamayaṁ viśeṣa ityevaṁ vivicya na pratyeti vastvantarānusandhāna- virahāt, Ibid., p.446.
Piṇdāntarānuvṛttigrahaṇāddhi sāmānyaṁ vivicyate, vūavṛthigrahaṇādviśeṣo’ yamiti vivekaḥ, Ibid., pp.446–447.
avyapadeśyaṁ jātyādisvarūpāvagāhi natu jātyādināṁ mitho viśeṣaṇaviśeṣyabhāvavagāhi…..Nyāya Sūtra 1.1.4, Gadadhara Shaastri Tailanga (ed.) Nyāyavārttikatātparyatīkā, Vizianagaram Sanskrit Series No.15, Benares, 1898, p.82.
Akṣasannipātānantaramaviviktasāmānyaviśeṣavibhāgaṁ saṁmugdhavastumātracaramālocanajñānam, Parthasarathi Miṣra’s Sāstradīpikā, p.40.
Saṁmugdhaṁ vastumātrantu prāggṛhṇantyavikalpitaṁ, tatsāmānyaviśeṣabhyāṁ kalpayanti manīṣiṇaḥ,Tattvakaumudī on Ῑśvarakṛṣṇa’s Sāṃkhyakārikās., [1962] p.27.
Tattvakaumudī on Ῑśvarakṛṣṇa’s Sāṃkhyakārikā, p.27.
Jha. Ganganath., (tr.) ślokavārtika, Delhi: Sri Staguru Publications, 4.120–45, 1983.
arthakriyā-sāmarthya-lakṣaṇatvād vastunaḥ, Dharmakīrti’s Nyāyabindu, 1.14.
D.N.Sastri’s, Philosophy of Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika & its conflict with the Buddhist Dignāga School, p.437.
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Kukkamalla, B.K. A Critical Analysis of Dignāga’s Refutation of Non-Buddhist Schools Theory of Perception. J. Indian Counc. Philos. Res. 41, 1–16 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40961-023-00313-0
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40961-023-00313-0